Chromatographic, spectrophotometric and mass properties of pigments separated from the chloroplast of Pleomele angustifolia.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1035",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Type 1 Diabetes Complications",title:"Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:"Complications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is a compilation of reviews about the complication of Type 1 Diabetes. T1D is a classic autoimmune disease. Genetic factors are clearly determinant but cannot explain the rapid, even overwhelming expanse of this disease. Understanding etiology and pathogenesis of this disease is essential. The complications associated with T1D cover a range of clinical obstacles. A number of experts in the field have covered a range of topics for consideration that are applicable to researcher and clinician alike. This book provides apt descriptions of cutting edge technologies and applications in the ever going search for treatments and cure for diabetes.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-788-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6584-2",doi:"10.5772/1539",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"type-1-diabetes-complications",numberOfPages:494,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"b7ba654e889d323762cc9fb4a014cdbf",bookSignature:"David Wagner",publishedDate:"November 25th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1035.jpg",numberOfDownloads:56421,numberOfWosCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:45,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 9th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 7th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 13th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 13th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 12th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"45994",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:"H",surname:"Wagner",slug:"david-wagner",fullName:"David Wagner",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45994/images/1976_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. David Wagner, PhD is an Associate Professor in the Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Sciences at the University of Colorado, Denver. He is also the Immunology Section Head of the Webb-Waring Center at UCD. Training includes a PhD in Biomedical Sciences from The Quillen College of Medicine at East Tennessee State University and post doctoral fellowships at The National Jewish Medical Research Center in Immunology and Diabetes. Professional memberships include the American Diabetes Association, Immunology of Diabetes Society of the Federation of Clinical Immunological Societies (FOCIS) and American Association of Immunologists as well as a member of the Society for Luekocyte Biology. Invited Lectures include regular attendance at the Aegean Conferences: Mechanisms and Treatments for Autoimmunity. He has numerous publications in diabetes research and immunologic functions focusing on T cell development, TCR revision and pathogenic T cells.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Denver",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1013",title:"Pediatric Endocrinology",slug:"pediatric-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"23936",title:"Genetic Determinants of Microvascular Complications in Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/22065",slug:"genetic-determinants-of-microvascular-complications-in-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:2503,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Constantina Heltianu, Cristian Guja and Simona-Adriana Manea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23936",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23936",authors:[{id:"46072",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantina",surname:"Heltianu",slug:"constantina-heltianu",fullName:"Constantina Heltianu"},{id:"92625",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",surname:"Guja",slug:"cristian-guja",fullName:"Cristian Guja"},{id:"92628",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Adriana",surname:"Manea",slug:"simona-adriana-manea",fullName:"Simona Adriana Manea"}],corrections:null},{id:"23937",title:"Early and Late Onset Type 1 Diabetes: One and the Same or Two Distinct Genetic Entities?",doi:"10.5772/23706",slug:"early-and-late-onset-type-1-diabetes-one-and-the-same-or-two-distinct-genetic-entities-",totalDownloads:5119,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Laura Espino-Paisan, Elena Urcelay, Emilio Gómez de la Concha and Jose Luis Santiago",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23937",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23937",authors:[{id:"53259",title:"MSc",name:"Laura",surname:"Espino-Paisan",slug:"laura-espino-paisan",fullName:"Laura Espino-Paisan"},{id:"54972",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Urcelay",slug:"elena-urcelay",fullName:"Elena Urcelay"},{id:"54973",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilio",surname:"De La Concha",slug:"emilio-de-la-concha",fullName:"Emilio De La Concha"},{id:"54974",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Santiago",slug:"jose-luis-santiago",fullName:"Jose Luis Santiago"}],corrections:null},{id:"23938",title:"Islet Endothelium: Role in Type 1 Diabetes and in Coxsackievirus Infections",doi:"10.5772/24389",slug:"islet-endothelium-role-in-type-1-diabetes-and-in-coxsackievirus-infections",totalDownloads:1821,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Enrica Favaro, Ilaria Miceli, Elisa Camussi and Maria M. Zanone",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23938",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23938",authors:[{id:"46979",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria M.",surname:"Zanone",slug:"maria-m.-zanone",fullName:"Maria M. Zanone"},{id:"57067",title:"BSc.",name:"Enrica",surname:"Favaro",slug:"enrica-favaro",fullName:"Enrica Favaro"},{id:"57071",title:"BSc",name:"Ilaria",surname:"Miceli",slug:"ilaria-miceli",fullName:"Ilaria Miceli"},{id:"57072",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",surname:"Camussi",slug:"giovanni-camussi",fullName:"Giovanni Camussi"}],corrections:null},{id:"23939",title:"Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus and Co-Morbidities",doi:"10.5772/24457",slug:"type-1-diabetes-mellitus-and-co-morbidities",totalDownloads:3200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Adriana Franzese, Enza Mozzillo, Rosa Nugnes, Mariateresa Falco and Valentina Fattorusso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23939",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23939",authors:[{id:"57513",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Franzese",slug:"adriana-franzese",fullName:"Adriana Franzese"},{id:"57679",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Nugnes",slug:"rosa-nugnes",fullName:"Rosa Nugnes"},{id:"57680",title:"Dr.",name:"Enza",surname:"Mozzillo",slug:"enza-mozzillo",fullName:"Enza Mozzillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"23940",title:"Hypoglycemia as a Pathological Result in Medical Praxis",doi:"10.5772/24754",slug:"hypoglycemia-as-a-pathological-result-in-medical-praxis",totalDownloads:3870,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"G. Bjelakovic, I. Stojanovic, T. Jevtovic-Stoimenov, Lj.Saranac, B. Bjelakovic, D. Pavlovic, G. Kocic and B.G. Bjelakovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23940",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23940",authors:[{id:"59264",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",surname:"Bjelakovic",slug:"gordana-bjelakovic",fullName:"Gordana Bjelakovic"},{id:"59346",title:"Prof.",name:"Dusica",surname:"Pavlovic",slug:"dusica-pavlovic",fullName:"Dusica Pavlovic"},{id:"59347",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordana",surname:"Kocic",slug:"gordana-kocic",fullName:"Gordana Kocic"},{id:"59348",title:"Prof.",name:"Bojko",surname:"Bjelakovic",slug:"bojko-bjelakovic",fullName:"Bojko Bjelakovic"},{id:"59350",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",surname:"Jevtovic Stoimenov",slug:"tatjana-jevtovic-stoimenov",fullName:"Tatjana Jevtovic Stoimenov"},{id:"59351",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",surname:"Bjelakovic",slug:"goran-bjelakovic",fullName:"Goran Bjelakovic"},{id:"61297",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivana",surname:"Stojanovic",slug:"ivana-stojanovic",fullName:"Ivana Stojanovic"},{id:"61300",title:"Dr.",name:"Ljiljana",surname:"Saranac",slug:"ljiljana-saranac",fullName:"Ljiljana Saranac"}],corrections:null},{id:"23941",title:"Autoimmune Associated Diseases in Pediatric Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus According to HLA-DQ Genetic Polymorphism",doi:"10.5772/22646",slug:"autoimmune-associated-diseases-in-pediatric-patients-with-type-1-diabetes-mellitus-according-to-hla-",totalDownloads:1309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Miguel Ángel García Cabezas and Bárbara Fernández Valle",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23941",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23941",authors:[{id:"48544",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Angel",surname:"Cabezas",slug:"miguel-angel-cabezas",fullName:"Miguel Angel Cabezas"},{id:"84368",title:"Dr",name:"Bárbara",surname:"Fernandez Valle",slug:"barbara-fernandez-valle",fullName:"Bárbara Fernandez Valle"}],corrections:null},{id:"23942",title:"Etiopathology of Type 1 Diabetes: Focus on the Vascular Endothelium",doi:"10.5772/20721",slug:"etiopathology-of-type-1-diabetes-focus-on-the-vascular-endothelium",totalDownloads:1122,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Petru Liuba and Emma Englund",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23942",authors:[{id:"40248",title:"Prof.",name:"Petru",surname:"Liuba",slug:"petru-liuba",fullName:"Petru Liuba"},{id:"57887",title:"Dr",name:"Emma",surname:"Englund",slug:"emma-englund",fullName:"Emma Englund"}],corrections:null},{id:"23943",title:"Cardiovascular Autonomic Dysfunction in Diabetes as a Complication: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms",doi:"10.5772/20890",slug:"cardiovascular-autonomic-dysfunction-in-diabetes-as-a-complication-cellular-and-molecular-mechanisms",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Yu-Long Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23943",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23943",authors:[{id:"40916",title:"Prof.",name:"Yu-Long",surname:"Li",slug:"yu-long-li",fullName:"Yu-Long Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"23944",title:"Microvascular and Macrovascular Complications in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/22029",slug:"microvascular-and-macrovascular-complications-in-children-and-adolescents-with-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:6009,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Francesco Chiarelli and M. Loredana Marcovecchio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23944",authors:[{id:"45943",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Chiarelli",slug:"francesco-chiarelli",fullName:"Francesco Chiarelli"},{id:"57910",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Loredana",surname:"Marcovecchio",slug:"m.-loredana-marcovecchio",fullName:"M. Loredana Marcovecchio"}],corrections:null},{id:"23945",title:"Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Redefining the Future of Cardiovascular Complications with Novel Treatments",doi:"10.5772/22092",slug:"type-1-diabetes-mellitus-redefining-the-future-of-cardiovascular-complications-with-novel-treatments",totalDownloads:1924,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Anwar B. Bikhazi, Nadine S. Zwainy, Sawsan M. Al Lafi, Shushan B. Artinian and Suzan S. Boutary",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23945",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23945",authors:[{id:"46175",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Bikhazi",slug:"bikhazi",fullName:"Bikhazi"},{id:"55732",title:"Mrs",name:"Suzan",surname:"Boutary",slug:"suzan-boutary",fullName:"Suzan Boutary"},{id:"55733",title:"MSc",name:"Shushan",surname:"Artinian",slug:"shushan-artinian",fullName:"Shushan Artinian"},{id:"55734",title:"MSc",name:"Sawsan",surname:"Al-Lafi",slug:"sawsan-al-lafi",fullName:"Sawsan Al-Lafi"},{id:"55735",title:"Ms",name:"Nadine",surname:"Zwainy",slug:"nadine-zwainy",fullName:"Nadine Zwainy"}],corrections:null},{id:"23946",title:"Diabetic Nephrophaty in Children",doi:"10.5772/22285",slug:"diabetic-nephrophaty-in-children",totalDownloads:2434,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Snezana Markovic-Jovanovic, Aleksandar N. Jovanovic and Radojica V. Stolic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23946",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23946",authors:[{id:"47066",title:"Dr.",name:"Snezana",surname:"Markovic-Jovanovic",slug:"snezana-markovic-jovanovic",fullName:"Snezana Markovic-Jovanovic"},{id:"91272",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksandar",surname:"Jovanovic",slug:"aleksandar-jovanovic",fullName:"Aleksandar Jovanovic"},{id:"91307",title:"Prof.",name:"Radojica",surname:"Stolic",slug:"radojica-stolic",fullName:"Radojica Stolic"}],corrections:null},{id:"23947",title:"Understanding Pancreatic Secretion in Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/24329",slug:"understanding-pancreatic-secretion-in-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mirella Hansen De Almeida, Alessandra Saldanha De Mattos Matheus and Giovanna A. Balarini Lima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23947",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23947",authors:[{id:"56719",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"De Almeida",slug:"de-almeida",fullName:"De Almeida"},{id:"61799",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",surname:"Saldanha De Mattos Matheus",slug:"alessandra-saldanha-de-mattos-matheus",fullName:"Alessandra Saldanha De Mattos Matheus"},{id:"61800",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanna A.",surname:"Balarini Lima",slug:"giovanna-a.-balarini-lima",fullName:"Giovanna A. Balarini Lima"}],corrections:null},{id:"23948",title:"Review of the Relationship Between Renal and Retinal Microangiopathy in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Patients",doi:"10.5772/20673",slug:"review-of-the-relationship-between-renal-and-retinal-microangiopathy-in-type-1-diabetes-mellitus-pat",totalDownloads:1933,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Pedro Romero-Aroca , Juan Fernández-Ballart, Nuria Soler, Marc Baget-Bernaldiz and Isabel Mendez-Marin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23948",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23948",authors:[{id:"40037",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Romero",slug:"pedro-romero",fullName:"Pedro Romero"},{id:"89974",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",surname:"Soler",slug:"nuria-soler",fullName:"Nuria Soler"}],corrections:null},{id:"23949",title:"Ocular Complications of Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/23782",slug:"ocular-complications-of-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:2828,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Daniel Rappoport, Yoel Greenwald, Ayala Pollack and Guy Kleinmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23949",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23949",authors:[{id:"53717",title:"Dr.",name:"Guy",surname:"Kleinmann",slug:"guy-kleinmann",fullName:"Guy Kleinmann"},{id:"55637",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Rappoport",slug:"daniel-rappoport",fullName:"Daniel Rappoport"},{id:"58067",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoel",surname:"Greenwald",slug:"yoel-greenwald",fullName:"Yoel Greenwald"},{id:"58068",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayala",surname:"Pollack",slug:"ayala-pollack",fullName:"Ayala Pollack"}],corrections:null},{id:"23950",title:"Perspectives of Cell Therapy in Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/22261",slug:"perspectives-of-cell-therapy-in-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:1365,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Maria M. Zanone, Vincenzo Cantaluppi, Enrica Favaro, Elisa Camussi, Maria Chiara Deregibus and Giovanni Camussi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23950",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23950",authors:[{id:"46979",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria M.",surname:"Zanone",slug:"maria-m.-zanone",fullName:"Maria M. Zanone"},{id:"46966",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",surname:"Camussi",slug:"giovanni-camussi",fullName:"Giovanni Camussi"},{id:"46980",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Cantaluppi",slug:"vincenzo-cantaluppi",fullName:"Vincenzo Cantaluppi"},{id:"46982",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Chiara",surname:"Deregibus",slug:"maria-chiara-deregibus",fullName:"Maria Chiara Deregibus"},{id:"46991",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",surname:"Camussi",slug:"elisa-camussi",fullName:"Elisa Camussi"},{id:"87613",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrica",surname:"Favaro",slug:"enrica-favaro",fullName:"Enrica Favaro"}],corrections:null},{id:"23951",title:"Prevention of Diabetes Complications",doi:"10.5772/24324",slug:"prevention-of-diabetes-complications",totalDownloads:1847,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Nepton Soltani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23951",authors:[{id:"56691",title:"Dr.",name:"Nepton",surname:"Soltani",slug:"nepton-soltani",fullName:"Nepton Soltani"}],corrections:null},{id:"23952",title:"The Enigma of β-Cell Regeneration in the Adult Pancreas: Self-Renewal Versus Neogenesis",doi:"10.5772/24421",slug:"the-enigma-of-946-cell-regeneration-in-the-adult-pancreas-self-renewal-versus-neogenesis",totalDownloads:3269,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"A. Criscimanna, S. Bertera, F. Esni, M. Trucco and R. Bottino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23952",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23952",authors:[{id:"44182",title:"Prof.",name:"Massimo",surname:"Trucco",slug:"massimo-trucco",fullName:"Massimo Trucco"},{id:"57281",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",surname:"Bottino",slug:"rita-bottino",fullName:"Rita Bottino"},{id:"91923",title:"Dr.",name:"Angela",surname:"Criscimanna",slug:"angela-criscimanna",fullName:"Angela Criscimanna"},{id:"91924",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzanne",surname:"Bertera",slug:"suzanne-bertera",fullName:"Suzanne Bertera"},{id:"92869",title:"Dr",name:"Farzad",surname:"Esni",slug:"farzad-esni",fullName:"Farzad Esni"}],corrections:null},{id:"23953",title:"Cell Replacement Therapy: The Rationale for Encapsulated Porcine Islet Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/24824",slug:"cell-replacement-therapy-the-rationale-for-encapsulated-porcine-islet-transplantation",totalDownloads:1916,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Stephen J. M. Skinner, Paul L. J. Tan, Olga Garkavenko, Marija Muzina, Livia Escobar and Robert B. Elliott",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23953",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23953",authors:[{id:"59809",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen J M",surname:"Skinner",slug:"stephen-j-m-skinner",fullName:"Stephen J M Skinner"},{id:"60440",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert B",surname:"Elliott",slug:"robert-b-elliott",fullName:"Robert B Elliott"},{id:"60441",title:"Dr.",name:"Livia",surname:"Escobar",slug:"livia-escobar",fullName:"Livia Escobar"},{id:"71244",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Garkavenko",slug:"olga-garkavenko",fullName:"Olga Garkavenko"},{id:"119611",title:"Ms.",name:"Marija",surname:"Muzina",slug:"marija-muzina",fullName:"Marija Muzina"},{id:"119613",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul L J",surname:"Tan",slug:"paul-l-j-tan",fullName:"Paul L J Tan"}],corrections:null},{id:"23954",title:"Dental Conditions and Periodontal Disease in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/22260",slug:"dental-conditions-and-periodontal-disease-in-adolescents-with-type-1-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:2426,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"S. Mikó and M. G. Albrecht",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23954",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23954",authors:[{id:"46965",title:"Dr.",name:"Sándor",surname:"Mikó",slug:"sandor-miko",fullName:"Sándor Mikó"},{id:"57762",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Albrecht",slug:"maria-albrecht",fullName:"Maria Albrecht"}],corrections:null},{id:"23955",title:"Impact of Hyperglycemia on Xerostomia and Salivary Composition and Flow Rate of Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/22321",slug:"impact-of-hyperglycemia-on-xerostomia-and-salivary-composition-and-flow-rate-of-adolescents-with-typ",totalDownloads:2964,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ivana Maria Saes Busato, Maria Ângela Naval Machado, João Armando Brancher, Antônio Adilson Soares de Lima, Carlos Cesar Deantoni, Rosângela Réa and Luciana Reis Azevedo-Alanis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23955",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23955",authors:[{id:"47236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana Maria",surname:"Saes Busato",slug:"ivana-maria-saes-busato",fullName:"Ivana Maria Saes Busato"},{id:"48532",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Reis",surname:"Azevedo-Alanis",slug:"luciana-reis-azevedo-alanis",fullName:"Luciana Reis Azevedo-Alanis"},{id:"48533",title:"MSc.",name:"Rosângela",surname:"Rëa",slug:"rosangela-rea",fullName:"Rosângela Rëa"},{id:"91256",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos Cesar",surname:"Deantoni",slug:"carlos-cesar-deantoni",fullName:"Carlos Cesar Deantoni"},{id:"91423",title:"Dr.",name:"João Armando",surname:"Brancher",slug:"joao-armando-brancher",fullName:"João Armando Brancher"},{id:"91904",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Ângela",surname:"Naval Machado",slug:"maria-angela-naval-machado",fullName:"Maria Ângela Naval Machado"},{id:"104600",title:"Prof.",name:"Antônio Adilson",surname:"Lima",slug:"antonio-adilson-lima",fullName:"Antônio Adilson Lima"}],corrections:null},{id:"23956",title:"The Effect of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus on the Craniofacial Complex",doi:"10.5772/24104",slug:"the-effect-of-type-1-diabetes-mellitus-on-the-craniofacial-complex",totalDownloads:2620,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mona Abbassy, Ippei Watari and Takashi Ono",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23956",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23956",authors:[{id:"55524",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona",surname:"Abbassy",slug:"mona-abbassy",fullName:"Mona Abbassy"},{id:"56962",title:"Dr.",name:"Ippei",surname:"Watari",slug:"ippei-watari",fullName:"Ippei Watari"},{id:"56963",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Ono",slug:"takashi-ono",fullName:"Takashi Ono"}],corrections:null},{id:"23957",title:"The Role of Genetic Predisposition in Diagnosis and Therapy of Periodontal Diseases in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/24586",slug:"the-role-of-genetic-predisposition-in-diagnosis-and-therapy-of-periodontal-diseases-in-type-1-diabet",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"M.G.K. Albrecht",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23957",authors:[{id:"57762",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Albrecht",slug:"maria-albrecht",fullName:"Maria Albrecht"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"340",title:"Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:"Pathogenesis, Genetics and Immunotherapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b3ffa87d0c93e9104ffcc24e59c3199",slug:"type-1-diabetes-pathogenesis-genetics-and-immunotherapy",bookSignature:"David Wagner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/340.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"45994",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Wagner",slug:"david-wagner",fullName:"David Wagner"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2666",title:"Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:"Insights and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49a714ae0be8a338523befe4ffc9352f",slug:"diabetes-mellitus-insights-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Oluwafemi O. Oguntibeju",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2666.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32112",title:"Prof.",name:"Oluwafemi",surname:"Oguntibeju",slug:"oluwafemi-oguntibeju",fullName:"Oluwafemi Oguntibeju"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3829",title:"Antioxidant-Antidiabetic Agents and Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"148f7976e4249aa1f0180cca370e36ce",slug:"antioxidant-antidiabetic-agents-and-human-health",bookSignature:"Oluwafemi Oguntibeju",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3829.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32112",title:"Prof.",name:"Oluwafemi",surname:"Oguntibeju",slug:"oluwafemi-oguntibeju",fullName:"Oluwafemi Oguntibeju"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3857",title:"Glucose Homeostasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6d19b59871b430fbcfc4bd297e242d",slug:"glucose-homeostasis",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3857.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3266",title:"Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"21684525ccb8c6acd89bc43ce177f90b",slug:"type-1-diabetes",bookSignature:"Alan P. Escher and Alice Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3266.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"46023",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",surname:"Escher",slug:"alan-escher",fullName:"Alan Escher"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"665",title:"Global Perspective on Diabetic Foot Ulcerations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b702efe619adff42227dadb5b4bda12b",slug:"global-perspective-on-diabetic-foot-ulcerations",bookSignature:"Thanh Dinh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/665.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69737",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanh",surname:"Dinh",slug:"thanh-dinh",fullName:"Thanh Dinh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1036",title:"Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:"Complications, Pathogenesis, and Alternative Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccb81d334cd838c9e80f3ebafb63eec0",slug:"type-1-diabetes-complications-pathogenesis-and-alternative-treatments",bookSignature:"Chih-Pin Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1036.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"47141",title:"Prof.",name:"Chih-Pin",surname:"Liu",slug:"chih-pin-liu",fullName:"Chih-Pin Liu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1038",title:"Topics in the Prevention, Treatment and Complications of Type 2 Diabetes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fedb4b227715729de998791e200ef56f",slug:"topics-in-the-prevention-treatment-and-complications-of-type-2-diabetes",bookSignature:"Mark B. Zimering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1038.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39545",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",surname:"Zimering",slug:"mark-zimering",fullName:"Mark Zimering"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3340",title:"Gestational Diabetes",subtitle:"Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc0e9aaba958dcee0b00d08175fe4f23",slug:"gestational-diabetes-causes-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Luis Sobrevia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3340.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"159644",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Sobrevia",slug:"luis-sobrevia",fullName:"Luis Sobrevia"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"814",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Basic Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74304f5d822f8f45d4b48a0e00ebd375",slug:"steroids-basic-science",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"69566",slug:"corrigendum-to-a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",title:"Corrigendum to: A Brief Overview of Ophthalmic Ultrasound Imaging",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69566.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69566",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69566",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69566",chapter:{id:"65491",slug:"a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",signatures:"David B. Rosen, Mandi D. Conway, Charles P. Ingram, Robin D. Ross and Leonardo G. Montilla",dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowinska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowinska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"65491",slug:"a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",signatures:"David B. Rosen, Mandi D. Conway, Charles P. Ingram, Robin D. Ross and Leonardo G. Montilla",dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowinska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowinska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowinska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowinska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"6729",leadTitle:null,title:"Economics of Lifestyles Applied to Health Economics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tIt is well known that noncommunicable diseases are responsible for nearly 40% of premature deaths all over the world. One modifiable risk factor for such mortality rates is people's lifestyles such as unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, tobacco exposure and excess alcohol use. People of all ages are affected by these diseases and premature deaths. The World Health Organization and Governments have become more concerned with these increasing and worrying statistics and have set to reduce premature deaths from noncommunicable diseases by one third by 2030. The aim of this book is to provide the reader with an overview of the current empirical work on the topics concerning health economics and lifestyles from different perspectives including the socioeconomic determinants of lifestyles, the impacts and the costs of noncommunicable diseases due to unhealthy lifestyles, the effects of public programs to promote healthy lifestyles, health insurance coverage, lifestyles and noncommunicable diseases coverage, the socioeconomic inequity associated with unhealthy lifestyles, and a particular focus is placed on the economics of the four main lifestyle diseases: cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer and chronic respiratory diseases.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef77e9a5ebf778a9feb96f1454554d50",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Aida Isabel Tavares",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6729.jpg",keywords:"Lifestyle economics, Health economics, Health policy, Lifestyle programs, Public health economics, Markets and regulation, Health demand,Health inequity, Preventive healthcare, Noncommunicable disease burden, Health insurance and lifestyles, Pharmaceutical industry and lifestyles, Socioeconomic determinants and impacts",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 1st 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 20th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196819",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares",slug:"aida-isabel-tavares",fullName:"Aida Isabel Tavares",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196819/images/system/196819.jfif",biography:"Aida Isabel Tavares holds a Ph.D. in Economic Analysis awarded by the Autonoma University of Barcelona in 2008. \r\nShe has been dedicated to research in Applied Health Economics and she published several articles in international peer-reviewed journals. She has also published one book in public economics. Her research areas include health economics and policy, health systems, socioeconomic determinants of health, regulation in health markets and economics evaluation. Dr. Tavares has also been teaching at different universities, specifically several courses related to microeconomics, public economics, and health economics. Currently, she collaborates with the Centre of Studies and Research in Health of the University of Coimbra in Portugal and she an Assistant Professor in Lisbon School of Economics and Management - University of Lisbon.",institutionString:"ISEG - Lisbon School of Economics & Management, University of Lisbon",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"220812",firstName:"Lada",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220812/images/6021_n.jpg",email:"lada@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7846",title:"Universal Health Coverage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03f74e6a4e925b7368b87e813bc29e1f",slug:"universal-health-coverage",bookSignature:"Aida Isabel Tavares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7846.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196819",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida Isabel",surname:"Tavares",slug:"aida-isabel-tavares",fullName:"Aida Isabel Tavares"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"60187",title:"Chloroplast Pigments: Structure, Function, Assembly and Characterization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75672",slug:"chloroplast-pigments-structure-function-assembly-and-characterization",body:'\nChlorophyll and carotenoid are important pigments that have been used as intrinsic optical molecular probes to observe plant performance during different phases of development. Chlorophyll and carotenoid are biosynthesized in chloroplast and their metabolism is closely related with the chloroplast development. Chlorophyll biosynthesis begins with the formation of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) from glutamate (Glu) via Glu-tRNA synthetase, Glu-tRNA reductase (GluTR) and Glu-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase (GSA-AT) [1]. Eight molecules of ALA are condensed, eventually forming the symmetric metal-free porphyrin, protoporphyrin IX (Proto IX), which is a common precursor of haem and chlorophyll. The biosynthesis of chlorophyll continues by insertion of Mg2+ into Proto IX and followed by several steps in the chlorophyll cycle to create protochlorophyllide.
\nFurther, reaction is one of the most interesting steps because this is the first step in chlorophyll biosynthesis that requires light: the NADPH:protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase converts protochlorophyllide into chlorophyllide. This reaction is then continued to produce chlorophyll (chl) a and b. So, when dark-grown etiolated seedlings are exposed to light, protochlorophyllide is immediately converted to chlorophyllide and then further to synthesis of chl. Once chl a and b are formed and properly incorporated into the thylakoid membranes and associated photosystems, chloroplast is fully functional to do photosynthesis [2].
\nPlant carotenoids are synthesized and accumulated exclusively in plastids, most importantly, chloroplast and chromoplast [3]. There are two types of plant carotenoid: carotene, which is cyclized and uncyclized hydrocarbons, and xanthophylls, which are oxygenated derivatives of carotenes. Carotenoid synthesis is initiated by the formation of C40 compound phytoene by the head-to-head condensation of two molecules of geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGDP) by phytoene synthase and then to a series of 4 sequential desaturation reactions, by two separate enzymes to produce lycopene, which has 11 conjugated double bonds [4]. Lycopene is then cyclized to α-carotene or β-carotene, which is then further hydroxylated to produce colorful xanthophylls such as lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, violaxanthin and neoxanthin. The biosynthesis and accumulation of carotenoids in the dark-grown etiolated seedling are essential for the assembly of membrane structure and benefits the development of chloroplast when seedlings emerge into the light [5]. Understanding the relationship between structure and photophysical properties of these pigments can provide insights into a better study of how photosynthesis works at the molecular level in chloroplast.
\nThe photophysical properties and functions of chlorophyll and carotenoid reside in their chemical structure. Chlorophylls are defined as cyclic tetrapyrroles carrying a characteristic isocyclic five-membered ring that are functional in light-harvesting or in charge separation in photosynthesis [6]. The chemical structure with IUPAC numbering scheme of chl a is shown in Figure 1. It is a squarish planar molecule, about 10 Å on a side. An Mg atom in the center of the planar portion is coordinated to four nitrogen atoms. The five rings in chlorophylls are lettered A through E, and the substituent positions on the macrocycle are numbered clockwise, beginning in ring A. Chlorophyll has two molecular axes: y-axis is defined as passing through the N atoms of rings A and C and x-axis passing through the N atoms of rings B and D. The delocalized π electron system extends over most of the molecule, except for ring D, in which the C-17—C-18 double bond is reduced to a single bond. The tail is formed by condensation of four isoprene units and is then esterified to ring D. It is often called phytol tail, after the polyisoprenoid alcohol precursor that is attached during biosynthesis. Because of the reduced ring D, plant chlorophylls such as chl a and b are classified as chlorins rather than porphyrins. These types of pigments have (in organic solvents) absorption bands around the blue and red spectral regions (Figure 2a), which are called B (or Soret) and Q bands, respectively, and arise from π→π* transition of the four frontier orbitals [7, 8]. One band each pair is polarized along the x-axis (Bx, Qx) and other along y-axis (By, Qy). The strong absorption band at the maximum absorption wavelength (λmax) 660 nm is called Qy transition band, which corresponds to the electronic transition polarized along the y-axis. The Qx-band of chl a shows a weak band near 550 nm, while the two overlapping Soret (B) bands show at about 430 nm. The chemical structure of Chl b is identical to chl a except at the C-7 position, where a formyl group replaces the methyl group. This structural change results in a shift of the Qy maximum absorption to shorter wavelength. The fluorescence spectrum of chlorophylls peaks at slightly longer wavelengths than the absorption maximum. The fluorescence emission (Figure 2b) is polarized along the y molecular axis, as it is emitted from the Qy transition. Shift of the emission to the longer wavelength side of the main transition is known as Stokes shift. In light reaction, chlorophyll plays as key pigment in the collection of light energy in the light-harvesting complexes and to carry out reversible photochemical redox reaction (Krasnovsky reaction) in the reaction centers.
\nChemical structure of Chl a (a), Chl b (b), lycopene (c), β-carotene (d), zeaxanthin (e) and lutein (f) with IUPAC numbering system.
(a) UV–Vis absorption of Chl a (black) and Chl b (red) in MeOH, (b) fluorescence emission spectra of Chl a (red) and Chl b (black) in MeOH, (c) β-carotene (red), zeaxanthin (black) and lutein (blue) in EtOH, (d) lutein in several organic solvents; MeOH (black), acetone (pink), diethyl ether (purple), hexane (light blue), EtOH (blue).
Structure of carotenoid is characterized by a linear chain of conjugated π-electron double bonds (Figure 1). In oxygenic organisms, carotenoid usually contains ring structures at each end, and most carotenoids contain oxygen atoms, usually as part of hydroxyl or epoxide groups. The primary molecular factor that gives rise to their strong absorption bands in the visible spectral region is the number of π-electron conjugated double bonds, N. The position of the absorption maxima is affected by the length of the chromophore, the position of the end double bond in the chain or ring and the taking out of conjugation of one double bond in the ring or eliminating it through epoxidation. Progressive movement to longer wavelengths (bathochromic shift) is illustrated by the absorption spectra of the acyclic carotenoid of increasing chromophore length. Carotenoids show different optical characteristics in various solvents, depending on the polarizability of the solvent [9, 10]; however, generally they have a typical three-peaked absorption spectrum with well-defined maxima and minima (fine structure) (Figure 2a). A ring closure as in β-carotene produces a less-defined fine structure. The introduction of a carbonyl group in conjugation with the polyene system produces a bathochromic shift and the loss of fine structure [4]. The influence of other substituents such as OH is negligible, for example, β-carotene, cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin all have very identical absorption spectrums. Owing to the double bonds in the molecule, all carotenoids exhibit cis-trans isomerization (stereomutation). A cis double bond implies a configuration with the highest-priority group on the same side, whereas in the trans configuration they are on opposite sides. The absorption spectrum of a cis isomer presents a subsidiary peak in the near-ultraviolet, the cis peak; generally, it is located 143 nm from the longest wavelength maximum. For example, cis peak will appear at 330 nm if the longest wavelength maximum is 473 nm. In photosynthetic systems, carotenoid has essential functions. First, carotenoid is an accessory pigment in the collection of light energy in the spectral region which chl does not absorb and in transferring energy to a chl pigment [11, 12]. Second, carotenoid functions in a process called photoprotection by quenching triplet state of chl before it reacts with oxygen to form singlet oxygen species (ROS) [13, 14]. Third, carotenoid regulates energy transfer in the light-harvesting antenna through a process called xanthophyll cycle, to avoid over-excitation of the photosynthetic system by safely dissipating excess energy [15, 16].
\nIn the chloroplast interior, there are four main constituents in plant thylakoids, that is, photosystem II (PSII), cytochrome b6f, photosystem I (PSI) and the ATP synthesis. Chlorophylls and carotenoids are embedded in PS II and PSI, large pigment-protein clusters, the structures of which are perfectly adopted to ensure that almost every absorbed photon can be utilized to drive photochemistry. Both PSII and PSI consist of two moieties, that is, core complex or the reaction center that is responsible for charge separation and light-harvesting antenna complexes that surround the core complex and have functions to increase the capture of light energy and energy transfer to the reaction center in the core complex.
\nOne can detect chlorophyll and carotenoid bound in PSII and PSI in chloroplast by measuring their absorption and fluorescence spectra. Figure 3a (solid red line) shows the absorption spectrum of diluted chloroplast that is indicated by red shift of Chl a, Chl b and carotenoid’s bands because these molecules are bound as pigment-protein complexes in chloroplast. The Soret band of chl a in the complexes was detected at 438 nm while in the MeOH it was found at 432 nm (Figure 2a black line). The fluorescence emission spectra (Figure 3b) indicate a strong emission band of PSII complexes with maximum wavelength at (λmax) about 682 nm and weak emission band of PSI complexes with λmax at about 730 nm. It is shown here that Chl a acts as the main contributor to the excitation band at 434 nm and it shows that excitation at 434 nm (Soret band) produces stronger emission intensity, while the excitation at 475 and 512 nm, correspond to Chl b Soret band and carotenoid, respectively, produces weaker emission intensity. If we monitor the emission at 682 nm and measure the excitation spectrum, it shows that the PSII emission at 682 nm is the result of contribution from Chl a, Chl b and carotenoids (Figure 3a solid black lines) with bands at λmax about 414, 434, 475 nm, respectively.
\n(a) Overlaid of UV–Vis absorption (red) and fluorescence excitation (black) (λem = 682 nm) spectra of chloroplast and (b) emission spectra of chloroplast with excitation at 434 (black), 475 (red) and 512 (blue) nm. Measurements were conducted at ambient temperature. The isolation of chloroplast was carried out as follows: 20 g of suji leaves (Pleomele angustifolia) were washed with running water and cut. The leaves were then homogenized in 200 mL ice-cold isolation buffer (300 mM sorbitol, 50 mM HEPES-KOH pH 7.5, 2 mM EDTA, 80% acetone, 0.1% BSA) for 10 min in a cold environment, followed by filtration using cloth. Centrifugation was conducted in 2 steps, to discard cell debris at 200 g, 4°C, 20 min and to harvest chloroplast pellet at 3000 g, 4°C, 20 min. Final chloroplast pellet was collected and subjected to spectrum UV–VIS (Shimadzu UV-1700)and fluorescence measurement (Jasco FP-8500).
The current high-resolution structural models of antenna complexes have been obtained only for LHCII (2.72 Å) and recently for CP29 (2.8 Å) from PSII of spinach [17, 18]. Here we focus more on the LHCII structure. LHCII shows trimeric structure. Each monomeric contains three transmembrane α-helices, a, b and c (Figure 4a). One monomeric subunit contains eight chlorophyll (Chl) a pigments, six Chl b, two luteins (Lut), neoxanthin and one additional xanthophyll [17, 19]. The 14 chlorophylls are non-covalently attached in the protein cavity. Four carotenoid binding sites per monomer have also been characterized, but in this case the type of carotenoid bound can vary. Typically, two lutein molecules are in groves on both sides of helices a and b and have been likened to a cross-brace. A third carotenoid, 9-cis neoxanthin, is located in the Chl b-rich region near helix c. The fourth carotenoid is located at monomer-monomer interfaces in the trimer. It has been suggested that this site accommodates carotenoids that can participate in the xanthophyll cycle. It depends on the external stress level of the plant; the fourth carotenoid is either violaxanthin (no or low stress) or zeaxanthin (high stress) [20]. In this structure, the carotenoids are in van der Waals contact with the chlorophylls [9]. This is essential as carotenoids in LHCII act as accessory light-harvesting pigments and photoprotectors. The accessory light-harvesting function represents singlet-singlet energy transfer from the carotenoid to the chlorophylls. Since the singlet excited state lifetime of the carotenoid is quite short, approximately 200 fs, the carotenoid must be in close distance to a chlorophyll molecule if the energy transfer is to be efficient. Photoprotection function represents the quenching of triplet excited state of chlorophylls and so preventing the formation of singlet oxygen. This triplet-triplet exchange reaction also requires the carotenoid to be in close contact with the chlorophylls. Regarding CP29, it binds 3 carotenoids and 13 chlorophyll molecules [18]. The position of some chlorophyll binding sites in CP29 differs from LHCII.
\n(a) A view looking down on the top of trimeric complex of LHCII structure from spinach. Each monomer is colored magenta, yellow and pale green. The three-transmembrane helices (a, b and c) present in a monomer are labeled and are easily visible. Chl a molecules are in red, Chl b colored green and carotenoids colored orange. (b) Side-view of LHCII structure shows chlorophyll and carotenoid molecules are packed densely and close to each other (within van der Waals contact), enabling the crucial photo-protective role of these molecules to function by quenching triplet chlorophyll excited states. (c) Structure of PSII from Thermosynechococcus elongatus [28], a side-view representation of the overall dimer perpendicular normal with the pseudo-twofold symmetry axis. (e) PSII core reaction center is shown; component co-factors of the electron transport chain viewed along the membrane plane. The two branches are related by the pseudo-twofold symmetry axis. The respective pairs of pigments on the branches are labeled to indicate whether the Mg2_ is coordinated by D1, D2. (d) Structure of PSI from Synechococcus elongatus [29]; overview of the complete trimer looking along the membrane normal from the stromal side with each polypeptide of the trimer colored differently and chlorophyll molecules given in green. The two main proteins that comprise a monomer are PsaA (yellow) and PsaB (magenta). The electron transport chains are in the center of each monomer. (f) PSI core reaction center component co-factors of the electron transport chain are viewed along the membrane plane. The two branches are related by the pseudo-twofold symmetry axis. The representative pair of chlorophyll molecules on the branches are labeled A or B indicating whether the Mg2+ is coordinated by PsaA or PsaB. The iron–sulfur center of Fx involves residues from both PsaA and PsaB, while FA and FB are located in an extrinsic subunit called PsaC.
The current high-resolution crystal structure of PS II and PSI core complexes is limited to that from cyanobacteria and from pea, respectively [21, 22]. The core of PSII is a multi-subunit complex. Most of the chromophores involve light harvesting as well as electron transfer reaction and are bound to four main subunits, that is, D1, D2, CP43 and CP47. When the core of PSII and PSI reaction center structures is compared, the arrangement of the pigments and other electron transfer co-factors is also very similar (Figure 4c and d). Here, first we look at the PSII core reaction center. The core of reaction center of PSII is made from two major polypeptides called D1 and D2; each contains five membrane-spanning α-helices. These two helices clasp each other like two cupped hands holding on to each other. The redox cofactors are arranged into two arms that lie on either side of the point where the two groups of helices interact. This arrangement of the helices and the cofactors introduces a pseudo two-fold symmetry axes that runs through the center of reaction center normal to the plane of the membrane. In Figure 4e, it is seen that the electron transport pathway in PSII begins with a pair of chlorophyll molecules called P680 (PD1 and PD2). Then each arm contains, in order, one monomeric chlorophyll molecule, one pheophytin (a chlorophyll derivative) and one plastoquinone molecule. Here, only the D1 arm is active in electron transport. Upon excitation P680 becomes oxidized and one electron is injected out and passes down the active branch to the quinone QA. P680 is re-reduced by electron transfer from a special tyrosine residue called Z (Tyrz). A second turnover of P680 delivers a second electron to the plastoquinone and the secondary quinone QB is now reduced to QBH2. The hole on Tyrz is filled by electron transfer from the manganese cluster, the oxygen evolving complex. Every four turnovers of P680 stores four positive charges in the manganese cluster that are then used to oxidize water and evolve oxygen. While in CP43 and CP47, there are a total of 49 Chl a molecules that are bound and that function as internal antenna and allow excitation energy transfer from the peripheral antenna system to the reaction center.
\nUnlike PSII, in PS I, the same single polypeptides contain both antenna complexes (Lhca) and the reaction center core. The 3.3 Å resolution crystal structure of PSI from pea showed that plant PSI binds at least 173 Chl a and b molecules [22]. At this resolution of the crystal structure, it is not possible to identify the Chl species, but biochemical analysis of purified PSI indicated that it has a Chl a/b ratio in a range of 8.2–9.7 [23, 24]. A large number of Chl a and b molecules are bound to the Lhca protein, only about 100 Chl a are bound in the core complex, and the rest of Chl a and b are between these moieties. The latter represent the so-called “linker” chlorophylls which are located between Lhca monomers and “gap” chlorophylls (between Lhca and PSI core). The linker chlorophyll molecules probably play an important role in excitation energy transfer between Lhca antennas and from Lhca to the PSI core [20, 25, 26]. Based on biochemical analysis, PSI was reported to bind approximately 33/34 carotenoids, that is, about 12 carotenoid molecules are bound to Lhca, at the interface between Lhca and the core complex, and about 22 β-carotene are bound to the core [20, 23, 26]. Based on these biochemical analysis, it can be estimated that PSI-LHCII supercomplex contains about 215 chlorophyll and 45/46 carotenoid molecules.
\nThe core complex of PSI is composed of smaller number of subunits (15 subunit) than PSII. The large PsaA and PsaB subunit, which contain 11 trans-membrane helices each, forms a hetero-dimer that binds ~80 Chl a and ~20 β-carotene as cofactors for light harvesting as well as 6 Chl a, 2 phylloquinones and a 4Fe-4S cluster as cofactors for electron transfer reaction, with the exception of terminal electron acceptors (Fe-S clusters FA and FB) which are bound to the PsaC subunit [25]. At closer look (Figure 4f), the redox co-factors in the core reaction center are arranged into two arms that are located on either side of the region where two groups of helices interact with each other. Two chlorophylls form P700 and then each arm contains two monomeric chlorophyll molecules (the second one being in the equivalent position to the pheophytin present in photosystem II) followed by one quinone molecule. When P700 is oxidized, both arms of the electron transport pathway are able to work as it was reported that the electron can pass either down the B-branch or the A-branch [27].
\nChlorophyll and carotenoid can be isolated as free pigments, detached from the pigment-protein complexes, by organic solvent extraction. Important aspects such as the choice of organic solvents, light exposure and working temperature should be considered while isolating pigments. Based on the structure, chlorophyll is characterized with polar macrocycle ring with non-polar hydrocarbon tail. The structural difference between Chl b and Chl a is by having an aldehyde group in place of the methyl group at the macrocycle side group. This change is effecting the polarity of Chl b to be more polar in comparison to Chl a. In the case of carotenoid, structural difference can be seen from the number of conjugated double bonds and the presence of oxygen atoms. Considering these characteristics, mixtures of miscible polar and semi/non-polar solvents are used commonly to extract plant pigments. The mixture of solvent has double functions, that is, penetrating tissues/matrixes and extracting pigments from their lipophilic surrounding. During extraction, exposure of light should be avoided to reduce photodamage of the pigments. Temperature is also important. It is recommended to conduct extraction at lower temperatures, for example, on ice or using liquid nitrogen, to minimize activity of enzyme (e.g. chlorophyllase) that will catalyze breakdown. Antioxidant agent can be also added during extraction to avoid any unwanted oxidation.
\nAfter successful isolation, liquid chromatography has been widely used as an effective technique to separate individual type of pigments and for further purification. In this technique, the pigment separation is based on the polarity which depends on the interaction of pigment with the stationary and mobile phases. Elution method either normal phase or reversed phase is chosen according to the type of pigment to be separated. In addition, the choice of liquid chromatographic methods, namely thin layer chromatography (TLC), column chromatography (CC) and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), is referred to the speed, resolution and quantity of sample [30]. Currently, ultra-fast liquid chromatography (UFLC), a recent development of HPLC, has been used as a standard for liquid chromatography to achieve high-resolution data with low time consumption [31]. Purification with non-chromatographic method has also been developed, that is, purification method using dioxane has been effective to separate chlorophyll from most of the carotenoids and some lipids [32].
\nVarious types of column absorbents used for chromatographic separation of plant pigments have been well reviewed [30]. Here, we used a silica C30 column attached to UFLC analytic to achieve well separation of carotenoids from Pleomele angustifolia leaf using elution gradient program with mixture of water, methanol and methyl tert-butyl ether to separate, at least, 7 dominant pigments within 25 min. (Figure 5). The detailed identification of pigments, based on the chromatographic, spectrophotometric and mass properties, is summarized in Table 1. Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, α- and β-carotenes and violaxanthin are found to be the main chlorophylls and carotenoids, respectively, while the presence of lutein and zeaxanthin in this chloroplast is in low amount.
\nUFLC chromatogram of pigment extract from chloroplast of Pleomele angustifolia detected at 430 nm. The UFLC separation condition was as follows: Pigment separation was performed using UFLC equipped with PDA (Shimadzu) on C30 column (150 × 4.6 mm I.D; YMC) with a gradient elution program of water, methanol and methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) at the flow rate of 1 mL/min at 30°C.
Peak No | \ntR [min] | \nλmaxs [nm] | \nMolecular ion | \nFragment ions [m/z] | \nIdentification | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HPLC eluent | \nHexane | \nEthanol | \nAcetone | \nspecies [m/z] | \n||||
1 | \n7.3 | \n412,436,464 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \nViolaxanthin | \n
2 | \n12.8 | \n470,601,650 | \n451,595,642 | \n465,601,649 | \n458,596,646 | \n907.7 [M]+ | \n881.7 [M – COH]+ 855.7 [M – COH – Mg]+ | \nChlorophyll b | \n
3 | \n13.4 | \n422,445,472 | \n422,444,473 | \n−,446,474 | \n−,448,476 | \n568.4 [M]+ | \n551.4 [M – OH]+ 476.4 [M – 92]+ 430.3 [M – 138]+ | \nLutein | \n
4 | \n15.3 | \n−,451,477 | \n425,449,478 | \n425,451, 478 | \n428,454,481 | \n568.6 [M]+ | \n476.4 [M – 92]+ | \nZeaxanthin | \n
5 | \n16.6 | \n431,618,664 | \n427,613,661 | \n430,616,664 | \n431,617,662 | \n893.5 [M]+ | \n871.5 [M – Mg]+ 615.2 [M – phytyl]+ | \nChlorophyll a | \n
6 | \n20.1 | \n421,446,473 | \n421,445,474 | \n421,446,476 | \n422,445,473 | \n536.6 [M]+ | \n445.4 [M + H – 92]+ | \nα-carotene | \n
7 | \n21.2 | \n–,452,478 | \n–,451,479 | \n–,453,480 | \n–,454,482 | \n536.6 [M]+ | \n444.5 [M – 92]+ | \nβ-carotene | \n
Chromatographic, spectrophotometric and mass properties of pigments separated from the chloroplast of Pleomele angustifolia.
Larger-scale separation of Chl a and b can be achieved by CC using Sepharose CL-6B as the stationary phase and a mixture of 2-propanol (IPA) and hexane as the mobile phase. Chl a could be eluted using 1.5% IPA in hexane and Chl b with 10% IPA in hexane [33]. To achieve a pure, free carotenoid, saponification step is sometimes necessary to eliminate contamination of lipids and chlorophylls. Moreover, carotenoid ester can be hydrolyzed to produce parent carotenoid by using this method [34]. CC is usually used for carotenoid isolation in high quantity of pigment extract. Generally, the purpose of CC is to separate mixtures into carotenoid fractions which are either having high purity to be processed to crystallization or low purity to be extensively separated with further chromatography, that is, HPLC [35].
\nSilica and alumina are frequently used as the absorbent in the CC with the normal phase elution to separate the distinct carotenoids; however, it is not easy to use this method to separate carotenoid isomers, that is, geometrical isomers, diastereoisomers, and so on. In this case HPLC/UFLC can be used to overcome the difficulty in the separation of carotenoids by CC. Turcsi et al. (2016) revealed that the polar carotenoids including optical isomers, and region and geometrical isomers as well as non-polar carotenes, could be well separated by HPLC on C18 and C30 columns, respectively [36]. High purity of isolated pigment can be achieved by HPLC and crystallization processes. UFLC analysis of the purified zeaxanthin shows that this carotenoid had a high purity of around 99.3% (Figure 2, left). All purified pigments have purity higher than 95% (Figure 6).
\nPurification of zeaxanthin: (a) chromatogram detected at 450 nm. Insert figure is UV–Vis spectrum measured by UFLC diode array detector in the eluent and (b) ESI-MS/MS spectrum identification. The conditions of UFLC and ESI-MS/MS analysis were as follows: UFLC analysis of the purified zeaxanthin was performed using UFLC equipped with PDA (Shimadzu) on C30 column (150 × 4.6 mm I.D; YMC) with a gradient elution program of water, methanol and MTBE at the flow rate of 1 mL/min at 30°C. The purified zeaxanthin was directly analyzed to LCMS 8030 (Shimadzu) with an isocratic elution of 0.1% formic acid (FA) in water (10%) and 0.1% FA in methanol (90%) at the flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. MS analysis was operated under the following conditions: (1) heat block temperature = 400°C; (2) desolvation line temperature = 250°C; (3) nebulizing N2 gas flow = 3 L/min; (4) drying N2 gas flow = 15 L/min; (5) interface voltage = 4.5 kV; (6) interface current = 0.1 μA; (7) mass range 400–700 m/z; (8) ionization mode = positive and negative.
Chromatographic, spectrophotometric and mass properties of pigment are minimum requirements for pigment identification [35]. These properties for all purified pigments are shown in the Table 1. In Figure 7 (right), absorption spectra of the purified chlorophyll a and the purified β-carotene in acetone have the same maximum absorption wavelength (λmax) and other spectral properties, such as the fine structure and spectrum shape, compared to these pigments in the references [37, 38]. Absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a in acetone shows typical Soret (431 nm), Qx (617 nm) and Qy (662 nm) bands, while two well-defined peaks in the absorption spectrum of β-carotene are found at 454 and 482 nm. This pigment analysis based on the results of spectrophotometer UV–Vis could support the advance pigment analysis using HPLC/UFLC equipped with photodiode array detection and coupled with the mass spectrometry. The LCMS technique has provided a power tool for pigment identification [39, 40]. Tentative identification for zeaxanthin peak separated by HPLC/UFLC analysis with PDA revealed that zeaxanthin has similar retention time (tR), maximum absorption wavelength (λmax) and the shape of absorption spectrum (data not shown) compared to the isolated zeaxanthin from corn which is a well-known source of zeaxanthin [41]. In addition the mass analysis provides the precursor and fragment ions at the specific m/z and characteristic fragmentation pattern for pigment identification. Mass spectrum of Chl a indicated the molecular ion [M]+ detected at m/z 893.6 and a fragment ion [M-Mg]+ at m/z 871.6 related to the loss of magnesium as the central metal of chlorophyll (Figure 1). This mass spectrum of Chl a agrees with the result that was reported [42].
\nPurification of Chl: (a) chromatogram detected at 660 nm. Insert figure is UV–Vis spectrum measured by UFLC diode array detector in the eluent and (b) ESI-MS/MS spectrum. The condition of UFLC and ESI-MS/MS analysis was as follows: UFLC analysis of the purified chlorophyll a was performed using HPLC equipped with PDA (Shimadzu) on C30 column (150 × 4.6 mm I.D; YMC) with a gradient elution program of water, methanol and MTBE at the flow rate of 1 mL/min at 30°C. The purified chlorophyll a was directly analyzed to LCMS 8030 (Shimadzu) with an isocratic elution of 0.1% formic acid (FA) in water (10%) and 0.1% FA in methanol (90%) at the flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. MS analysis was operated under the following conditions: (1) heat block temperature = 400°C; (2) desolvation line temperature = 250°C; (3) nebulizing N2 gas flow = 3 L/min; (4) drying N2 gas flow = 15 L/min; (5) interface voltage = 4.5 kV; (6) interface current = 0.1 μA; (7) mass range 400–1000 m/z; (8) ionization mode = positive and negative.
Chlorophyll and carotenoid are chloroplast pigments which are bound non-covalently to protein as pigment-protein complex and play a vital role in photosynthesis. Their functions include light harvesting, energy transfer, photochemical redox reaction, as well as photoprotection. The exact number and stoichiometry of these pigments in higher plants are varied, but their compositions include Chl a, Chl b, lutein, neoxanthin, violaxanthin, zeaxanthin and β-carotene. Liquid chromatography methods are well developed to separate and purify different types of pigments. Identification and characterization of pigments can be well observed by spectroscopy methods such as UV–Vis absorption, fluorescence and mass spectrometry.
\nTatas Hardo Panintingjati Brotosudarmo (THPB) acknowledges the competence research grant (No. 120/SP2H/LT/DRPM/IV/2017) from Kemenristekdikti for the financial support. We also acknowledge Chandra Ayu Siswanti who helped in preparation of chloroplast isolation, pigment isolation and UFLC separation works. We acknowledge Dr. Hendrik Octendy Lintang for supporting fluorescence measurements of photosystem II and I in chloroplast.
\nIn the textile industry, the utilization of low environmental impact technologies that are based on sustainable raw materials presents a novel possible way for the development of functional textiles on a large scale. By-products and wastes from different sources and industries such as proteins, vegetable, agroforestry, furniture, food, footwear and automotive industries are often used as biomass or sent to landfills. However, due to the interest in by-products as a substituent for the commercially aggressive chemicals used in the textile industry, research on the valorization of these materials has remarkably increased. In this sense, several studies were carried out to enhance the performance attributes of textile goods through finishing, coating and dipping technologies with by-products and residues, thus creating an opportunity for the establishment of partnerships and circular economy business models.
The dairy industry is characterized by a broad group of food products, such as milk, milk powder, butter, yoghurts, cream and cheese, but it is also a big source of solid and liquid by-products, but among those, whey is the one produced at the highest volumes in cheese industry. The world production of by-products in dairy industry is around 4–11 million tonnes per year, but Europe is the worldwide leader in cheese production and consequently the largest whey producer [1, 2]. This has a big environmental impact if they are disposed as wastes, so strategies to reuse these by-products are important, and there is a community pressure in this sense. Traditionally, some years ago, whey is used to be disposed of, but with environmental concerns and legislation to be implemented, the reuse appears with a prominent role [2]. Whey is considered one of the major pollutant by-products because of its high biological and chemical oxygen demands [2]. Whey is composed of 85–90% water, 10–15% lactose (carbohydrates), soluble vitamins, minerals (e.g. calcium, phosphorus, sodium and so on) and proteins (e.g. β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin (BSA), immunoglobulins and others) [1, 2]. Lactose is the main component, being responsible for most of the biological and chemical oxygen demands [2]. However, lactose and other nutrients essential for microbial growth confer whey a potential to produce several bioproducts. Whey proteins award health benefits such as high nutritional value, easy digestion and assimilation, which are interesting for the food industry too. It can be used for biotransformation feeds, bioproteins, prebiotics, and bioactive peptides after fermentation or enzymatic hydrolysis. On the other hand, the reduced-lactose whey, demineralized whey, and whey protein concentrates or isolates are used for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, especially for thier emulsifying, thickening, gelling, foaming and water-binding properties. More specific, these proteins of natural origin and with emulsifying capacity are used in the formulation of creams and shampoos as substitutes for synthetic surfactants. The whey protein hydrolysate also has this type of application for hair products. Another property of whey protein consists of gel formation, being used to produce protective films and coatings. These proteins, as they have low permeability to water vapour, are used in paper coating, providing good appearance and printability. β-Lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin can be used as moisturizing and antiwrinkle agents. Lactoferrin is a good iron chelator, preventing the formation of free radicals. In the 1990s, whey protein, in the form of iron proteinate, was also used as an antianemic preparation [3]. Moreover, this by-product can be reused not only for its technological properties but also for its biological properties in terms of the body’s benefits.
Due to its biological and chemical properties, whey has several applications, depending on the biotechnological method applied to reuse this by-product. It can be used to obtain chemical products to produce functional formulations and for food, fuel health, pharmaceuticals, biomaterials and others.
Whey has been used in the food industry to produce functional food and drinks as an innovative product with health benefits. For example, whey can be used in dairy beverages: unfermented or fermented, probiotic, refreshing soft, alcoholic, diet and high protein sport [2]. Whey is also one of the main sources of the bioactive peptides that can be used as nutritional supplements because of its structure, rapid absorption and biological properties (antihypertensive activities and antioxidant properties). On the other hand, whey protein has been explored in the food industry in edible film or coating development for food preservation, for its biochemical properties, such as its edible nature and intrinsic biodegradability, suitable mechanical barrier, flexibility and the capacity to incorporate functional compounds [4].
The improvement of knowledge has also allowed the development of biomaterials from whey, for example, to produce biodegradable capsules for drug delivery. The whey protein isolates (WPI) have been used for bone regeneration to produce bioactive glasses with potential applications in bone tissue engineering.
These biomaterials have been explored for tissue engineering applications due to their chemical and biological properties, such as the ability to retain water, easy transport/entrapment of nutrients or cells, controlled biodegradability, mechanical properties and biocompatibility [5]. However, the field of action of whey is much wider and applied to other industries as an eco-friendly alternative to conventional chemicals.
Agro-industrial wastes include several different wastes from the food and agriculture industries. The amount of wastes from the food and forestry-based industries produced in the European Union (EU) is estimated to be in the order of 900 million tonnes per year. However, a large part of these wastes are considered low-value input materials instead of wastes, like sawdust that can be used to make products such as fibreboard or leaves and stalks of plants that can have other agricultural uses such as animal bedding [6]. If these wastes are released to the environment without a proper disposal procedure, they may worsen the environmental pollution and cause harmful effects on human and animal health. Table 1 shows the estimated sustainable availability of agro-industrial wastes.
Wastes | Current availability (Mtonnes/year) | 2030 availability (Mtonnes/year) |
---|---|---|
Paper industry | 17.5 | 12.3 |
Wood industry | 8 | 5.6 |
Food and garden industries | 37.6 | 26.3 |
Crop wastes | 122 | 139 |
Forestry wastes | 40 | 40 |
Agro-industrial wastes and wastes produced in the EU [6].
Recently, these wastes have been the focus of much attention due to their huge potential for exploration, not only for their wide availability and diversity but also for their intrinsic properties and functionalities, which make them an increasingly attractive feedstock for chemical, material and biofuel production [7]. Conscious consumption allied with ethical and sustainable values is increasing the consumers’ concern in the moment of purchase: “What is the nature of the raw material?”; “What is the life cycle of the product?”. This tendency has made the producers look for alternative raw material sources [8].
It was found that the typology of vegetable wastes most produced varies from year to year, with the most abundant being materials unsuitable for consumption or processing, biodegradable wastes and vegetable textile wastes [9]. The most promising vegetable and agroforestry wastes for textile application are, for example, sawdust, coffee grounds, pine bark, eucalyptus bark and others. Sawdust and composites of sawdust (in powder and in pieces) are very abundant wastes as a result of the wood processing industry such as furniture industry. Coffee grounds are highly abundant because the cultural habit of people is drinking a lot of coffee. Pine bark is a highly abundant waste that is very easy to adapt for textile coating applications, which can result in a brown powder that gives rise to coatings with a dark colour and a very attractive shade. Olive stones are also abundant, resulting from the production of olive oil or from the ginning of the olives. Almond or nutshell wastes can create coatings with very attractive colours and visual effects. Rice husk, due to its low nutritional value, is not a viable resource as food for animals, and the burning or landfill deposition of this type of waste has important environmental impacts, as it has a slow biological degradation (high silica content). Eucalyptus bark is also abundant, resulting from the paper and wood processing industries [7].
The transformation of animal skins into leather allows for the recycling of what would be an organic waste from the food industry into added-value products. In this context, the animal skin is considered a by-product, as it is not reintroduced in the same productive cycle and its reuse contributes to a more sustainable and a circular economy.
There are several applications for leather, and the manufacture of leather upholstery for furniture, airplanes and automobiles has been one of the main markets in the last two decades. Although leather waste recycling has been the subject of hundreds of studies, landfilling remains the most frequent option, wasting all resources contained in leather. Also, due to environmental restrictions, the study and development of sustainable alternatives for the recovery of this waste for the manufacture of new, more sustainable materials are urgent [10].
The valorization of leather wastes such as leather shavings aims to the reduction of the presence and usage of Cr (VI), oil, hydrocarbon, and solvent absorber; adsorbent of chlorides, fats, tannins, surfactants, and dyes, used in the tanning process. Leather powder has already been applied as an oil and crude absorber, while carding powder has been used as an adsorbent for textile dyes (more anionic than cationic) [10].
This type of waste can be physically processed by crushing and grinding methods. For certain uses, its mixture with resins and catalysts for subsequent pressing between metal moulds with various configurations and sizes can produce multilayer or composite structures. Final products are obtained with a very good appearance, without the need for any additional finishing, with good sound insulation and even good thermal insulation [11]. Applications in furniture, floors and footwear components are some of the examples. Through these processes leather wastes have been used in leather-like materials and construction materials, as additives for thermoplastic composites and as filler materials for reinforcing rubbers [10].
Leather waste can also be processed chemically (alkaline or acid hydrolysis) or enzymatically, in order to obtain collagen (by-product) for application in added-value products. Collagen consists of a fibrous, insoluble and inert protein, which after alkaline/acid/enzymatic hydrolysis is divided into gelatine and hydrolysed (soluble) collagen, by breaking the chromium-collagen bond established during the tanning phase and breaking non-covalent bonds in the protein’s structure that lead to its swelling and solubilization [12, 13].
The chemical processing of leather wastes also results in Cr (VI), which can be reintroduced upstream into the leather tanning process. Another type of chemical processing reported for the recovery of Cr (VI) involves the incineration of tanned chips and blue chips and later transformation of the ashes by converting chromium (III) oxide into sodium chromate [Cr (VI)] [14, 15].
Given that the present method of recovering collagen from leather wastes is free of complex installations and equipment, its implementation in the productive cycle of companies is economically attractive [14].
Whey exhibits many unique functional properties such as antibacterial and antioxidant activity and odour and water vapour absorber, among others. Therefore, whey has become an attractive product for its versatile applications in different fields, including textile industry. Many of these applications are also reported in the development of new functional products in the food and pharmaceutical fields, due to the properties (such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, and anticancer drugs) and structures of whey protein and its fractions. Table 2 shows some examples of applying these fractions to obtain the functionalities described.
Functionality | Description | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Antioxidant | Several studies show that whey has antioxidant properties. It is maximized with an enzymatic treatment of whey, milk or cheese and with the hydrolysate’s valorization (microbial proteases, β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin). This evaluation was done with ABTS or ORAC-FL method | [16, 17, 18, 19] |
Deodorant property | Milk and whey proteins are effective in the absorption of odours, given their composition in proteins and lipids. Lactose is described by its ability to retain odours, absorbing them on its surface as the crystals form | [20, 21] |
Antimicrobial | Two of the whey fractions, lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase, present an antimicrobial activity. Lactoferrin has several antimicrobial peptides that are released after hydrolysis by proteases. Lactoperoxidase has a high antimicrobial capacity through catalytic and chemical processes | [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27] |
Whey, protein fraction and dairy by-product functionalities.
Another application for whey or milk fractions is related to the production of microcapsules. In fact, globular proteins had been used as a vehicle for the micro-/nanoencapsulation of bioactive compounds. Milk proteins, namely, whey protein, have been used for the microencapsulation of aromas. Using serum protein isolate and gum arabic, it is possible to encapsulate β-carotene. The same gum arabic had already been shown to be effective in promoting self-aggregation, and consequent capsule formation, of β-lactoglobulin [28, 29, 30]. Another aspect is the microencapsulation of β-lactoglobulin with another polysaccharide, chitosan, and this has a stabilizing effect on serum proteins, protecting them from denaturation at temperatures up to 90°C. Due to its structure, β-lactoglobulin can also form complexes with vitamins and nutraceuticals, such as folic acid. β-Lactoglobulin/folic acid complexes exhibit particle sizes below 10 nm and exhibit stability over a wide range of pH values [31, 32, 33].
The passage of traditional industrial processes to more sustainable patterns and a circular economy model are mandatory given the limited resources and adverse environmental effects that are noticeable today. In this sense, the establishment of bio-based economies and industrial processes, such as the textile industry, will contribute directly to substitute emission-intensive and non-renewable resources with renewable resources, as well as create innovative and functional added-value solutions [9]. Some wastes or natural additives can provide a wide range of functional properties to textiles, opening an opportunity for the development of new and innovative textile solutions. Some potential functionalities of some vegetable and agroforestry wastes and by-products are presented in Table 3.
Waste/by-product | Source | Functionalities | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Coffee grounds | Coffee production process | Anti-odour, antimicrobial, aromatic; UV radiation protection | [34, 35] |
Rice husks | Rice processing | Thermal insulation potential | [36] |
Eucalyptus bark | Wood processing industry | Antimicrobial, aromatic | [37, 38] |
Pine bark | To feed | Antioxidant, antimicrobial, aromatic | [39, 40] |
Pine sawdust, composite sawdust, powder and pieces | Wood processing industry | Absorbent, mechanical and structural properties | [41, 42] |
Vegetable and agroforestry wastes and by-products and functionalities.
The manufacture of leather upholstery for furniture, airplanes and automobiles has been one of the main markets in the last two decades. Currently, in Europe, 14% of all new cars have leather coverings, and an additional 4% are made in combinations of leather, textiles, composite materials and imitation leather. The world’s leading car manufacturers have focused on looking for renewable materials, recycling materials in manufacturing processes and using less toxic materials to improve car recyclability [43]. In the European footwear industry, the production of about 1–2 × 105 tonnes of leather waste per year is estimated, with the annual cost associated with its management between 4 and 10 × 106 € [44]. In the manufacture of footwear, more than 70% of the leather used is leather tanned with chromium [10].
Despite the many methodologies and systems studied and implemented in the last decades, which allowed the minimization of waste production during the manufacture of leather and its processing by user industries, such as the automotive and footwear industries, these production processes inevitably generate waste leather which can be disposed or valorized as it is or by chemical conversion into other added-value products (collagen) [10].
Native collagen and its derivatives are widely applied in the food, agrarian (fertilizer), cosmetic and biomedical industries, as well as in the textile industry, due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, etc. [15]. In addition, collagen and its derivatives have also another set of properties that enhance their potential, not only for the direct functionalization of textile substrates but also for the development of the coating formulations (Table 4) [15, 45, 46].
Functionality | Description | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Gelling and dilating | Aggregation of molecules at 30°C to form hydrolysed collagen gels and gelatine; swelling in the presence of water | [45, 46, 47] |
Foaming | The presence of hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids provides excellent foaming properties, even in the absence of gelling | |
Antimicrobial | Hydrophobic amino acids penetrate the peptide chains that make up bacterial membranes, acting as a natural fungicide and bactericide | |
Antioxidant/anti-ageing | Inhibition of lipid peroxidation, elimination of free radicals and acting as transition metal ion chelating agents, protecting cells from damage caused by oxidation and helping to improve skin firmness |
Different functionalities of collagen and its derivatives and respective area of application.
The consumer demand for more environmentally responsible products with better sustainability credentials is increasingly growing, in addition to progressively more restrictive legislation regarding the environmental impact of industrial activity. Additionally, other increasingly important factors are the search for textile products with differentiated technical and functional properties and with better sustainability credentials, without compromising the appearance, touch, and comfort of the article.
These facts have led companies in the textile and clothing sector to gradually invest in an investigation strategy that leads to the adoption of sustainable policies and reduction of environmental impacts, based on the valorization of wastes and by-products of industries that are geographically close. In this scenario, the reuse of these natural by-products and wastes as a bio-resource in the demanding textile sector presents itself as an alternative.
The use of milk proteins for fibre production and application in textile industry remotes back to the beginning of the twentieth century. The conventional fibre production method consists in dissolving 20–25% milk proteins, including whey protein and its fractions, in a 2% NaOH solution to obtain a solution of adequate viscosity for fibre production by wet spinning extrusion (10–30% solid material) [48, 49]. In this process, the protein solution is pumped through a spinneret into an acid bath with a pH below the isoelectric point of the protein (4.5–4.6) to cause its coagulation [48, 50, 51]. The coagulate is afterwards stretched and drawn to increase polymer chain orientation and tensile strength of the fibre. Coagulation baths, containing aluminium salts of formaldehyde, may further increase the fibre stretching and enhance its physical properties [48, 51].
There are already several studies and patents on the production of fibres from whey proteins aiming to obtain fibres with improved mechanical properties and to use of more ecological productive processes. Kamada et al. produced fibres from β-lactoglobulin nanofibrils in the presence of alcohols, low pH and elevated temperature (hydrolysis of the protein in low molecular weight peptides for the formation of nanofibrils) [52]. Sullivan et al. produced nanofibres, by electrospinning, from WPI solutions (75%) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) (4%) and solutions of β-lactoglobulin (75%) and PEO (10%) in water [53]. Drosou et al. [54] studied the possibility to make whey protein fibres by electrospinning. However, electrospinning of nanofibres from proteins has proven to be quite challenging due to their globular nature, in most cases, the low viscosity of their aqueous solutions and potential lack of intermolecular entanglements [54]. To overcome these challenges, blends of proteins and other bio-based materials have been used. Drosou also tested some WPI/pullulan blends and was able to obtain continuous and uniform fibres [54]. The presence of the pullulan increased the viscosity of the solution, having a big impact in the process parameters. Zhong et al. adopted a similar strategy to obtain also whey protein nanofibres through electrospinning [55]. In this case the authors blended the whey protein with PEO and were not able to produce pure protein fibres. The ability of the whey protein solutions to produce fibres changed over time after dissolution [55]. Oktar et al. produced fibres from WPC blended with poly-ε-caprolactone (80 kDa) [56]. The obtained fibres showed improved mechanical properties to higher WPC concentrations (3–8% w/v). Kutzli et al. produced whey protein fibres by electrospinning, blending the proteins with enzymatically treated starch (maltodextrin) [57]. Using two different maltodextrins, with different molecular weights, the authors found that the spinnability of the solution is heavily dependent on the average size of the maltodextrin. Aman Mohammadi et al. obtained whey protein fibres by electrospinning, mixing WPI and guar gum [58].
As already mentioned, fibres resulting from these processes usually fail to have the mechanical properties for weaving and textile production. For this reason, whey protein fibres are often mixed with other fibres with appropriate mechanical properties (mostly cotton, silk and wool, with tensile strengths) [59].
The valorization of by-products of the dairy industry by wet spinning generates corrosive effluents rich in metal salts. This type of effluent requires appropriate conditioning and downstream steps of neutralization and precipitation of metals, which may entail large costs for its treatment and disposal (in order to avoid acidification of soils and water resources, increase of the dissolved salt content and the appearance of health problems in animals and humans resulting from untreated discards in water bodies used to supply populations) [60].
Whey proteins have also been studied for their applicability as coatings and additives in the textile industry. Pisitsak et al. (2015) studied the dyeability increase of cotton for a tannin-rich dye extracted from Xylocarpus granatum bark. Cotton fabrics were pretreated with WPI by a padding technique. The improvement in the dye absorption after protein pretreatment is ascribed to the insoluble complex formation between the tannin and the proteins present in the fabric, stabilized through hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, which makes it easy to be coloured. Besides that, both protein treatment and dyeing improved the ultraviolet (UV) shielding efficiency of the cotton fabrics [61].
Proteins are not the only milk component able to facilitate the dyeing process. Dyes are generally applied in an aqueous solution, and some of them require chemical auxiliaries to improve their water solubility and to improve the dyeing process. Bianchini et al. [62] reported a study to naturalize two synthetic azadyes through their linkage with lactose to induce their water solubility. In this study, a chromophore was transformed into a hydrosoluble species through glycol conjugation with a sugar, and a preliminary tinctorial test was carried out with polyester, cotton, acetate, wool and acrylic fabrics. Results showed several benefits since the modification of the dyes with lactose, as this improved their water solubility, allowing the elimination of surfactants and mordants, making the dyeing process easier and avoiding high temperatures and high pressures. Besides that, the new hydrosoluble dyes showed a better affinity towards different fabrics (synthetic, natural, artificial), improving efficacy and reducing waste [62].
These developments brought benefits not only in terms of textile valorization but also in terms of the use and recovery of wastes and by-products. The utilization of carbohydrates largely and cheaply available, such as D-glucose, D-galactose and lactose, normally discarded in huge quantities in the environment, with no negligible impact, brings new possibilities for efficient and more selective waste treatment by using, for instance, live micro-organisms to attack the sugar moiety and consequently the covalently bonded chromophore, or the use of enzymes able to destroy dyes [62].
In the past years, novel and innovative solutions for flame retardant systems, for replacing the traditional additives, have been explored. In particular, the availability of a formaldehyde-free flame retardant system based on natural macromolecules such as proteins could be extremely interesting for a possible industrial application [63]. Considering the environmental concern, more ecological and effective solutions have been studied, in the field of flame retardancy, since the solutions mostly used are based on halogenates or phosphorus, being persistent and bioaccumulating in the soil and even carcinogenic and/or toxic for animals and humans. In this sense, biomacromolecules have aroused interest as a green solution in this field, particularly whey proteins and caseins. In addition to being biological additives, they can have added value, as they can be considered by-products or even wastes from the agro-food industry and their recoveries and subsequent use as flame retardants may comply with the current needs of valorization of agro-food crops, avoiding their landfill confinement [57, 58].
Therefore, different novel strategies have been designed in order to enable the use of green flame retardant systems. Due to the ability of whey proteins to act as water vapour absorbers and as oxygen barriers, textiles treated with this by-product have been exploited in order to increase their thermal stability and flame retardancy [63]. For this, folded and unfolded whey protein isolates were deposited on cotton fabrics. Through thermogravimetric analysis it was observed that whey protein coatings significantly affected the thermal degradation of cotton in an inert and oxidative atmosphere. Specifically, the application of whey protein coating contributed to the delay of the thermal degradation of the textile, also resulting in a smaller total mass loss. Besides that, the treated fabrics have shown a decrease of burning rate and an increase of total burning time, determined by the flammability tests in horizontal configuration [63].
The antibacterial properties of some of the whey components have also been studied. Through the cross-linking between microbial transglutaminase (mTGase) and lactoferrin, the antibacterial properties of wool were improved to E. coli (Gram-negative) and S. aureus (Gram-positive) bacteria. It was observed that the amount of lactoferrin deposited on the wool fabric was improved with the cross-linking reaction with mTGase, when compared to the control sample. The wool fabrics immobilized with lactoferrin exhibited approximately 70 and 60% inhibition for E. coli and S. aureus, respectively, showing a good antibacterial property [64].
The same was observed in a recent study developed by Srisod et al. [65]. It was described the utilization of WPI as reducing and stabilizing agent in a green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNps) from silver nitrate. In addition, a natural tannin-rich extract was applied to cross-link the WPI/AgNps to cotton fabric through the formation of an insoluble binder. The cotton fabric treated showed an excellent antibacterial performance against S. aureus, even after 50 washing cycles, showing no toxicity to L929 cell changes to the intrinsic properties of the substrate (drapeability and tearing strength) [65].
Regarding the globular structure of whey proteins, due to their properties and structures, they have been used as a vehicle for active substances such as antimicrobials, antioxidants and drugs, among others, for the development of new functional products [66, 67, 68, 69]. This approach is widely used in several industrial sectors, providing the possibility of a controlled release of bioactive compounds. It can easily be applied to the textile industry, with the possibility to add functionality to textiles.
The antioxidant effects of vitamin E encapsulated in BSA nanoparticles in cotton have already been studied [70]. The nanoparticles, produced by ultrasonic emulsification, have a size between 200 and 300 nm and have the capacity to encapsulate 99% of the vitamin. After impregnation onto cotton fabrics, they present an antioxidant activity and wash resistance up to ten cycles [71].
Microspheres of BSA have also been tested as encapsulation agents of an antibiotic, tetracycline, in order to obtain an antibacterial coating for cotton and polyester fabrics [72]. These capsules demonstrated not only good encapsulation capacity but also gave the textiles antimicrobial properties [72].
Nonetheless, these types of applications at an industrial level have some limitations since the cost-effectiveness ratio of these biomacromolecules may not compensate until now. In addition, the durability to the laundering was not yet achieved in an effectively sustainable and long-lasting way, since these biomacromolecules have a waterborne character and these coatings come off from the textile when subjected to washing. When adding binding agents to biomacromolecules, a balance must be sought between their green characteristics and the use of chemicals that do not eradicate the sustainability of the process. In this sense, exploitation of biologically derived chemical treatments, or at least chemicals with a low environmental impact, which could make the proposed biomacromolecules more durable than they are today, while maintaining their effective functionalities, is being carried out [73, 74].
Genuine leather is made of animal skin, namely, bovine leather, tanned and finished with products of synthetic origin (chromium). It is used as a noble material for the manufacture of various products with applications in various industries, such as fashion, fashion accessories, footwear, decoration, automobiles, etc., and is the one that has the greatest expression in the market due to its excellent properties such as porosity, breathability, softness, comfort and fall, among others [75, 76]. Ecological leather refers to a leather tanning process that does not use metals such as chromium but in alternative recurs to substances of natural origin (vegetable, animal or mineral), such as vegetable tannins (polyphenols of plant origin) [77]. Though ecological leather has a lesser environmental impact than genuine leather, it still does not have the same properties of thermal resistance, colour fixation and versatility as the leather resulting from the treatment of tanning with chromium [75]. In addition, there are several ethical and environmental concerns involved in the use of genuine and ecological leather, such as the killing of animals and the high environmental impact resulting from their processing, which have triggered the growing interest on the part of the consumer in more sustainable alternative solutions to leather of animal origin ethically and environmentally. This generated a search for alternative solutions with the same performance of genuine leather, which catapulted textile industries towards sustainable innovation as a means of answering the markets’ demands.
Vegetable leather is a sustainable product of plant origin resulting from the use of vegetable wastes or by-products. There are already some alternatives of vegetable leather on the market to replace animal leather, although they do not fully reproduce the characteristics of animal leather. Of the solutions on the market, the main examples are presented.
Latex-based leather is the name given to a fabric made up of two renewable raw materials, the latex extracted from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) from the Amazonian forests and cotton. The cotton is impregnated with latex, natural rubber (primary product of the smoking of latex extracted from the rubber tree). These can be used in the production of bags, wallets, clothing, footwear and other objects usually produced in leather. The commercialization of these products has become a reason for hope for the improvement of the life of rubber tappers, their permanence in the forest and the sustainable development of the Amazon, generating work and income in indigenous and traditional communities [78, 79, 80].
The company Ananas Anam has developed an innovative, natural and sustainable non-woven leather called Piñatex™, produced from pineapple leaf fibres, considered as a vegan alternative to traditional leather. From the pineapple leaf fibres, screens are obtained, which can be dyed, printed and treated to obtain different textures [81]. The material is strong, versatile (different colours, patterns, textures, thicknesses), breathable, smooth, light, flexible, sewable, resistant to water and abrasion and resistant to ignition by cigarettes [82, 83, 84].
Products based on thin sheets of cork, laminated with a textile substrate that gives it resistance, are increasingly being introduced to the market as a sustainable vegan alternative to traditional/synthetic leather. They have characteristics equivalent to leather, such as resistance, lightness, breathability, malleability, thermal insulation and impermeability, adding the properties of low density and thermal conductivity. There are several products based on cork leather (cork sheet) on the market, created and launched by designers/brands and national reference companies, such as Bleed—We bleed for nature, Pelcor, and Artelusa, and international, such as Chanel, inter Louboutin, Stella McCartney, Yves Saint Laurent, Prada, Dior, Manolo Blahnik, Dolce & Gabbana and Gucci. These products are based on fashion accessories (wallets, belts, etc.), clothing, umbrellas, footwear, sports goods, furniture, car upholstery lining, etc. [76, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90].
Wood-based leather is similar to cork but made from wood from fast-growing trees, such as oak bark, treated with non-toxic chemicals to make it durable, flexible and malleable. Wood leather can be as thick as genuine leather. Dolce & Gabbana is a market reference that has already used this material in a recent collection of bags and shoes [41]. The German shoe brand nat-2TM also recently launched a line of shoes in which up to 90% of the upper surface of the shoe is covered with wood, which is applied over an organic cotton, in order to become a flexible, soft material that allows to smell the wood and observe its natural texture [91]. Another solution is Wooden Textiles, created by Elisa Strozyk. These materials, which also bear some resemblance to leather, are obtained after cutting thin sheets of wood into pieces and adhering them to a textile substrate. The result is a material that smells like wood, but with some flexibility and softness. There are applications in decoration and furniture [92].
Vegea® is a biomaterial produced by the Italian company Vegea, founded by Gianpiero Tessitore and Francesco Merlino [86, 87]. This material, with a similar aspect to leather, valorizes residues from bagasse (skins and tales from grapes), and does not use water in its production [74]. This leather, also known as WineLeather, is already available in several colors, and it can be used for studying or obtaining different thicknesses, strengths, finishes, and textures. It is already applied in the production of clothing, bags and shoes, furniture, packaging, and automobile and transport accessories [93]. It is used to coat a textile substrate with a polymeric mixture, consisting of a cake residue flour and a derived polymer of oil extracted from grapes [94].
The German company nat-2™ developed a material similar to leather, obtained from coffee bean wastes [95, 96]. With this material a line of unisex sneakers was created, whose upper part contains recycled coffee, coffee beans and coffee plant, which constitutes up to 50% of the footwear surface, according the model. The coffee is applied in a layer, giving a soft touch and a coffee aroma. Two Mexican inventors, Adrian Lopez and Marte Cazarez, recently created a laminate based on nopal cactus (or figs), which resembles animal leather, that is breathable, environmentally sustainable and totally plant-based (cotton and Nopal blend), lasts at least 10 years and has the chemical and physical properties required by the fashion industries, furniture, leather goods and automobiles [97, 98]. The material is obtained by coating a cotton substrate with a mixture of dry (in the sun) and crushed cactus powder and protein extracted from the cactus, which serves as a natural binder [99].
Another leather-like material example is bonded leather or reconstituted leather. This consists of the preparation of a paste with ground leather wastes and binding agents, which is extruded, using a process similar to the production of paper [100]. This paste can be applied on a textile support, coated with a PU film and embossed to gain a leather-like texture [101]. The colour and pattern are checked by a surface treatment. The amount of leather fibres in bonded leather can vary, which is reflected in the quality of the material. This product is usually used in furniture, bookbinding and fashion accessories. Depending on the quality of the product, it can be a durable material, with flame retardancy, and does not develop a patina. The number of patents on reconstituted or recycled leather is extensive, without, however, mentioning the use of textile support for the application of the paste with leather wastes [102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124].
RecycLeather™ is a green technology company that produces recycled materials with the look and feel of leather, highly durable, resistant and light. The materials are obtained from leather waste, in particular, cut pieces from gloves. It consists of 60% leather waste, 30% latex (a natural binder) and 10% synthetic products, such as water and pigments [125].
EcoDomo also has some collections with recycled leather [126]. This is obtained by pulverized leather fibres, obtaining materials with a leather content of up to 70%. It is available for different applications, such as furniture, panels, flooring, etc. EmbraceTM also has different materials, similar to leather, obtained from leather waste (43–58%), blended with cotton and polyester, and a PU topcoat [127].
Hydrolysed collagen has recently been applied in the leather manufacturing process, and in the production of flexible composite sheets, with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and cellulose derivatives, for application products in the area of footwear, clothing, etc. [128, 129, 130]. The application of collagen hydrolysates in leather produc-tion consisted of its mixture with oxazolidines before application, but the obtained results were not as good as those attained by tanning [45, 46]. The application of this by-product, without chromium separation, in the manufacture of flexible composite sheets with both PVP and cellulose allowed the obtaining of composites with improved mechanical properties (composites with PVP and cellulose) and greater thermal stability (cellulose composites) [47, 131].
Gelatex is a non-woven fabric (with nanofibres) made from gelatine derived from waste from the meat and leather industries, developed by Gelatex Technologies, a start-up from Estonia [132]. It is a material with a touch similar to leather and is breathable, durable and customizable (texture, thickness, water resistance, etc.). This material won the The Green Alley Award 2019 [133].
The mobilizing project TexBoost—less Commodities more Specialties is a structuring project of the Textile Cluster: Technology and Fashion, which aims to include a set of R&D initiatives with a strong collective character and high inductor and demonstrator effect, with the central involvement of companies of the textile and clothing sector, but also of other complementary sectors of the economy [134]. TexBoost consortium, led by RIOPELE and under the technical coordination of CITEVE, involves a total of 43 entities, of which 23 are industrial companies of the entire textile industry and 15 are non-corporate entities of the research and innovation system.
The project is organized into six PPS—products, processes and services—of which it is worth highlighting the PPS5, sustainability and circular economy. This PPS5 aims the development of materials and solutions using wastes and by-products of other industries (footwear, automobile, cork, forest and milk industry) in new and innovative textile solutions.
For the first nuclear activity, vegan leather, the R&D work was focused in the development of a new generation of coated textile solutions that could be used as an alternative to natural and/or synthetic leather, using wastes and by-products of vegetable origin with new multifunctional properties combined with design and special fashion effects form the basis of this activity. The aim of this work were also to respond to one of the major trends in consumption, related to ethically and environmentally sustainable attitudes, developing products with a high potential for application in technical and functional areas, such as technofashion, eco-design, clothing, decoration, home textiles, footwear, fashion accessories, sport and protection, among others.
During the project, several agro-industrial wastes were studied, and from them, eco-friendly and Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)-compliant coating formulations were developed, and 100% cotton textile substrates were coated by knife coating (Figure 1).
Vegan leather solutions based on sawdust (left) and coffee grounds (right).
The mechanical performance of the developed solutions was assessed through a series of normalized tests, namely, Veslic friction resistance (ISO 11640: 2012), Martindale abrasion resistance (ISO 17704:2004), Crockmeter friction resistance (ISO 20433:2012), colour fastness (ISO 105-B02) and coating peeling (ISO 11644:2009) (N/cm). The obtained results are summarized in Table 5. In a general way, it is possible to conclude that the developed solutions pass the performance norms and specifications.
Normative test | Coffee ground-based vegan leather | Sawdust-based vegan leather |
---|---|---|
Veslica,b | 5 | 5 |
Martindalec | 3200 rev.: A 6400 rev.: B 51,200 rev.: B | 3200 rev.: A 6400 rev.: B 12,800 rev.: B 25,600 rev.: C 51,200 rev.: C |
Crockmeterd | 5 | 5 |
Colour fastnesse | 3–4 | 3 |
Coating peeling (dry)/(N/cm) | 30 | 31.2 |
Mechanical performance evaluation of the coffee ground-based vegan leather and of the sawdust vegan leather samples.
Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.
Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of colour change; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.
Martindale abrasion resistance: dry, abrasion degree.
Crockmeter friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; wet and dry—ten cycles.
Light fastness: xenon lamp, flower side; colour fastness.
Regarding the second nuclear activity—alternative leather solutions—the R&D activities focused on the development of a new generation of coated textile solutions by using wastes and by-products resulting from industrial operations, such as the tanning industry, natural leather cutting (for indoor automotive) and EVA (for shoe components), here highlighting the leather wastes, with new multifunctional properties combined with fashion design and special effects. The aim was also to meet one of the major trends of current consumption, which is related to ethically and environmentally sustainable behaviour, developing products with high potential for application in technical and functional areas and in rapid expansion: technofashion, eco-design, clothing, decoration, home textiles, footwear, fashion accessories, sport and protection, among others.
During the project, leather waste was studied, eco-friendly and REACH-compliant coating formulations were developed, and 100% cotton textile substrates were coated by knife coating (Figure 2).
Alternative leather solutions based on leather waste (left) and hydrolysed collagen (right).
The mechanical performance of the developed solutions was assessed through a series of normalized tests, namely, Veslic friction resistance (ISO 11640: 2012), Martindale abrasion resistance (ISO 17704:2004), Crockmeter fiction resistance (ISO 20433:2012), and colour fastness (ISO 105-B02). The obtained results are summarized in Table 6. In a general way, it is possible to conclude that the developed solutions pass the performance norms and specifications.
Normative test | Leather waste-based alternative leather | Hydrolysed collagen-based vegan leather |
---|---|---|
Veslica,b | 3–5 | 3–5 |
Martindalec | 1600 rev.: A 3200 rev.: B 12,800 rev:B 25,600 rev:C 51,200 rev:C | 1600–3200 rev.: A 6400–51,200 rev.: B |
Crockmeterd | 2–5 | 3–5 |
Colour fastnesse | 3–4 | 4–5 |
Mechanical performance evaluation of the alternative leather samples.
Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.
Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of colour change; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.
Martindale abrasion resistance: dry, abrasion degree.
Crockmeter friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; wet and dry—ten cycles.
Light fastness: xenon lamp, flower side; colour fastness.
Finally, the other approach of the PPS was research and development of a new generation of coated textile solutions, using wastes and by-products of the dairy industry, with new multifunctional properties combined with design and special fashion effects. Specifically, the two main goals were functionalization of textiles with milk proteins to improve UV protection and use of milk proteins to encapsulate bioactive compounds (such as antioxidants) and subsequent functionalization of textiles.
So, in the present project, 2,2-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) method was used for the evaluation of antioxidant activity of a whey protein fraction impregnated in textile substrate. This spectrophotometric method assesses the stabilization capacity of the ABTS radical formed from certain compounds. In other words, it indicates the percentage of inhibition of the ABTS radical after contact with the compounds.
For this, microcapsules of a milk fraction were prepared with and without an antioxidant compound. These microcapsules were used to functionalize a textile substrate and analysed by ABTS method. To the textile substrate, the relative antioxidant ability to scavenge the radical ABTS+ was compared to the textile control, without functionalization. It was possible to verify that all the protein fraction gave the substrates significantly higher ABTS inhibition percentages than the controls, with a slight increase when the antioxidant is present.
Since textiles had a high antioxidant potential, the capacity of this potential was verified in terms of protecting the colours of textiles when exposed to UV radiation. In this way, the textiles were stained with a dye and exposed for 12 hours to UV radiation. It was found that after 12 hours of exposure to UV radiation, the control showed a high degradation of the stain colour. On the other hand, the functionalization of textiles delayed the process of colour photodegradation, since after 12 hours of exposure, none of the stains had yet reached the same colour reduction.
The potential for reusing natural by-products and wastes from different sources was reviewed in this chapter, describing their most attractive properties and characteristics. The most recent innovations and developments in this area were listed and presented, showing a novel possible way for the development of technical and functional textiles. The main potential applications for the valorization of whey protein by the production of textile fibres have been described, as well as by its application as a textile finish. The different applications already tested and the main products already available on the market for sustainable alternatives to produce genuine leather were also listed. Although these types of applications at an industrial level have some limitations, as cost-effectiveness ratio, permanence of the intrinsic properties of the substrates and durability to the laundering, for example, the reuse of these natural by-products and wastes as a bio-resource in the demanding textile sector presents itself as an attractive alternative.
The mobilizing project TexBoost—less Commodities more Specialties (no 24523), in PPS 5, sustainability and circular economy, a project co-financed by COMPETE 2020—Operational Program for Competitiveness and Internationalization—and in Portugal 2020 through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
",metaTitle:"Types of publications",metaDescription:"IntechOpen publishes different types of publications",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\\n\\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\\n\\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\\n\\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\\n\\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\\n\\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\\n\\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\\n\\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\\n\\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\\n\\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\\n\\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\\n\\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\\n\\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\n\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\n\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\n\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\n\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\n\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\n\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\n\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\n\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\n\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\n\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5240},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15812}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118381},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"6,5"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9662",title:"Vegetation Index and Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Eusebio Cano Carmona, Dr. Ricardo Quinto Canas, Dr. Ana Cano Ortiz and Dr. Carmelo Maria Musarella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Cancer, Autoimmunity and Inflammation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Ms. Katja Lakota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10557",title:"Elaeis guineensis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"79500ab1930271876b4e0575e2ed3966",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hesam Kamyab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10557.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"225957",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesam",surname:"Kamyab",slug:"hesam-kamyab",fullName:"Hesam Kamyab"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10218",title:"Flagellar Motility in Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcc15570365a82d9f2c4816f4e0ee2e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10218.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10750",title:"Solanum tuberosum - a Promising Crop for Starvation Problem",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"516eb729eadf0d1a9d1d2e6bf31e8e9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mustafa Yildiz and Dr. Yasin Ozgen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10750.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10772",title:"Parasitic Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"31abd439b5674c91d18ad77dbc52500f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ana Maria Gonzalez and Dr. Hector Sato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10772.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"281854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"ana-maria-gonzalez",fullName:"Ana Maria Gonzalez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10737",title:"Equus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"258ffafc92a7c9550bb85f004d7402e7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Adriana Pires Neves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188768",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Pires Neves",slug:"adriana-pires-neves",fullName:"Adriana Pires Neves"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10777",title:"Plant Reproductive Ecology - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3fbf391f2093649bcf3bd674f7e32189",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Balkrishna Ghimire",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10777.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206647",title:"Dr.",name:"Balkrishna",surname:"Ghimire",slug:"balkrishna-ghimire",fullName:"Balkrishna Ghimire"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10749",title:"Legumes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49d3123cde96adbe706adadebebc5ebb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10749.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10751",title:"Bovine Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e3eb325f9fce20e6cefbce1c26d647a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Abubakar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10751.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:21},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:24},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5252},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine",parent:{title:"Health Sciences",slug:"health-sciences"},numberOfBooks:1511,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:39573,numberOfWosCitations:21767,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11544,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29307,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9406",title:"Clinical Implementation of Bone Regeneration and Maintenance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"875a140c01518fa7a9bceebd688b0147",slug:"clinical-implementation-of-bone-regeneration-and-maintenance",bookSignature:"Mike Barbeck, Nahum Rosenberg, Patrick Rider, Željka Perić Kačarević and Ole Jung",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9406.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Barbeck",slug:"mike-barbeck",fullName:"Mike Barbeck"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9134",title:"Recent Advances in Digital System Diagnosis and Management of Healthcare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff00a5718f23cb880b7337b1c36b5434",slug:"recent-advances-in-digital-system-diagnosis-and-management-of-healthcare",bookSignature:"Kamran Sartipi and Thierry Edoh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9134.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"29601",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Sartipi",slug:"kamran-sartipi",fullName:"Kamran Sartipi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1511,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"19013",doi:"10.5772/21983",title:"Cell Responses to Surface and Architecture of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds",slug:"cell-responses-to-surface-and-architecture-of-tissue-engineering-scaffolds",totalDownloads:9697,totalCrossrefCites:109,totalDimensionsCites:230,book:{slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",fullTitle:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering - Cells and Biomaterials"},signatures:"Hsin-I Chang and Yiwei Wang",authors:[{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang"},{id:"53659",title:"Ms.",name:"Yiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yiwei-wang",fullName:"Yiwei Wang"}]},{id:"46479",doi:"10.5772/57353",title:"Floating Drug Delivery Systems for Eradication of Helicobacter pylori in Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease",slug:"floating-drug-delivery-systems-for-eradication-of-helicobacter-pylori-in-treatment-of-peptic-ulcer-d",totalDownloads:1995,totalCrossrefCites:79,totalDimensionsCites:180,book:{slug:"trends-in-helicobacter-pylori-infection",title:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection",fullTitle:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection"},signatures:"Yousef Javadzadeh and Sanaz Hamedeyazdan",authors:[{id:"94276",title:"Prof.",name:"Yousef",middleName:null,surname:"Javadzadeh",slug:"yousef-javadzadeh",fullName:"Yousef Javadzadeh"},{id:"98229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Hamedeyazdan",slug:"sanaz-hamedeyazdan",fullName:"Sanaz Hamedeyazdan"}]},{id:"25512",doi:"10.5772/30872",title:"Epidemiology of Psychological Distress",slug:"epidemiology-of-psychological-distress",totalDownloads:8066,totalCrossrefCites:57,totalDimensionsCites:145,book:{slug:"mental-illnesses-understanding-prediction-and-control",title:"Mental Illnesses",fullTitle:"Mental Illnesses - Understanding, Prediction and Control"},signatures:"Aline Drapeau, Alain Marchand and Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost",authors:[{id:"84582",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Drapeau",slug:"aline-drapeau",fullName:"Aline Drapeau"},{id:"84605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Marchand",slug:"alain-marchand",fullName:"Alain Marchand"},{id:"84606",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Beaulieu-Prévost",slug:"dominic-beaulieu-prevost",fullName:"Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"43758",title:"Anxiety Disorders in Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period",slug:"anxiety-disorders-in-pregnancy-and-the-postpartum-period",totalDownloads:39763,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"new-insights-into-anxiety-disorders",title:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders",fullTitle:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders"},signatures:"Roberta Anniverno, Alessandra Bramante, Claudio Mencacci and Federico Durbano",authors:[{id:"157077",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Durbano",slug:"federico-durbano",fullName:"Federico Durbano"},{id:"166382",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Anniverno",slug:"roberta-anniverno",fullName:"Roberta Anniverno"}]},{id:"70711",title:"Fetal Growth Restriction",slug:"fetal-growth-restriction",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"growth-disorders-and-acromegaly",title:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly",fullTitle:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly"},signatures:"Edurne Mazarico Gallego, Ariadna Torrecillas Pujol, Alex Joan Cahuana Bartra and Maria Dolores Gómez Roig",authors:[{id:"202446",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez Roig",slug:"maria-dolores-gomez-roig",fullName:"Maria Dolores Gómez Roig"},{id:"311835",title:"Dr.",name:"Edurne",middleName:null,surname:"Mazarico",slug:"edurne-mazarico",fullName:"Edurne Mazarico"}]},{id:"70405",title:"Hemostasis in Cardiac Surgery: How We Do it with Limited Resources",slug:"hemostasis-in-cardiac-surgery-how-we-do-it-with-limited-resources",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1",fullTitle:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1"},signatures:"Fevzi Sarper Türker",authors:null},{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:9954,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"59779",title:"Effective Communication in Nursing",slug:"effective-communication-in-nursing",totalDownloads:6504,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"nursing",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing"},signatures:"Maureen Nokuthula Sibiya",authors:[{id:"73330",title:"Dr.",name:"Nokuthula",middleName:null,surname:"Sibiya",slug:"nokuthula-sibiya",fullName:"Nokuthula Sibiya"}]},{id:"64858",title:"The Neurobiology of Anorexia Nervosa",slug:"the-neurobiology-of-anorexia-nervosa",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"anorexia-and-bulimia-nervosa",title:"Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa",fullTitle:"Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa"},signatures:"Ashley Higgins",authors:null},{id:"63771",title:"The Role of Catheter Reshaping at the Angiographic Success",slug:"the-role-of-catheter-reshaping-at-the-angiographic-success",totalDownloads:536,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"angiography",title:"Angiography",fullTitle:"Angiography"},signatures:"Yakup Balaban",authors:[{id:"252647",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yakup",middleName:null,surname:"Balaban",slug:"yakup-balaban",fullName:"Yakup Balaban"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:5564,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"17956",title:"Sexual and Reproductive Function in Chronic Kidney Disease and Effect of Kidney Transplantation",slug:"sexual-and-reproductive-function-in-chronic-kidney-disease-and-effect-of-kidney-transplantation",totalDownloads:11790,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"after-the-kidney-transplant-the-patients-and-their-allograft",title:"After the Kidney Transplant",fullTitle:"After the Kidney Transplant - The Patients and Their Allograft"},signatures:"Mahboob Lessan-Pezeshki and Shirin Ghazizadeh",authors:[{id:"26564",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahboob",middleName:null,surname:"Lessan Pezeshki",slug:"mahboob-lessan-pezeshki",fullName:"Mahboob Lessan Pezeshki"},{id:"26571",title:"Prof.",name:"Shirin",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazizadeh",slug:"shirin-ghazizadeh",fullName:"Shirin Ghazizadeh"}]},{id:"64747",title:"Bone Development and Growth",slug:"bone-development-and-growth",totalDownloads:3711,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"osteogenesis-and-bone-regeneration",title:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Rosy Setiawati and Paulus Rahardjo",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"75604",title:"Normal Puerperium",slug:"normal-puerperium",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96348",book:{title:"Midwifery"},signatures:"Subrat Panda, Ananya Das, Arindam Mallik and Surajit Ray Baruah"},{id:"75596",title:"The Use of a Dynamic Elastomeric Fabric Orthotic Intervention in Adolescents and Adults with Scoliosis",slug:"the-use-of-a-dynamic-elastomeric-fabric-orthotic-intervention-in-adolescents-and-adults-with-scolios",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96391",book:{title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults"},signatures:"Martin Matthews and James Wynne"},{id:"75582",title:"Elimination of Plasmodium vivax Malaria: Problems and Solutions",slug:"elimination-of-plasmodium-vivax-malaria-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96604",book:{title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination"},signatures:"Liwang Cui, Awtum Brashear, Lynette Menezes and John Adams"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:652},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/319438/keita-koizumi",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"319438",slug:"keita-koizumi"},fullPath:"/profiles/319438/keita-koizumi",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()