\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-230-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-229-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-287-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b5c9effb4087b6f7d6276cc236f00a28",bookSignature:"Dr. Courtney Marsh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10313.jpg",keywords:"Estrogen, Sex Hormone, Testosterone, Dihydrotestosterone, Steroidogenesis, Gonads, Adrenal, Progesterone, Placenta, Mood, Cardiovascular, Pharmacology",numberOfDownloads:367,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 4th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 25th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 24th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 12th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Courtney Marsh has graduated from the University of Kansas School of Medicine, USA, and completed her obstetrics and gynecology residency at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. She returned to Kansas City after completing a fellowship in reproductive endocrinology and infertility at the University of Michigan. Dr. Marsh specializes in treating women with infertility, PCOS, and obesity.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255491/images/system/255491.jpg",biography:"Dr. Courtney Marsh is Associate Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of Kansas Health System and Chief of the Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility (REI). She attended the University of Kansas where she obtained both her undergraduate and medical school degrees. During medical school, she also completed a fellowship in Epidemiology at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at the National Center for Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. She completed her Obstetrics and Gynecology residency at Emory University and REI fellowship at the University of Michigan. Dr. Marsh\\'s research focuses on improving fertility outcomes. Currently, she is funded by Garmin International, the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), and the University of Kansas Medical Center.",institutionString:"University of Kansas Medical Center",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Kansas Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"75047",title:"Role of Sex Hormones in Human Body",slug:"role-of-sex-hormones-in-human-body",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73546",title:"Androgen Signaling in the Placenta",slug:"androgen-signaling-in-the-placenta",totalDownloads:57,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74803",title:"Neuroendocrinology of Pregnancy: Participation of Sex Hormones",slug:"neuroendocrinology-of-pregnancy-participation-of-sex-hormones",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74544",title:"Non-Reproductive Effects of Estradiol: Hydromineral Homeostasis Control",slug:"non-reproductive-effects-of-estradiol-hydromineral-homeostasis-control",totalDownloads:40,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74462",title:"Serum Sex Hormone Profiles in Potentially Resectable Esophageal Cancer",slug:"serum-sex-hormone-profiles-in-potentially-resectable-esophageal-cancer",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73469",title:"Testosterone",slug:"testosterone",totalDownloads:57,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74165",title:"Kisspeptin: Role in Female Infertility",slug:"kisspeptin-role-in-female-infertility",totalDownloads:42,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73669",title:"Small Molecules Inhibit Extranuclear Signaling by Estrogen: A Promising Strategy to Halt Breast Cancer Progression and Metastasis",slug:"small-molecules-inhibit-extranuclear-signaling-by-estrogen-a-promising-strategy-to-halt-breast-cance",totalDownloads:113,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304289",firstName:"Rebekah",lastName:"Pribetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304289/images/13255_n.png",email:"rebekah@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"5566",title:"High PerformanceTracking Control of Automated Slewing Cranes",doi:"10.5772/5851",slug:"high_performancetracking_control_of_automated_slewing_cranes",body:null,keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/5566.pdf",chapterXML:null,downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/5566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/5566",totalDownloads:3642,totalViews:116,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 1st 2008",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/5566",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/5566",book:{slug:"robotics_and_automation_in_construction"},signatures:"Frank Palis and Stefan Palis",authors:null,sections:null,chapterReferences:null,footnotes:null,contributors:null,corrections:null},book:{id:"3690",title:"Robotics and Automation in Construction",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Robotics and Automation in Construction",slug:"robotics_and_automation_in_construction",publishedDate:"October 1st 2008",bookSignature:"Carlos Balaguer and Mohamed Abderrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3690.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81514",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Balaguer",slug:"carlos-balaguer",fullName:"Carlos Balaguer"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"5555",title:"Trends in Robotics and Automation in Construction",slug:"trends_in_robotics_and_automation_in_construction",totalDownloads:18078,totalCrossrefCites:14,signatures:"Carlos Balaguer and Mohamed Abderrahim",authors:[null]},{id:"5556",title:"Construction Automation and Robotics",slug:"construction_automation_and_robotics",totalDownloads:9845,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Thomas Bock",authors:[null]},{id:"5557",title:"Mechanising, Robotising and Automating Construction Processes",slug:"mechanising__robotising_and_automating_construction_processes",totalDownloads:5168,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Frans van Gassel and Ger Maas",authors:[null]},{id:"5558",title:"Powerline Communication in Home-Building Automation Systems",slug:"powerline_communication_in_home-building_automation_systems",totalDownloads:17567,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Elena Mainardi and Marcello Bonfe",authors:[null]},{id:"5559",title:"Towards n-D Construction Visualization: Cost Integration into 4D Models",slug:"towards_n-d_construction_visualization__cost_integration_into_4d_models",totalDownloads:3920,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Katherine A. Liapi and Theodora Paschoudi",authors:[null]},{id:"5560",title:"Developing Construction CAD-Based Experience Management System",slug:"developing_construction_cad-based_experience_management_system",totalDownloads:2828,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yu-Cheng Lin",authors:[null]},{id:"5561",title:"Applications of Computer Aided Design to Evaluate the Zoning of Hazard Prevention in Community Neighbours",slug:"applications_of_computer_aided_design_to_evaluate_the_zoning_of_hazard_prevention_in_community_neigh",totalDownloads:2274,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kuo-Chung Wen",authors:[null]},{id:"5562",title:"Adding Value in Construction Design Management by Using Simulation Approach",slug:"adding_value_in_construction_design_management_by_using_simulation_approach",totalDownloads:8168,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hemanta Doloi",authors:[null]},{id:"5563",title:"Risk and Reliability Analysis of Flexible Construction Robotized Systems",slug:"risk_and_reliability_analysis_of_flexible_construction_robotized_systems",totalDownloads:2401,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Calin Ciufudean",authors:[null]},{id:"5564",title:"Precast Storage and Transportation Planning via Component Zoning Optimization",slug:"precast_storage_and_transportation_planning_via_component_zoning_optimization",totalDownloads:4615,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Kuo-Chuan Shih, Shu-Shun Liu and Chun-Nen Huang",authors:[null]},{id:"5565",title:"Pose Estimation of Construction Materials by Acquisition of Multiple IDs of Devices",slug:"pose_estimation_of_construction_materials_by_acquisition_of_multiple_ids_of_devices",totalDownloads:2372,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Tomohiro Umetani, Kenji Inoue and Tatsuo Arai",authors:[null]},{id:"5566",title:"High PerformanceTracking Control of Automated Slewing Cranes",slug:"high_performancetracking_control_of_automated_slewing_cranes",totalDownloads:3642,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Frank Palis and Stefan Palis",authors:[null]},{id:"5567",title:"Enhancing Facility Management Using RFID and Web Technology in Construction",slug:"enhancing_facility_management_using_rfid_and_web_technology_in_construction",totalDownloads:5014,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yu-Cheng Lin",authors:[null]},{id:"5568",title:"Improving Human-Machine Interfaces for Construction Equipment Operations with Mixed and Augmented Reality",slug:"improving_human-machine_interfaces_for_construction_equipment_operations_with_mixed_and_augmented_re",totalDownloads:4206,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Xiangyu Wang",authors:[null]},{id:"5569",title:"An Active Technology for Improving the Sound Transmission Loss of Glazed Facades",slug:"an_active_technology_for_improving_the_sound_transmission_loss_of_glazed_facades",totalDownloads:3978,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Berardo Naticchia, Alessandro Carbonari and Sara Spadoni",authors:[null]},{id:"5570",title:"Development of Adaptive Construction Structure by Variable Geometry Truss",slug:"development_of_adaptive_construction_structure_by_variable_geometry_truss",totalDownloads:3242,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Fumihiro Inoue",authors:[null]},{id:"5571",title:"Robotic Excavation",slug:"robotic_excavation",totalDownloads:5775,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Ahmad Hemami",authors:[null]},{id:"5572",title:"Development of a Semi-Automated Cost- Effective Facade Cleaning System",slug:"development_of_a_semi-automated_cost-_effective_facade_cleaning_system",totalDownloads:8714,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Ernesto Gambao, Miguel Hernando and Dragoljub Surdilovic",authors:[null]},{id:"5573",title:"Design and Feasibility Verification of a Knee Assistive Exoskeleton System for Construction Workers",slug:"design_and_feasibility_verification_of_a_knee_assistive_exoskeleton_system_for_construction_workers",totalDownloads:4504,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"SeungNam Yu, SeungHoon Lee, HeeDon Lee and ChangSoo Han",authors:[null]},{id:"5574",title:"A Robot Application for Analysis, Survey and Conservation of Historical Architectures",slug:"a_robot_application_for_analysis__survey_and_conservation_of_historical_architectures",totalDownloads:3251,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Michela Cigola and Marco Ceccarelli",authors:[null]},{id:"5575",title:"Performance Tests for Wireless Real-Time Localization Systems to Improve Mobile Robot Navigation in Various Indoor Environments",slug:"performance_tests_for_wireless_real-time_localization_systems_to_improve_mobile_robot_navigation_in_",totalDownloads:3597,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Yong K. Cho, Jong-Hoon Youn and Nam Pham",authors:[null]},{id:"5576",title:"Laser Energy Transmission for a Wireless Energy Supply to Robots",slug:"laser_energy_transmission_for_a_wireless_energy_supply_to_robots",totalDownloads:6269,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Nobuki Kawashima and Kazuya Takeda",authors:[null]},{id:"5577",title:"Advanced Control Schemes for Cement Fabrication Processes",slug:"advanced_control_schemes_for_cement_fabrication_processes",totalDownloads:9483,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Susana Arad, Victor Arad and Bogdan Bobora",authors:[null]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"36273",title:"Introduction to Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"introduction-to-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Theophile Theophanides",authors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",middleName:null,surname:"Theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile"}]},{id:"36166",title:"Using Infrared Spectroscopy to Identify New Amorphous Phases - A Case Study of Carbonato Complex Formed by Mechanochemical Processing",slug:"using-infrared-spectroscopy-to-identify-new-amorphous-phases-a-case-study-of-carbonato-complexes-fo",signatures:"Tadej Rojac, Primož Šegedin and Marija Kosec",authors:[{id:"25116",title:"Prof.",name:"Marija",middleName:null,surname:"Kosec",fullName:"Marija Kosec",slug:"marija-kosec"},{id:"105876",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadej",middleName:null,surname:"Rojac",fullName:"Tadej Rojac",slug:"tadej-rojac"},{id:"111754",title:"Prof.",name:"Primoz",middleName:null,surname:"Segedin",fullName:"Primoz Segedin",slug:"primoz-segedin"}]},{id:"36167",title:"Application of Infrared Spectroscopy to Analysis of Chitosan/Clay Nanocomposites",slug:"application-of-infrared-spectroscopy-to-analysis-of-chitosan-clay-nanocomposites",signatures:"Suédina M.L. Silva, Carla R.C. Braga, Marcus V.L. Fook, Claudia M.O. Raposo, Laura H. Carvalho and Eduardo L. Canedo",authors:[{id:"104808",title:"Prof.",name:"Suedina Maria",middleName:"De Lima",surname:"Silva",fullName:"Suedina Maria Silva",slug:"suedina-maria-silva"},{id:"111910",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:"Lima",surname:"R. C. Braga",fullName:"Carla R. C. Braga",slug:"carla-r.-c.-braga"},{id:"142933",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcus Vinícius",middleName:null,surname:"Lia Fook",fullName:"Marcus Vinícius Lia Fook",slug:"marcus-vinicius-lia-fook"},{id:"142934",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia Maria",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira Raposo",fullName:"Claudia Maria De Oliveira Raposo",slug:"claudia-maria-de-oliveira-raposo"},{id:"142936",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Hecker De Carvalho",fullName:"Laura Hecker De Carvalho",slug:"laura-hecker-de-carvalho"},{id:"142939",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Canedo",fullName:"Eduardo Luis Canedo",slug:"eduardo-luis-canedo"}]},{id:"36168",title:"Structural and Optical Behavior of Vanadate-Tellurate Glasses Containing PbO or Sm2O3",slug:"structural-and-optical-behavior-of-vanadate-tellurate-glasses",signatures:"E. Culea, S. Rada, M. Culea and M. Rada",authors:[{id:"114650",title:"Dr",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Culea",fullName:"Eugen Culea",slug:"eugen-culea"},{id:"114653",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Rada",fullName:"Simona Rada",slug:"simona-rada"}]},{id:"36169",title:"Water in Rocks and Minerals - Species, Distributions, and Temperature Dependences",slug:"water-in-rocks-and-minerals-species-distributions-and-temperature-dependences",signatures:"Jun-ichi Fukuda",authors:[{id:"105384",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Fukuda",fullName:"Jun-Ichi Fukuda",slug:"jun-ichi-fukuda"}]},{id:"36170",title:"Attenuated Total Reflection - Infrared Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Mineral - Aqueous Electrolyte Solution Interfaces: A General Overview and a Case Study",slug:"attenuated-total-reflection-infrared-spectroscopy-applied-to-the-study-of-mineral-aqueous-el",signatures:"Grégory Lefèvre, Tajana Preočanin and Johannes Lützenkirchen",authors:[{id:"108416",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Lützenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Lützenkirchen",slug:"johannes-lutzenkirchen"},{id:"111675",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lefevre",fullName:"Gregory Lefevre",slug:"gregory-lefevre"},{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin"}]},{id:"36171",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko"}]},{id:"36172",title:"FTIR Spectroscopy of Adsorbed Probe Molecules for Analyzing the Surface Properties of Supported Pt (Pd) Catalysts",slug:"ftir-spectroscopy-of-adsorbed-probe-molecules-for-analyzing-the-surface-properties-of-supported-pt-p",signatures:"Olga B. Belskaya, Irina G. Danilova, Maxim O. Kazakov, Roman M. Mironenko, Alexander V. Lavrenov and Vladimir A. Likholobov",authors:[{id:"107715",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Belskaya",fullName:"Olga Belskaya",slug:"olga-belskaya"},{id:"140198",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Danilova",fullName:"Irina Danilova",slug:"irina-danilova"},{id:"140200",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxim",middleName:null,surname:"Kazakov",fullName:"Maxim Kazakov",slug:"maxim-kazakov"},{id:"140202",title:"Mr.",name:"Roman",middleName:"Mikhailovich",surname:"Mironenko",fullName:"Roman Mironenko",slug:"roman-mironenko"},{id:"140203",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lavrenov",fullName:"Alexander Lavrenov",slug:"alexander-lavrenov"},{id:"140204",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Likholobov",fullName:"Vladimir Likholobov",slug:"vladimir-likholobov"}]},{id:"36173",title:"Hydrothermal Treatment of Hokkaido Peat - An Application of FTIR and 13C NMR Spectroscopy on Examining of Artificial Coalification Process and Development",slug:"hydrothermal-treatment-of-hokkaido-peat-an-application-of-ftir-and-13c-nmr-spectroscopy-on-examinin",signatures:"Anggoro Tri Mursito and Tsuyoshi Hirajima",authors:[{id:"104786",title:"Dr.",name:"Anggoro Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Mursito",fullName:"Anggoro Tri Mursito",slug:"anggoro-tri-mursito"},{id:"110978",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Hirajima",fullName:"Tsuyoshi Hirajima",slug:"tsuyoshi-hirajima"}]},{id:"36174",title:"FTIR - An Essential Characterization Technique for Polymeric Materials",slug:"ftir-an-essential-characterization-technique-for-polymeric-materials",signatures:"Vladimir A. Escobar Barrios, José R. Rangel Méndez, Nancy V. Pérez Aguilar, Guillermo Andrade Espinosa and José L. Dávila Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"12709",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rene",middleName:null,surname:"Rangel-Mendez",fullName:"Jose Rene Rangel-Mendez",slug:"jose-rene-rangel-mendez"},{id:"12711",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir Alonso",middleName:null,surname:"Escobar Barrios",fullName:"Vladimir Alonso Escobar Barrios",slug:"vladimir-alonso-escobar-barrios"},{id:"112164",title:"Dr",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Espinosa",fullName:"Guillermo Andrade-Espinosa",slug:"guillermo-andrade-espinosa"},{id:"112165",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Dávila-Rodríguez",fullName:"José Luis Dávila-Rodríguez",slug:"jose-luis-davila-rodriguez"},{id:"112167",title:"Dr.",name:"Nancy Verónica",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Aguilar",fullName:"Nancy Verónica Pérez-Aguilar",slug:"nancy-veronica-perez-aguilar"}]},{id:"36175",title:"Preparation and Characterization of PVDF/PMMA/Graphene Polymer Blend Nanocomposites by Using ATR-FTIR Technique",slug:"preparation-and-characterization-of-pvdf-pmma-graphene-polymer-blend-nanocomposites-by-using-ft-ir-t",signatures:"Somayeh Mohamadi",authors:[{id:"108556",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamadi",fullName:"Somayeh Mohamadi",slug:"somayeh-mohamadi"}]},{id:"36176",title:"Reflectance IR Spectroscopy",slug:"fundamental-of-reflectance-ir-spectroscopy",signatures:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",authors:[{id:"111629",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahra",middleName:null,surname:"Monsef Khoshhesab",fullName:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",slug:"zahra-monsef-khoshhesab"}]},{id:"36177",title:"Evaluation of Graft Copolymerization of Acrylic Monomers Onto Natural Polymers by Means Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"evaluation-of-graft-copolymerization-of-acrylic-monomers-onto-natural-polymers-by-means-infrared-spe",signatures:"José Luis Rivera-Armenta, Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández, Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel-Aldana, Ana María Mendoza-Martínez, Carlos Velasco-Santos and Ana Laura Martínez-Hernández",authors:[{id:"37761",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Hernandez",fullName:"Ana Laura Martinez-Hernandez",slug:"ana-laura-martinez-hernandez"},{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta"},{id:"108894",title:"MSc.",name:"Cynthia Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Hernández",fullName:"Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández",slug:"cynthia-graciela-flores-hernandez"},{id:"108896",title:"MSc.",name:"Ruth Zurisadai",middleName:null,surname:"Del Angel Aldana",fullName:"Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel Aldana",slug:"ruth-zurisadai-del-angel-aldana"},{id:"108898",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velasco-Santos",fullName:"Carlos Velasco-Santos",slug:"carlos-velasco-santos"},{id:"108905",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",fullName:"Ana Maria Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez"}]},{id:"36178",title:"Applications of FTIR on Epoxy Resins - Identification, Monitoring the Curing Process, Phase Separation and Water Uptake",slug:"applications-of-ftir-on-epoxy-resins-identification-monitoring-the-curing-process-phase-separatio",signatures:"María González González, Juan Carlos Cabanelas and Juan Baselga",authors:[{id:"107857",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Baselga",fullName:"Juan Baselga",slug:"juan-baselga"},{id:"138113",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"María González",slug:"maria-gonzalez"},{id:"138114",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Cabanelas",fullName:"Juan C. Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. Teodor, Georgiana-Ileana Truica, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu"},{id:"108318",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia D.",middleName:null,surname:"Teodor",fullName:"Eugenia D. Teodor",slug:"eugenia-d.-teodor"},{id:"108323",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana-Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Badea",fullName:"Georgiana-Ileana Badea",slug:"georgiana-ileana-badea"},{id:"136337",title:"Ms.",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache",slug:"andreia-tache"}]},{id:"36184",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. Nascimento",authors:[{id:"102015",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Macedo",fullName:"Daniel Macedo",slug:"daniel-macedo"},{id:"112309",title:"MSc",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Romolos",surname:"Cesário",fullName:"Moisés Cesário",slug:"moises-cesario"},{id:"112310",title:"Ms.",name:"Graziele",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Graziele Souza",slug:"graziele-souza"},{id:"112311",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Cela",fullName:"Beatriz Cela",slug:"beatriz-cela"},{id:"112312",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Paskocimas",fullName:"Carlos Paskocimas",slug:"carlos-paskocimas"},{id:"112314",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Antonio Martinelli",slug:"antonio-martinelli"},{id:"112315",title:"Prof.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Dulce Melo",slug:"dulce-melo"},{id:"112316",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubens",middleName:"Maribondo Do",surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Rubens Nascimento",slug:"rubens-nascimento"}]},{id:"36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Perla E. García Casillas, Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez and Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",authors:[{id:"104636",title:"Dr.",name:"Perla E.",middleName:null,surname:"García Casillas",fullName:"Perla E. García Casillas",slug:"perla-e.-garcia-casillas"},{id:"112440",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos A.",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Pérez",fullName:"Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",slug:"carlos-a.-martinez-perez"},{id:"112441",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Gonzalez",fullName:"Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez",slug:"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{id:"36187",title:"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis",slug:"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect",signatures:"Tarik Chafik",authors:[{id:"107310",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarik",middleName:null,surname:"Chafik",fullName:"Tarik Chafik",slug:"tarik-chafik"}]},{id:"36188",title:"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra",slug:"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra",signatures:"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. Marais",authors:[{id:"112229",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Aldrich",fullName:"Chris Aldrich",slug:"chris-aldrich"},{id:"112232",title:"Prof.",name:"Hansie",middleName:null,surname:"Knoetze",fullName:"Hansie Knoetze",slug:"hansie-knoetze"},{id:"135327",title:"Ms.",name:"Corne",middleName:null,surname:"Marais",fullName:"Corne Marais",slug:"corne-marais"}]},{id:"36189",title:"Optical Technologies for Determination of Pesticide Residue",slug:"optical-technology-for-determination-of-pesticide-residue",signatures:"Yankun Peng, Yongyu Li and Jingjing Chen",authors:[{id:"113343",title:"Prof.",name:"Yankun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Yankun Peng",slug:"yankun-peng"},{id:"116636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yongyu Li",slug:"yongyu-li"},{id:"116637",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingjing",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jingjing Chen",slug:"jingjing-chen"}]},{id:"36190",title:"High Resolution Far Infrared Spectra of the Semiconductor Alloys Obtained Using the Synchrotron Radiation as Source",slug:"high-resolution-spectra-of-semiconductor-s-alloys-obtained-using-the-far-infrared-synchrotron-radi",signatures:"E.M. Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65775",title:"The Role of DNA Repair in Cellular Aging Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84628",slug:"the-role-of-dna-repair-in-cellular-aging-process",body:'\nAging is a complex biological process that results in a progressive loss of physiological integrity. Overall, aging is a consequence of accumulation of cellular damage and is characterized by nine hallmarks: genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, cellular senescence, mitochondrial dysfunction, loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication (Figure 1) [1]. Although aging may involve damage to various cellular constituents, there is evidence suggesting that DNA constitutes the key target in this process [2]; consequently, genomic instability is the main factor of aging [3, 4, 5]. Genome instability has been implicated as a cause of aging since unrepaired DNA damage, DNA mutations, and epimutations accumulate in an age-related manner [3]. In the same way, the notion that multi-system premature aging syndromes are mainly caused by defects in genome maintenance or affect genome function highlights the role of genome integrity in aging [6]. Meanwhile, normal aging is accompanied by telomere shortening with cell division due to the “end-replication problem” and telomere end processing. Currently, there is a wide body of evidence associating reduction in the length of telomeres with failure of cell division and senescence of normal cells, and oxidative stress and inflammation can contribute to the rate of attrition of telomere length [7]. Age-related changes involve alterations in DNA methylation patterns and posttranslational modification of histones such as increased histone H4K16 acetylation [8], H4K20 trimethylation [9], or H3K4 trimethylation [10], as well as decreased H3K9 methylation [11] or H3K27 trimethylation [12]. At the same time, with aging there is also a global heterochromatin loss and redistribution [13], thus affecting the expression of several genes, mainly those involved in DNA repair, cellular proliferation, differentiation, and cell-cycle regulation, and therefore triggering the emergence of other hallmarks of aging [14, 15]. Cellular senescence is a process that has become an important contributor in aging since it imposes a permanent proliferative arrest of cells in response to various stressors such as DNA damage and telomere loss [16]. Furthermore, as cells and organisms age, mitochondria suffer a decline in their integrity and function, tending to diminish the efficacy of the respiratory chain and thus reducing ATP generation, increasing electron leakage and ROS production that can damage DNA, proteins, and lipids, among other important biomolecules [17]. Proteostasis involves mechanisms for correct folding proteins and mechanisms for the degradation of proteins, which act in a coordinated fashion to prevent the accumulation of damaged components and assuring the continuous renewal of intracellular proteins. There is evidence that aging is associated with perturbed proteostasis, thus favoring the development of several diseases [18]. Recent data have shown that anabolic signaling accelerates aging; in agreement with this, caloric-restricted diet decreases nutrient signaling and as a result, a long life span is promoted since DNA repair systems are improved; on the other hand, protein homeostasis decreases ROS production and delays cellular senescence [19]. Decline in the regenerative potential of tissues is one of the most obvious characteristics of aging, where stem cell exhaustion is also important and explained by a decreased cell-cycle activity. Interestingly, this correlates with the accumulation of DNA damage, telomere shortening, and overexpression of cell-cycle inhibitory proteins such as p16INK4a, increasing the relevancy of DNA repair systems [20]. Finally, aging also involves changes at the level of intercellular communication, where neurohormonal signaling tends to be deregulated together with composition of the peri- and extracellular environment and immune system, specially increasing inflammatory reactions and declining immunosurveillance against pathogens and premalignant cells [21]. In this way, our work focuses on describing the molecular bases that associate DNA damage and the cell aging process, with a special emphasis in DNA repair systems.
\nThe hallmarks of aging. The figure illustrates nine hallmarks previously described [1] and where age-related changes in DNA repair systems have important roles to promote the development of this phenotype.
Each day, the integrity and stability of DNA are challenged by exogenous physical, chemical, or biological agents, as well as by endogenous processes, including DNA replication mistakes, spontaneous hydrolytic reactions, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, depending on the source of damage, DNA can be affected in different ways, including nucleotide alterations, bulky adducts, single-strand breaks (SSB), and double-strand breaks (DSB). To combat threats posed by DNA damage, cells have evolved complex and finely regulated mechanisms collectively referred to as DNA damage response (DDR) which detects DNA lesions, signals their presence, and promotes their repair [22, 23, 24]. However, according with the genome maintenance hypothesis of aging, DNA repair can itself be subject to age-related changes and deterioration, allowing accumulation of damages (Figure 2). The wide diversity of DNA-lesion types requires multiple, largely distinct DNA repair mechanisms that differ in their components, whereas some lesions are subject to direct protein-mediated reversal, most are repaired by a sequence of catalytic events mediated by multiple proteins [22]. Thus, cells with defects in key proteins involved in DDR have been shown an accelerated aging phenotype caused by the accumulation of mutations and epimutations that eventually cause malfunction of the cells, senescence, or apoptosis [25].
\nAge-related changes in DNA repair and their consequences. Aging involves deterioration of DNA repair systems allowing the damages to accumulate and eventually cause a malfunction of the cells. In general, all age-related changes in DNA repair pathways promote genomic instability in different ways. Decline in efficiency and fidelity of BER and NER leads to point mutations, whereas inefficient MMR leads to microsatellite instability and point mutations. Meanwhile, deficiencies in NHEJ and HRR result in deletions and genomic rearrangements.
BER pathway corrects DNA damage from oxidation, deamination, alkylation, and other small DNA alterations that do not distort the overall structure of double helix. In general, BER is initiated by a DNA glycosylase that recognizes and removes the damaged base, leaving an abasic (apurinic/apyrimidinic; AP) site that is subsequently processed by an AP endonuclease (APE), an exonuclease, a DNA polymerase, a ligase, and many other ancillary factors in a short-patch repair or long-patch repair [26]. Notably, several pieces of evidence indicate that the efficacy of BER may negatively change with age, and it has a significant impact in longevity together with homologous recombination repair (HRR) [27]. Age-related changes in the BER mechanism have been studied mainly in neuronal extracts where it constitutes the main repair pathway. In this way, an overall deficiency in several factors has been observed [28], where DNA polymerase β (pol β) together with DNA ligase [29] and APE1 activities [30, 31] seem to be the most limiting factors. Interestingly, an age-dependent attenuation in the transcriptional activation of pol β and APE1 was observed in response to DNA damage [32] together with APE1 accumulation in the nucleus and mitochondria [33]. Aging has also been shown to have a significant effect on cleavage efficacy of tetrahydrofuran:A, U:G mispair, U:A base pair, thymine glycol:A, and 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine:C [34]. Thus, senescent human fibroblasts as well as leukocytes from old donors showed higher basal level of AP sites than young donors. However, after a challenge with the oxidizing agent H2O2 or the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate (MMS), the number of AP sites increased quickly in young cells, whereas in senescent and older cells, they were observed to grow slowly with a concomitant loss of viability, suggesting a decrease in DNA glycosylase activity, mainly in OGG1 8-oxoguanine and 3-methyladenine DNA glycosylases [35], although other reports have also mentioned a decrease in the UDG uracil-DNA glycosylase [28]. Because polyADP-ribosylation (PARylation) levels are linked to downstream mechanisms in DNA repair together with other cellular deficiencies as cell-cycle arrest, cell survival, cell death, and/or cell transformation, a decline in PARP1 activity is important since it has been linked with the age in humans and rats [36]. Further, a decrease in the interaction between the endonuclease VIII-like NEIL1 and PARP1 was observed in old mice when compared to young mice [37], which also could be associated with the decrease in PARP1 activity. Meanwhile, a significant decrease in the expression of SIRT6 has been reported to have a relevant role in BER because it regulates repair activity through a PARP1-dependent pathway [38]. Since sirtuins can function as metabolic sensors, they could also be related with a significative increase in pol β [39] and APE activities [30] under caloric restricted diets. Consequently, BER pathway showed to be deficient when repairing age-downregulated genes in comparison with genes that are not affected by age [40].
\nOn the other hand, the mitochondrial free radical theory of aging states that free radicals generated in mitochondria are strongly related with the intrinsic aging process, mainly due to the accumulation of oxidative damage and derived mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mainly in D-loop region. mtDNA is more susceptible to oxidative damage than the nuclear genome, presumably because of the physical proximity of the source of ROS and lack of histones [41]. BER is the predominant and best understood DNA repair pathway in mitochondria involving at least four components, a DNA glycosylase, an AP endonuclease (or other mechanism for processing abasic sites), DNA polymerase γ (pol γ), and DNA ligase [42]. Recently, pol β was also detected in mitochondrial protein extracts, where it is required to provide enhanced mtDNA BER activity [43]. In a similar way to nuclear BER, in rat brain mitochondria, there is a marked age-dependent decline in mitochondrial BER activity, as indicated by a pol β, pol γ, ligase, APE1 endonuclease, and OGG1 glycosylase activities [44]. Interestingly, activity of mitochondrial OGG1 AE8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase increases in mouse liver mitochondria according with the age [45]. However, a significant fraction of the OGG1 remains in the outer membrane and intermembrane space in an immature form, presumably because its import into the mitochondrial matrix is impaired as a consequence of aging. In addition, a nearly identical phenomenon was observed with the mitochondrial uracil-DNA glycosylase [46].
\nNER is the primary pathway for repairing a wide range bulky DNA lesions, including UV-induced photoproducts (cyclopyrimidine dimers [CPDs], 6–4 photoproducts [6-4PPs]), adducts formed by mutagens in the environment such as benzo[a]pyrene or some aromatic amines, some oxidative endogenous lesions such as cyclopurines, and adducts formed by cancer chemotherapeutic drugs such as cisplatin. NER can be initiated by two subpathways: global genome NER (GG-NER) where the participation of XPC-RAD23B is involved and the transcription-coupled NER (TC-NER) where RNA polymerase interacts with CSA, CSB, and XAB2. Both converge to complete the excision process requiring the core NER factors RPA, XPA, TFIIH, XPD, XPB, XPG, and ERCC1–XPF, among other auxiliary proteins [47]. NER activity decreases with aging possibly because there is a transcriptional downregulation of NER genes together with an altered protein function or processing and a decrease in energy production [48]. In this manner, it was previously observed that aged human skin [49] and fibroblasts [50] showed decreased levels of XPB, PCNA, RPA, XPA, and p53, and more importantly the UVB-induced pyrimidine dimers were removed in a slower manner than in younger counterparts [50]. Interestingly, the effect of age on the repair of UV-induced DNA damage varies for transcribed and nontranscribed DNA, decreasing considerably in unexpressed DNA [51, 52] but improving in both cases under calorie restricted diets [52]. Furthermore, UV-induced damage and repair in telomeres showed to be slower and less frequent than in other regions of the genome such as active genes [53]. Additionally, ERCC1 and XPF, which are considered as the rate-limiting members in NER, also showed an age-dependent decline in their relative expression levels [54]. Because XPC, XPB, and XPF appear to be dependent on the activation status of the IGF-1R, decreased levels of IGF-1R observed with aging also contributed with the decline of NER pathway [55]. Meanwhile, in an assay based in plasmid reactivation after UV damage, cells from older donors introduced an increased number of mutations in the transfected plasmid, which suggests that not only the repair is less efficient with age but also more mistakes are made [51].
\nThe mismatched nucleotides in the DNA can result from polymerase misincorporation errors, recombination between imperfectly matched sequences, chemical or physical damage to nucleotides, and deamination of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) mostly during replication. MMR pathway consists of four major heterodimeric complexes, MutL homolog (MutL)α, MutLβ, MutS homolog (MutS)α, and MutSβ. MutLα involves MLH1 and PMS2, whereas MutLβ consist of MLH1 and PMS1. Meanwhile, MutSα consists of MSH2 and MSH6, and MutSβ is constituted by MSH2 and MSH3. Thus, MutSα complex recognizes single mispaired bases, whereas MutSβ detects mispaired runs of 3–6 bases. MutSα or MutSβ recruits MutLα or MutLβ and forms a tetrameric complex that serves as a base for the recruitment of excision and repair machinery [56]. MMR removes mispaired bases preventing mutations [57], and defects in this pathway are strongly associated with a substantial destabilization of microsatellites, which are tandemly repeated sequences (from 1 to 6 bp), highly polymorphic, interspersed in the genome, and susceptible to slippage during replication [58]. Previously, a decline in MMR function and efficiency correlation with age was observed [59, 60], especially in microsatellite sequences [61] where age-related methylation of the MLH1 [62, 63] and MSH2 [64] promoters could be associated to microsatellite instability (MSI). Interestingly, MLH1 shores showed a decrease in methylation with increasing age [65]. Shores are regions of the genome around CpG islands with lower GC content and with the ability to control gene expression.
\nWith aging there is an increase in DNA double-strand breaks [66]. However, it is unknown whether this increase is a consequence of accumulation of unrepaired DSBs or progressively delayed repair events, possibly as a reflection of an inherently limited capacity to process DSBs [67]. To repair this kind of DNA damage, HRR, considered a highly reliable pathway, allows the cell to access and copy information from the intact DNA sequence into the sister chromatid. Notably, HRR is restricted to late S to G2 phases when chromosomes are aligned [68]. RAD51 and other members of the RAD52 epistasis group as RAD50, MRE11, and XRS2 are needed for HRR. The efficiency of HRR is enhanced by mediator proteins that promote the loading of RAD51 onto ssDNA, RAD52 among them [69]. HR-mediated repair efficiency declines precipitously during cellular aging together with a decline of RAD51, RAD51C, RAD52, NBS1, CTIP, and MRE11 levels [66, 70]. Furthermore, in human and mice oocytes, a decrease in expression of BRCA1 and ATM [71] and an impaired recruitment of RAD51 to DNA damage sites during aging [72] were observed, which could force cells to utilize the error-prone NHEJ pathway. At the same time, in older mice a lower activity of the ATM kinase that results in less p53 phosphorylation was reported, thus affecting apoptosis, cell-cycle arrest, and senescence [73]. In addition to the above, the decrease in the levels of PARP1 [36] and SIRT6 [38] not only affects BER pathway but also has a relevant role in HRR since supplementation of recombinant SIRT6 was able to partly restore HR activity [70]. This could be related to a higher binding of DBC1 to PARP1 inhibiting its enzymatic activity as well as the change in NAD+ levels [74]. Decreased NAD+ levels observed with age also reduce activity of other sirtuins as SIRT1 and SIRT7 together with PARP1, reducing NHEJ and HRR pathways [75]. Although HRR is essential, its activity must be carefully controlled in order to maintain genomic integrity [76]. Previously, it has been demonstrated that frequency of recombinant cells is highly variable among tissues, from very low levels in the brain and stomach to very frequent in the pancreas and spleen. Additionally, de novo recombination events indeed accumulate in mice colonic somatic stem cells with age [77].
\nIn human cells, NHEJ is the major pathway for the repair of DSBs, where two ends of DNA with little or no sequence homology are brought together and repaired. NHEJ can act throughout most of the cell cycle but predominantly in G1 phase [68]. NHEJ is divided into two subpathways: the classical NHEJ pathway (c-NHEJ), in which DNA-PKcs, Ku70/Ku80 heterodimers, Artemis, XRCC4, XLF, and DNA Ligase 4 are involved, and the alternative NHEJ pathway (alt-NHEJ), comprised of the repair factors PARP1 and DNA ligase 3 [78]. Both NHEJ pathways are associated with changes in DNA sequence, where c-NHEJ causes deletions and insertions, whereas alt-NHEJ propitiates the loss of genetic information between microhomologies on chromosomes [79]. NHEJ becomes inefficient and more error-prone during cellular senescence, thus favoring genomic instability and higher incidence of cancer in the elderly [80, 81]. Furthermore, NHEJ-mediated VDJ recombination in B lymphocytes is impaired, reducing class switch recombination efficiency and contributing to reduced humoral repertoire and impaired immunity with aging [82]. Frequency of microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ) increases as a compensatory mechanism; however, at the same time, it favors that more mistakes are generated [81]. Ku 70 and 80 proteins decreased their expression at least twofold in two lines of senescent human fibroblast; at the same time, their localization was changed concentrating them in the nucleus when compared with young cells where they are present in both the nucleus and cytoplasm [83]. Cytoplasmic Ku proteins could serve as a reserve (pool) that is recruited to the nucleus upon DNA damage; therefore in senescent cells these proteins are unavailable to repair new lesions [25]. Additionally, binding activity of the Ku 70/80 heterodimers to broken DNA ends also declines with aging [66]. Notably, mice and cells deleted for either Ku70 or Ku80 exhibited not solely NHEJ disruption but also altered BER [84]. On the other hand, decreased expression of XRCC4, DNA ligase 4, and DNA ligase 3 has been observed, and this implicates that during the aging process, NHEJ becomes more inefficient and inaccurate, leaving more damage sites repaired with a loss of additional genetic information [72]. Interestingly, aging increases DNA-PK activity phosphorylating HSP90α and decreasing its chaperone function in AMPK, which is critical for mitochondrial biogenesis and energy metabolism [85]. Consistently, DNA ligase 4 and Ku80 gene promoters were frequently observed as hypermethylated in elderly people, which could be associated with the silencing expression of both genes [86]. However, as mentioned for other DNA repair mechanisms, caloric restriction diet improves NHEJ activity possibly through SIRT1 and FOXO activity [87].
\nAging is a consequence of damage accumulation in different cellular constituents and where DNA damage is one of the most important. Every day there are thousands of insults that affect DNA, either due to endogenous factors (such as metabolism) or exogenous factor like contact with radiation sources or exposure to toxic substances; but only a minimal amount (less than 0.02%) accumulates as permanent damage, while the rest is totally repaired. However, if only one gene is not repaired and its function is important as that of a proto-oncogene, a tumor suppressor, or any DNA repair genes, this could lead to accumulation of mutations, and then DNA damage checkpoints can halt the cell cycle and induce cellular senescence or apoptosis, or well erroneous repair or replicative bypass of lesions can result in mutations and chromosomal aberrations leading the cells to transform into cancer cells.
\nNotably, DNA repair systems are able of dealing with most of the damages inflicted to DNA; however, their efficiency decrease with age, permitting that point mutations, insertions, deletions, and rearrangements, among others, occur more frequently and accumulate over time. This is due in part to the fact that critical proteins involved in DNA repair significantly decrease their expression in an age-related manner. In Figure 2, the main age-related changes reported over the different mechanisms of DNA repair together with their consequences that globally cause genomic instability and favor cellular senescence and cancer are summarized.
\nOverall, this area needs to be more exploited in order to improve our quality of life and prevent or delay the harmful effects of aging. Thus, the more knowledge we acquire about the natural cell aging process and its interrelation with the mechanisms of DNA repair, the closer we will be to develop drugs, therapies, or even vaccines that could help us to prolong our life.
\nFALR is recipient of a doctoral scholarship (application number 2018-000012-01NACF-07226) from the National Council of Science and Technology, CONACyT.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\\n\\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\\n\\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\\n\\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\\n\\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\\n\\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\\n\\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\\n\\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\\n\\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\\n\\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\\n\\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\\n\\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\\n\\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\n\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10656",title:"Intellectual Property",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"135df9b403b125a6458eba971faab3f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and Dr. Suriyaprakash TNK",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10656.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10658",title:"Multilingualism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6bf171e05831c00f8687891ab1b10b5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xiaoming Jiang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10658.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10913",title:"Indigenous Populations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c5e8cd4e3ec004d0479494ca190db4cb",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10913.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10914",title:"Racism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0737383fcc202641f59e4a5df02eb509",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"542",title:"Graphics Technology",slug:"graphics-technology",parent:{title:"Computer Graphics",slug:"computer-and-information-science-computer-graphics"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:28,numberOfWosCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"graphics-technology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"1969",title:"Computer Graphics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a996909bf7bccb07bba2ced36e184ea1",slug:"computer-graphics",bookSignature:"Nobuhiko Mukai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102590",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuhiko",middleName:null,surname:"Mukai",slug:"nobuhiko-mukai",fullName:"Nobuhiko Mukai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"34474",doi:"10.5772/34878",title:"Volume Ray Casting in WebGL",slug:"volume-ray-casting-in-webgl",totalDownloads:5905,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"John Congote, Luis Kabongo, Aitor Moreno, Alvaro Segura, Andoni Beristain, Jorge Posada and Oscar Ruiz",authors:[{id:"2144",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz",slug:"oscar-ruiz",fullName:"Oscar Ruiz"},{id:"101974",title:"MSc.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Congote",slug:"john-congote",fullName:"John Congote"},{id:"111517",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Kabongo",slug:"luis-kabongo",fullName:"Luis Kabongo"},{id:"111519",title:"MSc.",name:"Aitor",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno",slug:"aitor-moreno",fullName:"Aitor Moreno"},{id:"111520",title:"MSc.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Segura",slug:"alvaro-segura",fullName:"Alvaro Segura"},{id:"111521",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Posada",slug:"jorge-posada",fullName:"Jorge Posada"},{id:"111526",title:"Dr.",name:"Andoni",middleName:null,surname:"Beristain",slug:"andoni-beristain",fullName:"Andoni Beristain"}]},{id:"34476",doi:"10.5772/36205",title:"Maxine: Embodied conversational agents for multimodal affective communication",slug:"maxine-embodied-conversational-agents-for-multimodal-affective-communication",totalDownloads:2254,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Sandra Baldassarri and Eva Cerezo",authors:[{id:"107479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Baldassarri",slug:"sandra-baldassarri",fullName:"Sandra Baldassarri"},{id:"111767",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Cerezo",slug:"eva-cerezo",fullName:"Eva Cerezo"}]},{id:"34477",doi:"10.5772/36170",title:"To see the unseen. Computer graphics in visualisation and reconstruction of archaeological and historical textiles",slug:"to-see-the-unseen-computer-graphics-in-visualisation-and-reconstruction-of-archaeological-and-histor",totalDownloads:2506,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Maria Cybulska",authors:[{id:"107338",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Cybulska",slug:"maria-cybulska",fullName:"Maria Cybulska"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"34471",title:"Design and Implementation of Interactive Flow Visualization Techniques",slug:"design-and-implementation-of-interactive-flow-visualization-techniques",totalDownloads:2809,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Tony McLoughlin and Robert Laramee",authors:[{id:"106448",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:"S",surname:"Laramee",slug:"robert-laramee",fullName:"Robert Laramee"},{id:"106485",title:"Dr.",name:"Tony",middleName:null,surname:"McLoughlin",slug:"tony-mcloughlin",fullName:"Tony McLoughlin"}]},{id:"34470",title:"An Border-Stable Approach to NURBS Surface Rendering for Ray Tracing",slug:"an-border-stable-approach-to-nurbs-surface-rendering-for-ray-tracing",totalDownloads:2874,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Aleksandrs Sisojevs",authors:[{id:"105357",title:"MSc",name:"Aleksandrs",middleName:null,surname:"Sisojevs",slug:"aleksandrs-sisojevs",fullName:"Aleksandrs Sisojevs"}]},{id:"34473",title:"Fast Local Tone Mapping, Summed-Area Tables and Mesopic Vision Simulation",slug:"fast-local-tone-mapping-summed-area-tables-and-mesopic-vision-simulation",totalDownloads:4802,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Marcos Slomp, Michihiro Mikamo and Kazufumi Kaneda",authors:[{id:"110963",title:"Dr.",name:"Michihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Mikamo",slug:"michihiro-mikamo",fullName:"Michihiro Mikamo"},{id:"111532",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Slomp",slug:"marcos-slomp",fullName:"Marcos Slomp"},{id:"111534",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazufumi",middleName:null,surname:"Kaneda",slug:"kazufumi-kaneda",fullName:"Kazufumi Kaneda"}]},{id:"34467",title:"Self-organizing Deformable Model : a Method for Projecting a 3D Object Mesh Model onto a Target Surface",slug:"self-organizing-deformable-model-a-method-for-projecting-a-3d-object-mesh-model-onto-a-target-surfac",totalDownloads:2838,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Ken'Ichi Morooka and Hiroshi Nagahashi",authors:[{id:"105177",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken'Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Morooka",slug:"ken'ichi-morooka",fullName:"Ken'Ichi Morooka"},{id:"111488",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Nagahashi",slug:"hiroshi-nagahashi",fullName:"Hiroshi Nagahashi"}]},{id:"34468",title:"Bounding Volume Hierarchies for Collision Detection",slug:"bounding-volume-hierarchies-for-collision-detection",totalDownloads:4835,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Hamzah Asyrani Sulaiman and Abdullah Bade",authors:[{id:"104973",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamzah Asyrani",middleName:null,surname:"Sulaiman",slug:"hamzah-asyrani-sulaiman",fullName:"Hamzah Asyrani Sulaiman"},{id:"104975",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Bade",slug:"abdullah-bade",fullName:"Abdullah Bade"}]},{id:"34469",title:"Modelling and Visualization of the Surface Resulting from the Milling Process",slug:"modelling-and-visualization-of-the-surface-resulting-from-the-milling-process",totalDownloads:3112,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Tobias Surmann",authors:[{id:"105870",title:"Dr.",name:"Tobias",middleName:null,surname:"Surmann",slug:"tobias-surmann",fullName:"Tobias Surmann"}]},{id:"34478",title:"Developing an Interactive Knowledge-Based Learning Framework",slug:"developing-an-interactive-knowledge-based-learning-framework",totalDownloads:2693,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Jorge Franco",authors:[{id:"102548",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Franco",slug:"jorge-franco",fullName:"Jorge Franco"}]},{id:"34472",title:"Simulations with Particle Method",slug:"simulations-with-particle-method",totalDownloads:3643,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Nobuhiko Mukai",authors:[{id:"102590",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuhiko",middleName:null,surname:"Mukai",slug:"nobuhiko-mukai",fullName:"Nobuhiko Mukai"}]},{id:"34476",title:"Maxine: Embodied conversational agents for multimodal affective communication",slug:"maxine-embodied-conversational-agents-for-multimodal-affective-communication",totalDownloads:2254,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"Sandra Baldassarri and Eva Cerezo",authors:[{id:"107479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Baldassarri",slug:"sandra-baldassarri",fullName:"Sandra Baldassarri"},{id:"111767",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Cerezo",slug:"eva-cerezo",fullName:"Eva Cerezo"}]},{id:"34474",title:"Volume Ray Casting in WebGL",slug:"volume-ray-casting-in-webgl",totalDownloads:5905,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"computer-graphics",title:"Computer Graphics",fullTitle:"Computer Graphics"},signatures:"John Congote, Luis Kabongo, Aitor Moreno, Alvaro Segura, Andoni Beristain, Jorge Posada and Oscar Ruiz",authors:[{id:"2144",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz",slug:"oscar-ruiz",fullName:"Oscar Ruiz"},{id:"101974",title:"MSc.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Congote",slug:"john-congote",fullName:"John Congote"},{id:"111517",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Kabongo",slug:"luis-kabongo",fullName:"Luis Kabongo"},{id:"111519",title:"MSc.",name:"Aitor",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno",slug:"aitor-moreno",fullName:"Aitor Moreno"},{id:"111520",title:"MSc.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Segura",slug:"alvaro-segura",fullName:"Alvaro Segura"},{id:"111521",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Posada",slug:"jorge-posada",fullName:"Jorge Posada"},{id:"111526",title:"Dr.",name:"Andoni",middleName:null,surname:"Beristain",slug:"andoni-beristain",fullName:"Andoni Beristain"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"graphics-technology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/323592/brahim-tlili",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"323592",slug:"brahim-tlili"},fullPath:"/profiles/323592/brahim-tlili",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()