Bioethanol production amounts of countries in 2013 (million liter) [2]
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1978",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Interactive Multimedia",title:"Interactive Multimedia",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Interactive multimedia is clearly a field of fundamental research, social, educational and economical importance, as it combines multiple disciplines for the development of multimedia systems that are capable to sense the environment and dynamically process, edit, adjust or generate new content. 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In this context, biomass is considered as an important alternative energy source to fossil fuels. Biodiesel and bioethanol produced from biomass sources are one of the best alternatives for petroleum-based fuels and recently, they are commonly used for transportation in many countries. Bioethanol is the most produced biofuel in the world and especially in Brazil and the United States two main producing countries with 62% of the world production. Large scale manufacture of ethanol as fuel is performed from sugar cane in Brazil, while it is produced from corn as a raw material in the United States [1]. Bioethanol production of 2013 in the countries is given in Table 1 [2].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t50,274 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t23,690 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5,182.38 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2,630.88 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2,060.1 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1,976.94 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2,748.06 | \n\t\t
Bioethanol production amounts of countries in 2013 (million liter) [2]
Bioethanol is basically produced from first or second generation feedstocks. First generation bioethanol is produced from some cereals and lugumes such as corn, sugar beet, wheat and barley used for also food sources. Sugars which are obtained from first generation feedstock such as sugar cane, molasses, sugar beet and fruits can be fermented via yeast directly. Advantages of these raw materials are high sugar yields and low conversion cost. Their disadvantage is their production in just certain periods of the year. While 25 gallons of ethanol produced from an average of 1 ton sugar beet, 20 gallons of ethanol is produced from 1 ton of sweet sorghum stalk yearly. However their production is more expensive than that produced from sugar cane due to its energy and chemical inputs [3].
Usage of this first generation feedstock for bioethanol production leads to various discussions about increasing food prices and occupation of agricultural land. These problems are solved partially by using second generation feedstocks lignocellulosic materials such as waste or forest residues. Second generation feedstocks have some advantages over first generation feedstocks due to not being used as food source and less land requirement. However their harvesting, purification and various pre-treatment needs made their production quite challenging and not economical. Algae which are the third generation feedstock for biofuels are an alternative for the first and second generation feedstocks due to their productivity, easily cultivation and convenient harvesting time [4-6]. Recently, they are mostly utilized for biodiesel production because of their high lipid content. On the other hand, they have cellulosic structure and large amounts of carbohydrate embedded in, so they can be also utilized for bioethanol production directly or with the remains which is obtained after oil extraction. Since bioethanol production from conventional feedstock is considered for emitting more greenhouse gases than fossil fuels in consequence of the production steps and applications during the process, algal bioethanol production can overcome these problems. In comparison with conventional feedstocks, algal production areas don’t occupy agricultural lands and they needn’t any fertilizer for cultivation. With these advantages and significant carbohydrate content, higher ethanol yields are obtained from algae. In table 2, ethanol yield values from different feedstocks including first and second generations are given [7].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t112–150 | \n\t\t\t1,050–1,400 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t277 | \n\t\t\t2,590 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t354 | \n\t\t\t3,310 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t326–435 | \n\t\t\t3,050–4,070 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t370–430 | \n\t\t\t3,460–4,020 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t536–714 | \n\t\t\t5,010–6,680 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1,150 | \n\t\t\t10,760 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5,000–15,000 | \n\t\t\t46,760–140,290 | \n\t\t
Ethanol yield values from different feedstocks [7]
Although it depends on the raw material which is used, ethanol production have three main steps: to obtain fermentable sugars, conversion of sugars to ethanol via fermentation process and distillation and purification of produced ethanol. In this chapter, these steps are presented in detail with their alternatives. All literature studies on the subject are reviewed, discussed and also new approach to pre-treatment methods of raw materials to produce bioethanol is presented.
Algae are simple organisms containing chlorophyll and they use light for photosynthesis. Algae can grow phototrophically or heterotrophically. Phototrophic algae convert carbondioxide in atmosphere to nutrients such as carbohydrate. Conversely, heterotrophic algae continue their development by utilizing organic carbon sources [8]. Algae can grow in every season and everywhere such as salty waters, fresh waters, lakes, deserts and marginal fields etc. However for their cultivation, generally open systems like ponds and photobioreactors as closed systems are used. Open ponds are the most used cultivation systems in industry. They are more preferable than other systems due to having low investment and operation costs. On the other hand difficult control of cultivation conditions and contamination risk are the main disadvantages of the open systems. Besides being cheap and low energy need, their cleaning also can be done easily. Although, open tanks have low cost and easy operation, parameters like light intensity, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen concentration cannot be controlled easily. Most produced algae species in open systems are
Algae are classified as microalgae and macroalgae. Microalgae as their name implies, are prokaryotic or eukaryotic photosynthetic microorganisms. They can survive in hard conditions with their unicellular or simple colony structures [13]. Because of being photosynthetic organism, they can produce high amount of lipid, protein and carbohydrate in a short time. Besides biodiesel and bioethanol there are lots of high value products and sub-products produced from microalgae such as biogas [14, 15], biobutanol, acetone [16], Omega 3 oil [17], eicosapentaenoic acid [18], livestock feed [19], pharmaceuticals and cosmetics [20, 21]. Especially sub-products are preferred for economic support of main process [22]. Chemical composition of microalgae can change according to the cultivation type and cultivation conditions. They can have rich or balanced composition of protein, lipid and carbohydrate amounts. Microalgae especially get attention due to have high lipid content [23]. Many species of microalgae accumulate a significant amount of lipids in their structure and can provide high oil yield. Their average lipid content can change between 1-70%, but this ratio can reach up to 90% of dry weight under certain conditions [13]. Macroalgae or seaweed are plants which are adapted to the marine life, often located in coastal areas. They are classified as brown seaweeds, red seaweeds and green seaweeds according to their pigments [24]. Due to have high photosynthesis capability, they have sufficient carbon source for usage in biorefinery. On the contrary of their appearances, their features of morphologic and physiological and chemical compositions are different from terrestrial plants [24]. Unlike the structure of the lignocellulosic biomass of microalgae, they comprise substances such as carrageenan, laminaran, mannitol, alginate which are used in various sectors [25]. They are separated from microalgae with having low lipid content and different from lignocellulosic material with having less or no lignin in their structure [6].
Microalgae stand out as biodiesel feedstock with the ability of lipid production and high photosynthetic efficiency. As for macroalgae, they are utilized for biogas or bioethanol production with their carbohydrates [26]. First studies as algal biofuels are focused on biodiesel production. However, there is a potential for carbohydrates in the structure of algae which can be utilized for ethanol production after various hydrolysis processes. Algal cells in the water don’t need structural biopolymers such as hemicellulose and lignin which are necessary for terrestrial plants [4]. This simplifies the process of bioethanol production. Marine algae can produce high amount of carbohydrate every year. Also it is expected that algae will meet the demand of biofuel feedstock due to harvest in a short time than other biofuel raw materials [27]. Microalgae which have high amount of starch such as
Ethanol production from algae is based on fermentation of algal polysaccharides which are starch, sugar and cellulose. For microalgae, their carbohydrate content (mostly starch) can be reached to 70% under specific conditions [29]. Microalgal cell walls are divided into inner cell wall layer and outer cell wall layer. Outer cell layer can be trilaminar outer layer and thin outer monolayer. Also there can be no outer layers as well [30]. Outer cell walls of microalgae contain certain polysaccharides such as pectin, agar and alginate. However their composition can be vary from species to species [30]. On the contrary, inner cell walls of microalgae constitute mostly cellulose, hemicellulose and other materials [30]. Due to have cellulose in their cell walls and starch, microalgae are considered as a feedstock for production of bioethanol [31]. Most of their cell wall polysaccharides and starch can be fermented for bioethanol production [32].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t55.0 | \n\t\t\t[33] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t60.0 | \n\t\t\t[34] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t32.5 | \n\t\t\t[35] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t51.8 | \n\t\t\t[36] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t26.0 | \n\t\t\t[37] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t55-60 | \n\t\t\t[38] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t42-70 | \n\t\t\t[39] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t40-76 | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t38-74 | \n\t\t\t[41] | \n\t\t
Carbohydrate content of algal species
Similarly, carbohydrate content of macroalgae is found 25-50% in the green algae, 30-60% in the red algae and 30-50% in the brown algae. Macroalgae species which have the highest polysaccharide content are
The most important difficulties encountered in the production of bioethanol are the pre-treatment of biomass. The objectives of an effective pre-treatment are obtaining sugars directly or later by hydrolysis, preventing lost or degradation of obtained sugars, limiting the toxic materials which inhibit the ethanol production, reducing energy requirement for process and minimizing the production cost. There are four pre-treatment techniques including physical, chemical, physicochemical and biological pre-treatments that are applied to biomass [1]. Pre-treatment process is the step that forms the significant part of the cost of ethanol production. Although there is no technique that can be considered as the best option, researches and developments are carried on to reduce cost and improve performance [3].
Chipping, grinding and milling are the most used techniques for mechanical comminution. Comminutions improve the efficiency of the process for the next steps by reducing the polymerization degree and increase the specific surface by reducing cellulose cristallinity. Energy that is need in the process depends on the initial and final dimensions of particles, moisture content and structure of the raw material [1,47]. In order to assist enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials various milling techniques can be used. For instance, pre-treatment of rice straw with wet disk milling gave higher hydrolysis yields than usual dry milling [48].
Pyrolysis is an endothermic process which is a reaction needs low energy input and treats biomass over the temperature of 300°C and degrades cellulose to char and gaseous products like CO and H2. When the char is washed with water or diluted acid, remaining solution contains sufficient amount of carbon source to support microbial growth for the production of bioethanol. Approximately 55% of biomass weight is lost in the washing step [1]. It is reported in a study that Fan et al. [49] have performed 80-85% conversion of cellulose to reducing sugars.
Microwave oven pre-treatment is a simple method with short reaction time, high heating efficiency and low energy input. Thermal and non-thermal effects which are generated by microwaves in a liquid medium are used in this technique. The heat generated in biomass results in a polar bond vibration. This causes an explosion between the particles and degradation of lignocellulosic structure. Asetic acid is released from lignocellulosic material and an acidic medium is occurred for hydrolysis [50]. Ooshima et al. [51] investigated the effect of microwave pre-treatment on rice straw and baggase and it was found that an improvement in total reducing sugar production. In recent years, microwave pre-treatments are carried out with various chemical reagents and their potential are investigated. In the studies of alkali microwave pre-treatment, NaOH provides higher reducing sugar yields on switchgrass and coastal bermudagrass in comparison with other alkaline reagents such as Na2CO3, Ca(OH)2 [52,53]. Also for pre-treatment of rice straw and its hulls, this technique made cellulose more accessible to enzymes.
Steam explosion method is a technique that provides accessibility on the biomass for degradation of cellulose. This method comprise the heating of biomass under high pressure steam (20–50 bar, 160-270 °C) for a few minutes, then reaction is stopped when the pressure conditions arrive to the atmospheric conditions. Diffusion of the steam into the lignocellulosic matrix leads to the dispersion of fibers. No catalyst is used during the applied method. Levulinic acid, xylitol and alcohols are obtained after the degradation of biomass [54,55]. Many types of biomass such as poplar [56], eucalyptus [57], olive residues [58], corn stover [59], wheat straw [60], sugarcane bagasse [61], grasses [62] have been pre-treated with steam explosion method efficiently.
Liquid hot water method treats biomass by using water which is kept in a liquid state under high pressure and temperature for 15 minutes without adding any chemical or catalyst. Instead of steam explosion method, this technique does not need rapid pressure drop or expansion. Pressure is used to prevent evaporation and to stabilize the water in this method [60]. Although it provides the release of hemisellulosic sugars as oligomers, it causes the formation of little amounts of undesirable components which inhibit microbial growth such as carboxylic acid, furfural [63]. Since there is no need for chemicals, it is an environmental and economic method [64]. It is reported that liquid hot water method improves the enzymatic hydrolysis by removing 80% of hemicelluloses when it is pre-treated corn stover, sugarcane bagasse and wheat straw [65].
Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX) is a method that liquid ammonia and steam explosion are carried out together. In this method, biomass which has 15-30% moisture content is treated with liquid ammonia at a loading ratio of 1–2 kg NH3/kg dry biomass. To acquire appropriate temperature, pressure over 12 atm is required. Whereas being an easy method and have short reaction time, it is not effective on raw materials that contain high lignin content [54]. Ammonia has effects such as shredding biomass fibers, partially decrystallization of cellulose and destroying carbohydrate attachments [65]. Although sugars are not released directly with this method, it enhances polymers (hemicellulose and cellulose) to be attacked enzymatically. Thus, low amount of enzyme is enough for enzymatic hydrolysis after AFEX. In order to improve the process economically, ammonia must be recover after the pre-treatment. Ammonia loading, temperature, high pressure, moisture content of biomass, and residence time are the basic parameters which effect AFEX process. Up to 90% cellulose and hemicelluloses conversions can be acquired with this technique [3].
CO2 explosion is similar to AFEX method. However this method has low process cost due to need low temperature. Also formation of inhibitors in the steam explosion is not occurred in this technique. In addition to that, its conversion yields are very high compared to steam explosion [50,66].
Wet oxidation method is based on the treatment of biomass with water and air or oxygen as a catalyst over the temperature of 120 °C. Although solubility of hemicellulose and lignin are increased with this method, free hemicelluloses molecules do not hydrolyze. Whereas sugar monomers are formed in steam explosion and dilute acid pre-treatment, sugar which released in wet oxidation method are oligomers [67,68]. In a study performed by Pederson [69] et al. 40% glucose yield was obtained for wet oxidation of wheat straw.
Chemical pre-treatments include dilute acid, alkaline, ammonia, organic solvent pre-treatments and methods that use other chemicals. These processes are easy to perform and also good conversion yields are achieved in a short time [1].
Acid pre-treatments are methods that acid is used as catalyst to make cellulose more accessible to the enzymes. These processes are divided into two groups as using concentrated acid or diluted acid. Using concentrated acid is less preferable than dilute acid because of forming high amount of inhibiting components and causing corrosion in the equipments [68]. Generally sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid are used in these pre-treatments. Dilute acid are applied at moderate temperatures to convert lignocellulosic structures to soluble sugars [54]. Nowadays biomass is pre-treated with dilute sulphuric mostly to hydrolyze hemicelluloses and facilitate enzymatic hydrolysis [70]. Dilute sulphuric acid hydrolyzes biomass to hemicelluloses, and then hydrolyzes to xylose and other sugar and break xylose down to furfural. Furfural which is a toxic component in ethanol production process, is recovered by distillation [54]. Miranda et al. have investigated the effect of acid pre-treatments with the concentrations between 0.05-10 N, and have obtained the highest sugar yield under the condition of 2 N acid pre-treatment. In their experiments, 2 N to 10 N acid pre-treatments, it is reported that a decrease have been observed in sugar yields [71]. Larsson et al. also mentioned that in an experiment about acid pre-treatment of soft wood, a decrease in ethanol yields have been observed with an increasing acid concentration. In addition to this, it is indicated that formic acid which is a toxic molecule, is presented in the media and inhibits the fermentation [72].
These processes are carried out at low temperature and pressure compared to other techniques. Unlike acid pre-treatments, lignin can be removed without major effects on the other components. However there are limitations such as transformation of some alkaline to unrecoverable salts. In addition to that, solubility of hemicelluloses and cellulose are less in this pre-treatment compared to solubility in acid pre-treatment [73]. Alkaline pre-treatment reduces the lignin and hemicelluloses content of biomass and improves the surface area and helps water molecules for breaking bonds between hemicelluloses and lignin [54]. The most used catalysts in this method are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and ammonia [74]. Effects of alkaline pre-treatments are varies according to biomass. In an alkaline pre-treatment of coastal bermudagrass, reducing sugar yields are decrease with an increasing alkaline concentration [75]. However, Wang et al. reported that under the conditions of increasing alkaline concentrations, glucose yields were increased [76]. Like dilute acid pre-treatments, dilute alkaline pre-treatments also can form inhibitory by-products such as furfural, hydroxymethylfurfural and formic acid [77]
Organosolv pre-treatment is a process that uses organic solvents such as methanol, ethanol, acetone, ethylene glycol. Catalysts are also can be added to the process along with solvents. Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, sodium hydroxide and ammonia are the catalysts used in the process. Besides bonds of lignin and hemicellulose can be broken, pure and high quality lignin can be obtained as a by-product [78]. Removal of lignin improves the surface area and provides accessibility of enzymes to cellulose. After the pre-treatment, cellulosic fibers, solid lignin and liquid solution of hemicellulose sugars are obtained. This method has some disadvantages like oxidation, volatilization and creating high risk in process at high pressure. Also solvents must be recovered due to formation of significant amounts of furfural and soluble phenols and to reduce operation cost [50,67].
Compared to the above methods applied to the production of bioethanol, using fungi in pre-treatments is considered environmentally friendly because of not using chemicals, less energy input, not required reactors that resistant to corrosion and pressure, and minimum inhibitor formation [79]. Fungi which are used in biological pre-treatments are generally brown, white and soft mold. These fungi can be degrade lignin, hemicelluloses and cellulose partially. Despite of its advantages, long process time, large production are and need of control continuously for growth of microorganisms ensue as disadvantages for commercial productions[50].
Enzymatic hydrolysis is the step of hydrolysis of cellulose by specific cellulase enzymes. Obtained products after hydrolysis are reducing sugars that include glucose. Cost of the enzymatic hydrolysis are less than acid or alkaline hydrolysis due to reaction is carried out under mild conditions (4.8 pH, temperature of 45-50 °C) [50]. Cellulase enzymes that are used in hydrolysis can be produced by bacteria and fungi. These microorganisms can be aerobic, anaerobic, mesofilic or thermophilic. Bacteria which produce cellulase can be exemplify as
Hydrolysis rates of biomass depend on the degree of polymerization and crystallinity of cellulose. Degree of polymerization is related to crystallinity. Cellulase enzymes can hydrolyze the crystalline structure of cellulose. Endoglucanase enzymes decrease polymerization degree of cellulosic component by cutting the internal sites of cellulose chains in the enzymatic hydrolysis [80]. Accessibility of the substrate is another main factor effect hydrolysis rate. The rate of hydrolysis increases with increasing substrate accessibility because of being surface area more available for enzymatic attack [80]. Lignin and hemicellulose are complex structures to hydrolyze in lignocellulosic materials. Due to have a role like cement, lignin acts as physical barrier and prevents the digestible parts of cellulose to hydrolyze and it becomes very difficult for enzymes to access cellulose. For this reason, they reduce the efficiency of hydrolysis. Removal of hemicellulose enhances the pore size and provides accessibility to cellulose for enzymes in order to perform hydrolysis efficiently [81,82]. Pore size of the substrate is one of the limiting factors in enzymatic hydrolysis process. In many lignocellulosic material, external area of the biomass is smaller than internal area and this situation causes cellulase enzymes to entrap in the pores of the material. In order to increase hydrolysis rate, porosity of the biomass should be increased [83].
Fermentation is a process that based on disciplines of chemistry, biochemistry and microbiology and which fermentable sugars are converted to ethanol by microorganisms [84]. Process consists of conversion of glucose to alcohol and carbon dioxide:
In this process 0.51 kg bioethanol and 0.49 kg carbon dioxide are obtained from per kg of glucose in theory maximum yield. However practically, microorganisms also use glucose for their growth, the actual yield is less than 100% [85]. Microorganisms used in fermentation are utilized from 6-carbon sugars in ethanol production. Therefore, cellulosic biomass which have high amount of glucose are the materials that have easiest conversion capability. One of the most effective yeast which produces bioethanol is
Enzymatic hydrolysis is performed separately from fermentation in this process. Liquid which comes from hydrolysis reactor first converted to ethanol in a reactor that glucose fermented in, and then ethanol is distilled and remained unconverted ksilose is converted to ethanol in a second reactor. Advantage of the process is performing reactions in optimum conditions. On the other hand, usage of different reactors is increasing the cost. Also glucose and cellulose units that obtained after hydrolysis, inhibit activity of the enzyme and decrease hydrolysis rate [3,54].
In this process, pre-treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis steps are carried out with fermentation step in the same reactor. It is very efficient when dilute acid or hot water at high temperature is applied in the process. High bioethanol yields can be achieved with SSF process. Also inhibiton of enzyme activity is very low due to fermenting glucose and cellulose units in the same media by yeast. Therefore, this process needs low amount of enzyme. In addition to that, process cost is reduced because of the reactions are carried out in one reactor. As a disadvantage, temperatures differences between saccharification and fermentation cause various effects in growth of microorganisms.
Due to their simple structure and being a new raw material for bioethanol production, most of these pre-treatment techniques have not applied to algal biomass yet, and just few studies have been found in literature which is presented in Table 4.
Studies of ethanol production from micro and macroalgae
A distillation process is necessary for separation of ethanol from mixture and purification of ethanol after fermentation process. Process is performed simply with boiling ethanol-water mixture. Because of boiling point of water (100°C) is higher than boiling point of ethanol (78 °C), ethanol vaporized before water [110]. However, due to being an azeotrop mixture, high amount of energy is used for distillation [42]. In order to separate azeotrop mixtures, an agent which changes the azeotrop structure must be added to the mixture. Added substance changes the volatility of mixture by effecting the molecular attractions in the mixture. Various separation agents such as benzene, pentane, cyclohexane, hexane, acetone, and diethyl ether can be used in this process [111]. Distillation column which has two streams as top and bottom, separates most of the bioethanol from the mixture. While top stream is rich in bioethanol, bottom stream is rich in water. 37% bioethanol then concentrated in rectifying column to approach concentration of 95% [78]. Product which is remained in the bottom is fed to stripping column in order to remove excess water [112]. Mostly in plants, recovery of bioethanol in distillation columns is fixed to be 99.6% due to decrease bioethanol loss [54].
Today, demand for fossil fuels cannot be met with current reserves and increasing oil prices with economical and political crisis and effects of global warming are led countries to use renewable energy sources. Algae as third generation feedstock have a great potential because of their characteristics. Different valuable products can be obtained from algae such as biodiesel, bioethanol, biogas, pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Nowadays algae are mostly utilized for biodiesel production due to their high lipid content. However algae have also high carbohydrate content that cannot be ignored. Thus they can be utilized for bioethanol production directly or with the remains which are obtained after oil extraction. In this study, potential of algae as a bioethanol feedstock, important steps of bioethanol production especially pre-treatment techniques have been mentioned. In production sections, pre-treatment techniques and fermentation processes are explained in details. Recently, bioethanol production from algae is very new technology and open to development. Innovative and efficient fermentation processes and pre-treatment techniques are needed to make ethanol production preferable. In conclusion, algae will with their huge potential will outclass the first and second generation feedstocks and lots of improvements for usage of it will carried out in the future.
Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) is an expansive area about 23,852,823 square kilometers in size that lies between latitudes 16 o N and 35o S. Its population was estimated at 1.1 billion in 2019 by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [1], with more than 40% of this population estimated to be below the age of 15 years.
The World Bank in 2020 estimated urbanization in this region to be above 45% with the highest rate at 90% in Gabon and 17% in Malawi [1]. Urbanization is known to offer numerous conveniences that tend to improve the standard of living in general. However, it is also associated with lifestyles that undermine engagement in sports and physical activity in children and adolescents due to numerous factors; motorized transportation, a built environment devoid of parks or social amenities for exercising, air pollution, and long hours in traffic while commuting to and from school. In general, children living in such an environment spend less time in the Sun resulting in impaired dermal Vitamin D synthesis: a key component of not only bone metabolism but also for maintaining immune homeostasis, activation of genes influencing muscle growth and differentiation, all critical factors in physical activity and sports performance.
This chapter seeks to highlight the role of Vitamin D, its deficiency and implications on physical activity and sports performance. We appreciate that effects of Vitamin D deficiency cut across all athletes but we choose to focus on children and adolescents, who are at a prime age for foundational development of motor function, skills and performance. Surprisingly, evidence on children in SSA may suggest that Africa could be the continent with one of the highest frequency of severe vitamin D deficiency [2]. This chapter appreciates that while Sun exposure is the main source for Vitamin D, it should be the primary focus for advocacy compared to prescription of supplements among athletes especially in economic-resource deprived settings such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa.
There is a perception that children are `naturally’ active [3], and as previously witnessed in Africa, they would take advantage of every opportunity and space to play, given adequate time and an enabling environment regardless of availability of equipment or the ideal facility. Sports, active play and fitness activities among children and youth in SSA usually take place in the school settings (during PE classes, school sports programmes and recess time activities), home environment (active play at home and in the neighborhood with siblings and friends) and at the leisure and recreation centres (organized club activities and outdoor pursuits programmes). Activities among children and adolescents range from organized/formal sports activities (such as ball games, racket and batting sports, athletics, swimming and martial arts) and fitness programmes to informal active play characterized with fun, less stringent rules and improvisation of equipment and facilities. These are excellent opportunities to develop and nurture motor abilities and skills linked to enhanced fitness, necessary for health and performance. There is also evidence that such physical activity behavior and resulting active lifestyles tracks from childhood through adolescence and into adulthood [4].
Notably, most of these activities (especially in SSA) are designed to take place in the outdoors where participants not only interact with the built and social environment but also engage in nature-based learning, survival and experiential learning, characterized by physical engagement and active transportation. In the process, participants gained the much needed direct exposure to sunshine for Vitamin D. We are now witnessing an increase in indoor-based programmes with rapid digitization of education materials, an influx of motorized and digitized equipment and play gadgets, leading to minimized energy expenditure, overdependence on screen-based sedentary activities [5] and less sun exposure.
While Vitamin D is widely known for its role in bone metabolism, the past two decades have seen a plethora of research pointing to its endocrine effects such as regulating calcium and phosphorous in the body i.e. its skeletal role. However, Vitamin D is increasingly being appreciated for its paracrine, autocrine and exocrine functions in the body as it directly affects a broad range of cells in the body, in addition to this, it regulates expression of genes involved in cell growth, protein synthesis and immune function [6].
Vitamin D is primarily synthesized dermally by the action of UVB radiation of between 250 and 300 nm wavelengths when it directly strikes the exposed skin. This is then picked up by 7-dehydrocholesterol and transported in the blood to the liver where it is hydroxylated by the enzyme CYP2R1 into 25 hydroxycholecalciferol before it’s transportation in the blood to the kidneys for further hydroxylation with the help of CYP27B1, where it is converted into the active metabolite 1,25 dihydroxycholelaciferol (Calcitriol), a potent steroid hormone. Calcitriol then enters the different target cells bound to Vitamin D Receptors (VDR) [7] found widely in the human body.
Cutaneous synthesis of Vitamin D via UVB solar radiation is however not possible on a year round basis for individuals living at latitudes further away from the Equator due to seasonal changes that result from the shifting of the Earth on its axis. Secondly, even in regions enjoying overhead UVB radiation on a year round basis, failure to expose oneself to the Sun’s rays in a state of near or total undress when the UV index is above 3, anything below this predisposes one to Vitamin D deficiency. Thirdly, darker skinned people have less cutaneous vitamin D synthesis as a results of higher levels of melanin which absorbs UVB and therefore require three to five times longer duration of skin exposure to sunlight [8], this is particularly important given that 50–90% of Vitamin D is synthesized through the skin [9]. Extenuating circumstances such as these require supplementation with vitamin D to optimize serum levels of Vitamin D.
Vitamin D (Vitamin D3/Cholecalciferol) can be derived from foods of animal origin: animal fat, oily fish, liver and pastured eggs, while foods from plant sources such as mushrooms and fortified cereals provide ergocalciferol/ vitamin D2, however this form of vitamin D has been found to be less effective at raising serum 25(OH)D levels [10].
Vitamin D status is determined by measuring serum levels of circulating 25(OH)D, on account of its half-life of about 2–3 weeks [11]. Classification of vitamin D status is not universally agreed upon; the Institute of Medicine (IOM) classifies a serum level of 20 ng/mL as adequate [12] while the Endocrine Society suggests a serum concentration of at ≥30 ng/mL as sufficient [13]. The difference arising from the former’s recommendations were exclusively based on skeletal integrity while the latter’s was based on a broader range of studies examining associations between vitamin D deficiency with immune dysfunction, pregnancy and cancers alongside a decline in serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) reaching its nadir asymptomatically with 25(OH)D levels in adults at 30-40 ng/mL [12].
The ubiquity of Vitamin D Receptors (VDR) in numerous tissues in the human body points to the body’s widespread need for 25(OH)D, where it therefore follows that deficiency or insufficiency of the same is associated with several diseases. Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency is now recognized as a global issue impairing the health of more than 1 billion children and adults in the World [13].
A study on vitamin D deficiency in 3880 African children aged 0–8 years drawn from four African countries: Kenya, Burkina Faso, Uganda and South Africa, found a relatively low prevalence of Vitamin D deficiency at 0.7% when using cut-off of less than 30 nmol/L and 7.4% prevalence when using a cut-off of less than 50 nmol/L [14]. This was in stark contrast to a meta-analysis by the same investigators on the Vitamin D status of 21,474 individuals living in 23 African countries that concluded that about 18% of these had severe vitamin D deficiency using a cut-off of <30 nmol/l, “suggesting that Africa could be the continent with the highest frequency of severe vitamin D deficiency” [2]. Perhaps, the noted low prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among the children was due to the use of IOM cut-offs focused on skeletal integrity rather than the Endocrine Society’s cut-offs. Ironically, the vitamin D deficiency study on young African children found that 35.4% of these children had serum concentrations between 50 and 70 nmol/L(20-28 ng/mL) clearly pointing to a 35.5% prevalence of Vitamin D3 deficiency when evaluated using the Endocrine Society’s cut-off of at least 70 nmol/L(30 ng/mL) linked with better health outcomes [12].
Risks associated with Vitamin D deficiency can be traced all the way from fetal development and at birth. Children born of Vitamin D deficient mothers tend to: be born prematurely, have low birth-weight, be at risk of allergies, develop asthma and impaired neurodevelopment. Achievement of a serum vitamin D concentration of greater than 100 nmol/L (40 ng/ml) by gravid mothers has been linked with prevention of some of these health risks [15]. Maternal serum vitamin D levels have been associated with fetal femur length, femur volume, cross -sectional area of the distal metaphysis and the ratio between the former and latter in offspring as measured using ultrasound exacerbating the risk of skeletal dysplasia and shorter stature at birth [15]. Such risks likely disadvantage physical development and lead to physiological limitations in sports performance in children and adolescents years later.
Serum Vitamin D levels in children and adolescents in SSA have been linked to inadequate exposure to sunlight, despite it straddling the equator as this affords almost yearlong overhead sunshine: a UVB wavelength advantage suitable for dermal Vitamin D synthesis. In two studies focusing on Vitamin D deficiency and rickets in low income informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya, reported both low serum Vitamin D during pregnancy and in breast milk at delivery further raising the risk of rickets in their offspring. Similarly lengthy hours indoors during infancy in daycare facilities, as mothers work during the day, further compounded the risk of rickets. In addition to this finding, about 1% of the infants had as little as 3 hours of Sunshine exposure weekly [16, 17, 18].
In the southern most region of SSA; South Africa, seasonal variation and latitude have been identified as factors influencing Vitamin D status [17, 18]. Other non-pathological factors affecting Vitamin-D status in this region have been identified as: urban lifestyles, obesity, skin pigmentation and age demographics [18], while afebrile malaria has been associated with low serum vitamin D in SSA Children and adolescents.
Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents is associated with several health and metabolic challenges, which in turn undermine normal growth, development and potential physical and mental function. Negative effects of Vitamin D deficiency that are likely to compromise the performance of physical activity and sports are noted in the following functions:
VDR are abundant in the myocardium, vasculature, myocytes and cardiac fibroblasts, suggesting the importance of Vitamin D in myocardial function. Calcitriol, the active form of Vitamin D, has been shown to participate in structural remodeling of cardiac muscle and vascular tissue, activates myocyte contractility and in turn up-regulating myocardial force [19]. This highlights the role of Vitamin D deficiency as a negative myocardial inotrope leading to poorer contractility, the result of which is reduced cardiac output. This negative effect on myocardial function is further compounded by an increase in cardiac collagen content resulting from Vitamin D deficiency.
Abnormal electrocardiographic and echocardiographic findings suggestive of dilated cardiomyopathy, heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction, have all been found present in vitamin D deficient infants diagnosed with rickets, and such findings have returned to normal upon treatment of rickets, [20, 21].
Scientific literature indicates that Vitamin D deficiency up-regulates production of Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and that this can in turn lead to pathological enlargement of the left ventricle (LVH) and subsequently modifies the filling capacity of the left ventricle and ejections fraction, the sequela of this being hypoxic muscle tissue posing a physiological limitation to physical activity or sports performance [22, 23, 24]. Vitamin D deficiency is also associated with atherogenesis, arterial stiffness and endothelial dysfunction, and these changes in vascular function undermine vascular competence. Optimal performance in sports and physical activity is not feasible with pathological structural or functional changes in the myocardium, thus the importance of optimal serum vitamin D in children and adolescents is therefore a key component of sports and physical activity performance.
The importance of Vitamin D in muscle growth and function can be understood when viewed from the perspective that Vitamin D receptors are located in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus of muscle fibers to regulate their genomic or non-genomic actions [25]. In addition to this, muscle cell proliferation, differentiation and the interaction between myosin and actin filaments in the sarcomere of muscle cells are all dependent on adequate serum Vitamin D which serves to improve the concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy fuel reserve in the cell [26, 27, 28, 29].
Low vitamin D is associated with atrophy of muscle fibers, fatty infiltration and fibrotic factors that all slow peak muscle contraction subsequently impeding generation of force [30, 31]. Vitamin D is one of several hormones known to influence the structure and function of striated muscles during all stages of life [32]. Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents may present as muscular pain, weakness or heaviness in the legs, these are important symptoms that parents, pediatric clinicians, sports coaches and caregivers would do well to keep in mind as they interact with this population. In this regard, Vitamin D deficiency is therefore antithetical to optimal physical activity and sports performance.
Vitamin D deficiency is associated with lower lung function, altered lung structure, wheezing, increased asthma exacerbations and use of corticosteroids [33, 34] due to deprivation of oxygen to tissues in the lung as a results of inflammation of the alveolar, damaged epithelia and impaired regeneration of endothelial barriers [35, 36], with this easily progressing to and exacerbating asthma and respiratory infections. Vitamin D deficiency is therefore at the heart of all stages of respiratory infections and severity, however, adequate vitamin D lowers susceptibility to these types of respiratory infections via production of antimicrobial cathelicidins and defensins both of which are antibacterial and antiviral in their expression [36].
Given that optimal lung function is a primary factor in extraction of oxygen from inhaled air, for delivery to the lungs and then transportation via blood to the myocardium for onward delivery to muscles during physical activity and sports performance, Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescence would likely have an adverse effect engendering sedentary lifestyles and an increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease over the long haul.
Vitamin D is thought to facilitate bone metabolism through its effects in promoting calcium and phosphate absorption, both of which are critical factors for both bone development and maintenance. A second pathway by which vitamin D maintains bone Calcium levels occurs by its regulation of serum Parathyroid hormone (PTH) to prevent hypocalcemia and hypophosphatemia [37] which would otherwise result in bone loss and fracture, manifesting in bone diseases such as osteomalacia and osteoporosis in old age, however among children and adolescents, a low serum Vitamin D levels manifest in rickets.
Rickets is a bone disease marked by deformities of wrists, legs, delayed closure of the soft membranous gaps between the cranial bones in infants, as well as fraying, metaphyseal cupping and widening of the growth plate as a result of vitamin D deficiency [38], while rickets can also be caused by calcium deficiency. A case control study on rickets in children in a slum in Nairobi, comparing rickets cases to controls (children without rickets or acute malnutrition) determined biochemically and phenotypically that the pathogenesis of rickets in this cohort was a result of vitamin D deficiency and not Calcium deficiency [39]. With an estimated 18% of the population in Sub-Saharan Africa having a severely deficient serum Vitamin D level of less than 30 nmol/L (12 ng/mL) [18]. The implication of this has significant negative ramifications on bone development, structural stability, bone length in children and adolescence but also in their ability to engage in physical activity and sports performance at all levels even in future.
The purpose of our review was to relate the relevance of vitamin D to physical activity and sports performance. We reviewed recent advances in this field and novel insights about vitamin D: its deficiency and implications on physical activity and sports performance.
Low vitamin D status could negatively impact the health and training efficiency of athletes regardless of their age and developmental level. Research to date suggests that certain athletes are at risk for suboptimal vitamin D status, which may increase risks for stress fractures, acute illness, and suboptimal muscle function.
The emerging evidence about vitamin D and sports performance suggests the need to determine vitamin D concentration in athletes but further research is necessary to characterize the true vitamin D status by simply measuring free vitamin D rather than total 25-OHVITD.
In relation to the prevention of vitamin D deficiency, parents, healthcare professionals, coaches, caregivers of children and adolescents need to be aware that Sun exposure is the primary means of vitamin D synthesis, unfortunately, this may not be feasible for all demographics on account of distance from the Equator, pollution or skin pigmentation, however, this demographic can benefit from Vitamin D supplementation alongside minerals and vitamins that aid its absorption, activation or metabolism such as Magnesium and Vitamin K2. The importance of optimal vitamin D in myocardial, skeletal, pulmonary and immune functions is a critical component in physical activity and lifelong health of children and adolescents in Sub-Saharan Africa. This perhaps also calls for further investigation of the efficacy of Vitamin D supplementation in this demographic on health, physical activity and sports performance outcomes.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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The models were based on meteorological data from the nearest stations and calibrated with current measurement, temperature, or water-level data. The results show good agreement between measured and simulated velocities and/or temperature at certain depth. This study found that the major driving forces of the hydrodynamic pattern were different in the three lakes. Hydrodynamic simulations showed that Bukit Merah and Durian Tunggal reservoirs were more sensitive to wind-driven motion. Floodplain lakes, such as Bera Lake, are more sensitive to flood inflow by the main river during the monsoon season. 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Thus, there may be increases and decreases in precipitation and, in all cases, a huge increase in temperature. This document presents some studies carried out in different areas of the country regarding the effects of climate change on water resources, including its influence on hydroelectric power generation, some changes in the water balance in arid areas, and the opportunity to ensemble climate change scenarios. Likewise, it outlines a possible future water supply-demand relationship, where supply is associated with a change in the water balance and demand with some crops, activities, and sectors that need water to survive. This allows to estimate some future status indices to see the overall picture of climate change in connection with the country’s water resources.",book:{id:"8098",slug:"resources-of-water",title:"Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Resources of Water"},signatures:"Nathaly Güiza-Villa, Carlos Gay-García and Jesús Efren Ospina-Noreña",authors:[{id:"311362",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Ospina-Noreña",slug:"jesus-efren-ospina-norena",fullName:"Jesús Efren Ospina-Noreña"},{id:"311363",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gay-García",slug:"carlos-gay-garcia",fullName:"Carlos Gay-García"},{id:"311364",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nathaly",middleName:null,surname:"Güiza-Villa",slug:"nathaly-guiza-villa",fullName:"Nathaly Güiza-Villa"}]},{id:"65487",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82825",title:"Sustainable and Resilient Water and Energy Futures: From New Ethics and Choices to Urban Nexus Strategies",slug:"sustainable-and-resilient-water-and-energy-futures-from-new-ethics-and-choices-to-urban-nexus-strate",totalDownloads:1381,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A safe, secure and affordable water future—for life, health, economy—are foundational outcomes from a new form of ethics for water stewardship and energy management. Current business as usual in water and energy systems have not led to sustainable, healthy nor resilient pathways for urban and rural communities alike. Today, an estimated 400 million people live in cities with significant water shortages. This is while 25% of water is currently lost before even used in urban areas (up to 60% in some cities) due to aging infrastructure. In addition, on average, only 10% of wastewater is treated before returning to water bodies in developing countries. By 2040, more than 66% of the world’s populations could suffer from severe water shortages; and by 2050, an 80% increase in urban water demand (over current levels) may result in one billion city dwellers and 36% (one in three) of cities expected to face water crises. A crisis is often a catalyst for innovation and this chapter is a call to cities to enable strategic responses—moving away from legacy ‘siloed’ infrastructures, over-allocated water resources and emerging ethical dilemmas to integrated water- and energy-related urban nexus strategies.",book:{id:"6886",slug:"water-and-sustainability",title:"Water and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Water and Sustainability"},signatures:"Josh Sperling and Will Sarni",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58856",title:"The Effects of Climate Change on Rural-Urban Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)—The Cases of Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Niger",slug:"the-effects-of-climate-change-on-rural-urban-migration-in-sub-saharan-africa-ssa-the-cases-of-democr",totalDownloads:1867,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Water is essential for the existence of living organisms including humans. Water is needed in farms to grow crops, firms and manufacturing industry to produce products and services. This chapter examines water resources availability and management in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in climate change perspective using vector auto-regression (VAR) time series analysis. Water is known to be unevenly distributed among countries and continents around the world, particularly in Sub-Sahara Africa; the water availability varies between member countries and regions in the individual country, water supply systems experience enormous pressure to make water accessible to people in both rural and urban communities. Water security remains to be an integral part of the SSA’s effort to achieve food security and supply, halve poverty and eradicate hunger. This chapter more importantly aims to investigate impact of rainfall and temperature issues––that are climate change proxy variables––on water security and people movement in three Sub-Saharan African countries that are Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Niger. This article assesses some possible causes of migration from rural to urban area using VAR and granger causality tests; this process involves four variables namely Rural Migration ‘MR’, Urban Migration ‘MU’, Rainfall ‘Rain’ and Temperature ‘Temp’. The model predicts rainfall and temperature across 10 years and examines how these changes impact water availability and people movement in relevant countries. This study finds that some countries are experiencing water security challenges upon which large numbers migrate to urban areas. The study reveals that variations in rainfall and temperature have compounded people movements from rural areas. It is noted that the agricultural production in SSA have not improved over time and in fact, it has further decreased due to the move away from rural areas by many farmers.",book:{id:"6184",slug:"applications-in-water-systems-management-and-modeling",title:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling",fullTitle:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling"},signatures:"Omar Moalin Hassan and Gurudeo Anand Tularam",authors:[{id:"148090",title:"Dr.",name:"Gurudeo",middleName:null,surname:"Tularam",slug:"gurudeo-tularam",fullName:"Gurudeo Tularam"},{id:"208956",title:"Mr.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Moalin Hassan",slug:"omar-moalin-hassan",fullName:"Omar Moalin Hassan"}]},{id:"73528",title:"Characteristics and Assessment of Groundwater",slug:"characteristics-and-assessment-of-groundwater",totalDownloads:785,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Groundwater system is very vital to humanity and the ecosystem. Aquifers are determined based on the absence or presence of water table positioning, that is, confined, unconfined, leaky aquifers and fractured aquifers. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the characteristic and assessment of groundwater within the scope of vertical distribution of GW, types of the aquifer system, types of SW-GW interface, and SW-GW interaction at both local and regional scales. The properties of the aquifer depend on the physical characteristics of the materials (porosity, permeability, specific yield, specific storage, and hydraulic conductivities) which are determined by techniques like resistivity surveys and pumping tests followed by remote sensing and geographic information system for better information on the groundwater system. Furthermore, understanding the SW-GW interactions through available methods (seepage meter, heat tracer, and environmental tracer) is useful in watershed management, that is, risk management and assessment of the aquifer system.",book:{id:"9981",slug:"groundwater-management-and-resources",title:"Groundwater Management and Resources",fullTitle:"Groundwater Management and Resources"},signatures:"Naseem Akhtar, Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir, Mohd Talha Anees, Abdul Qadir and Mohamad Shaiful Yusuff",authors:[{id:"201647",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohd Talha",middleName:null,surname:"Anees",slug:"mohd-talha-anees",fullName:"Mohd Talha Anees"},{id:"203218",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Izzuddin",middleName:null,surname:"Syakir Ishak",slug:"muhammad-izzuddin-syakir-ishak",fullName:"Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir Ishak"},{id:"324417",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Naseem",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"naseem-akhtar",fullName:"Naseem Akhtar"},{id:"328134",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad Shaiful",middleName:null,surname:"Yusuff",slug:"mohammad-shaiful-yusuff",fullName:"Mohammad Shaiful Yusuff"},{id:"328135",title:"Mr.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Qadir",slug:"abdul-qadir",fullName:"Abdul Qadir"}]},{id:"73757",title:"Groundwater Recharges Technology for Water Resource Management: A Case Study",slug:"groundwater-recharges-technology-for-water-resource-management-a-case-study",totalDownloads:574,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The irregularity in monsoon has severely affected the water availability at surface and sub-surface systems. Diminishing surface and sub-surface availability has not only decreased the water availability, but it additionally affected the ecosystem and increased disastrous situations like floods and droughts, resulting problems of stress on groundwater recharge. Groundwater recharge is a technique by which infiltrated water passes through the unsaturated region of groundwater and joins the water table. It is based upon soil type, land use land cover, geomorphology, geophysical and climate (viz. rainfall, temperature, humidity etc.) characteristics of a region. Over the years, due to variations in weather pattern and overexploitation of aquifers groundwater recharge has decreased and groundwater level has reduced in the most parts of the country. This has led to severe water deficit problems in several parts of the country. This can be solved by different direct and indirect methods of groundwater recharge technology. This technology can reduce the wastage of water and enhance groundwater availability for uses in different sector like irrigation, domestic and industrial uses.",book:{id:"9981",slug:"groundwater-management-and-resources",title:"Groundwater Management and Resources",fullTitle:"Groundwater Management and Resources"},signatures:"Jatoth Veeranna and Pawan Jeet",authors:[{id:"325776",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawan",middleName:null,surname:"Jeet",slug:"pawan-jeet",fullName:"Pawan Jeet"},{id:"328200",title:"Mr.",name:"Jatoth",middleName:null,surname:"Veeranna",slug:"jatoth-veeranna",fullName:"Jatoth Veeranna"}]},{id:"62709",title:"Sustainability of Irrigation in Uzbekistan: Implications for Women Farmers",slug:"sustainability-of-irrigation-in-uzbekistan-implications-for-women-farmers",totalDownloads:1039,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter focuses on a discussion of how global efforts to align local irrigation management with the good governance principles affect the lives of the rural poor, specifically women. Drawing in empirical data collected in post-soviet Uzbekistan, I illuminate unexpected effects of an apparently well-intended irrigation project on those categories of farmers whose connections to state apparatus of agricultural commerce of cotton were weak. Using fieldwork data from a village largely affected by desiccation of Aral Sea, I describe the everyday struggles by these people, who are mostly women, engage to make their living and provide subsistence to their families in situation of economic trauma, environmental disaster, and massive outmigration of male population. This analysis puts forward the local voices of real people whose lives are being restructured by sustainability oriented actions. Such perspective is often missed in scholarly and professional literature. These findings are hoped to assist policy developers in formulating irrigation programs in ways that would embrace sustainability both in terms of environmental and social justice.",book:{id:"6886",slug:"water-and-sustainability",title:"Water and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Water and Sustainability"},signatures:"Elena Kim",authors:null},{id:"71359",title:"Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources, Indices, and Related Activities in Colombia",slug:"effects-of-climate-change-on-water-resources-indices-and-related-activities-in-colombia",totalDownloads:713,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In Colombia, a country with great climatic diversity, the water balance is affected in one way or another by climate change depending on the region. Thus, there may be increases and decreases in precipitation and, in all cases, a huge increase in temperature. This document presents some studies carried out in different areas of the country regarding the effects of climate change on water resources, including its influence on hydroelectric power generation, some changes in the water balance in arid areas, and the opportunity to ensemble climate change scenarios. Likewise, it outlines a possible future water supply-demand relationship, where supply is associated with a change in the water balance and demand with some crops, activities, and sectors that need water to survive. This allows to estimate some future status indices to see the overall picture of climate change in connection with the country’s water resources.",book:{id:"8098",slug:"resources-of-water",title:"Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Resources of Water"},signatures:"Nathaly Güiza-Villa, Carlos Gay-García and Jesús Efren Ospina-Noreña",authors:[{id:"311362",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Ospina-Noreña",slug:"jesus-efren-ospina-norena",fullName:"Jesús Efren Ospina-Noreña"},{id:"311363",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gay-García",slug:"carlos-gay-garcia",fullName:"Carlos Gay-García"},{id:"311364",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nathaly",middleName:null,surname:"Güiza-Villa",slug:"nathaly-guiza-villa",fullName:"Nathaly Güiza-Villa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"872",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. 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Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 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