\r\n\tApplied and basic studies - Field studies and lab assays of fungicides can be discussed. We also look for examples of application methods, which may include timing of application, tools for application, fungicide compatibility, phytotoxicity, etc. Field trials have to have at least two years of data;
\r\n\tAdaptation of Integrated Plant Disease Management - How the IPM practice has been adapted in the field. Application of disease risk models, or use of fungicide application aids, which can be hardware or software. The introduction of a new tool for growers can also be included;
\r\n\tNovel fungicides - In addition to the traditional chemical approach, alternative materials (enzymes, oils, extracts, etc.), biological control agents, or plant defense activators can be discussed;
\r\n\tAdaptation of new technologies - Examples will be the use of unmanned vehicles, sensor technologies, advanced sprayers, or disease forecast systems for precision agriculture;
\r\n\tFungicide resistance - Unfortunately, we cannot ignore the fact that fungicide-resistant strains are widespread. Documentation of fungicide-resistant strains, the introduction of new technologies and methods can be discussed.
Chagas’ disease is a public health problem that affects about 6 to 7 million people worldwide, mainly who reside in the endemic areas of 21 countries of Latin America [1]. Despite the progress made to control the infection, the disease has been expanding to North America, Europe, Australia, and Japan by migration of million people from endemic countries [2, 3, 4]. The etiological agent of disease is the protozoan
In addition to parasite genetics and route of infection, disease outcome is also influenced by other factors such as evolutive forms of the parasite, parasite load, mixed infections [22, 23, 24, 25], and host factors including immune response, concomitant infections, nutrition deficiencies, and host genetics [26]. Although several studies have tried to identify the genetic basis of Chagas disease, our knowledge on the subject is still vague. Many works have studied genetic polymorphisms located in genes associated with immune response [27] or over the whole genome [28, 29], but the influence of these polymorphisms on the pathology of the disease still needs to be further validated.
Considering the complexity of these factors and their influence in Chagas’ disease immunopathogenesis, anti-
All experiments were conducted following the guidelines for experimental procedures of the National Council for the Control of Animal Experimentation (CONCEA) after approval by the Ethics Committee for Animal Research of the Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (CEUA-FIOCRUZ) under licenses number LW16/11 (Swiss Webster mice) and LW 42/14 (A and BALB/c mice).
BALB/c, A and Swiss Webster female mice, 4–6 weeks old, were provided by Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biomodelos (ICTB - FIOCRUZ) and housed under pathogen-free conditions, controlled temperature, and food and water
In experiments with outbred Swiss mice, epimastigote forms of
In experiments with inbred mice (A and BALB/c), epimastigote forms were maintained at 28°C for 21 days in LIT (Liver Infusion, Triptose) (AGM) culture medium to obtained metacyclic forms that were quantified in a Neubauer hemocytometer prior to infection.
In order to investigate the influence of the route of infection on the course of
In experiments to investigate the host genetics influence on the course of
Ten mice of each infected group were monitored daily from 5 to 50 dpi. Parasitaemia was determined as described by Pizzi and Prager [32]. Briefly, 5 μL of blood’s tail vein was collected and placed under a cover slip (22 x 22 mm) and the number of parasites/mL of blood was estimated by counting 50 microscopic fields in a 400X magnification. Mice that did not develop parasitaemia were considered non-infected and excluded from the experiment.
Mortality rate was estimated to obtain the survivors percentage. Mean time of death was calculated following Liddell [33].
At the same time of parasitaemia evaluation, another 10 μL of blood’s tail vein was collected and diluted in Turk’s solution (1/20) [34] for white cells counting using a Neubauer chamber. Differential cell count was made in smears, after MayGrünwald–Giemsa staining, by counting 100 leukocytes/slide.
Spleen index was calculated to investigate reticuloendothelial stimulation. This index was calculated after evaluation of the relative spleen weight (spleen weight/mouse weight) [35].
Fragments of heart recovered from infected mice were immediately frozen after euthanasia and stored at −70°C. Fragments were digested in 500 μL of lysis buffer (50 mM Tris, 10 mM NaCL, 5 mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS) containing proteinase K (20 mg/ml). DNA was extracted following a standard phenol/chloroform protocol [36]. DNA concentrations and purity were determined by reading A260 and A280 on a NanoDrop 2000c spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Wilmington, DE, USA).
Parasite DNA was detected by SYBR Green qPCR assay using StepOnePlus Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems). Primers targeting
Following euthanasia, all removed organs were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.45, at 4°C, for 72 h, cleaved and routinely processed paraffin embedded. Tissue sections (5 μm) were stained with Hematoxylin–Eosin (HE) (Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, USA), Lennert’s Giemsa, or Picro-Sirius red (Direct Red 80, Aldrich Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA) techniques. The presence of inflammatory infiltrates was classified as (−) without infiltrates, (+) very mild lesion areas, (++) mild lesion areas, (+++) moderate areas of infiltrates, (+++) severe areas of infiltrates, (++++) very severe areas of infiltrates, following described by Barreto-de-Albuquerque et al. [39], and arbitrary values from 0 to 5 were attributed to it. Tissues were analyzed and photographed under light microscopy (Zeiss, Axioplan 2, with Axiovision LE64 photomicrograph equipment).
The blood was collected by cardiac puncture, placed in EDTA tubes, and sent to the Laborlife clinical laboratory (RJ, Brazil). Complete blood count (CBC) was analyzed in an automatic cell counter (Beckman Coulter, Brea, CA). The blood parameters evaluated were red blood cell (RBC), hemoglobin (Hgb), hematocrit (Hct), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), white blood cell (WBC), and platelet (PLT).
Detection of TNF-𝛂, IFN-𝛄, IL-10, IL-6, IL-17A, IL-4, and IL-2 was performed through BD Cytometric Bead Array (CBA) Mouse Th1/Th2/Th17 Cytokine Kit (cat. 560,485; BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) following manufacturer’s instructions. Samples were acquired in the BD Q13 FACSCallibur flow cytometer (BD Biosciences) and data were analyzed with FCAP Array software (BD Biosciences).
In the determined euthanasia points, the blood of each animal was collected by cardiac puncture using citrated saline (0.87% NaCl, 3.8% Na3C6H5O7) and diluted in the same volume of complete RPMI medium—RPMI 1640 medium (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (CultiLab, Campinas, Brazil); 200 mM L-glutamine; 100 U/mL penicillin; and 10 mg/mL streptomycin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). Cells were then added to a Ficoll–Hypaque (Histopaque 1077; Sigma-Aldrich) sedimentation gradient. After centrifugation at 1030 x g for 20 min at 21 C, without brake, the mononuclear cell (MCs) ring was collected. A lobe of the liver, mesenteric lymph nodes, and spleen were macerated in 4 mL of complete RPMI medium until complete disruption using a glass tissue homogenizer (Corning E.U.A.), being kept on ice throughout the process. Cardiac cells were obtained after organ perfusion with PBS (pH 7.2), subsequently cut into small fragments, and subjected to four cycles of dissociation using 0.2% type II collagenase in RPMI medium without FBS at 37°C, stirring for 30 min. The supernatant obtained after each dissociation cycle was collected in a single tube and kept on ice. Cells from blood, liver, spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes, and heart were washed twice (with centrifugation at 720 x g, 4°C, 5 min) in PBS-BSA-(Bovine Serum Albumin) with 10% FBS and resuspended with 3 mL of ACK (Ammonium-Chloride-Potassium) Lysing Buffer, to lyse of red blood cells, incubated for 5 min at room temperature and washed again. After that, cells were incubated in PBS-BSA with 10% horse serum (HS) for 30 min, washed again, resuspended with complete RPMI medium, and adjusted to 1x106cells/well.
Cells were incubated for 20 min in the dark at room temperature with the following monoclonal-antibody panel: anti-CD3-PC7 (Cat 553,064; BD Biosciences—maximum emission (max-em): 785 nm) diluted 1:40; anti-CD4-APC-H7 (Cat 560,181; BD Biosciences—max-em: 785 nm) diluted 1:80; anti-CD8-BB515 (Cat. 564,422; BD Biosciences—max-em: 515 nm) diluted 1:160, and anti-CD19-APC (Cat MCA 1439; Serotec—max-em: 661 nm) diluted 1:20, in PBS-BSA-HS. Cells were washed with PBS to remove unbound antibodies, fixed in 1% paraformaldehyde for 30 min in the dark at 4°C, washed again, and stored at 4°C in the dark until acquisition in flow cytometry. At least 20,000 events from each sample were acquired through CytoFlex flow cytometer (Beckman Coulter). Single-stained controls were used to set compensation parameters, while unstained cells were used to set analysis regions. After acquisition, flow cytometric analysis to evaluate the frequencies of CD8+T, CD4+T, CD4+/CD8+ T, and CD19+B cells was performed using CytoExpert Software (Beckman Coulter). A gate strategy was performed as follows: to exclude cell aggregates from analyses, cells were gated on Singlets region in FSC-A vs. FSC-H dot-plot; from Singlets gate an FSC-A vs. Side-Scatter-Area (SSCA), dot plot was created and the analyses region (mononuclear cells) was defined to encompass mononuclear cells and exclude dead cells from analyses; from Mono gate, CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes were determined by CD3 vs. CD4 and CD3 vs. CD8 dot plots, respectively, and CD19+B cells by CD3 vs. CD19 dot plot. CD4+/CD8+ double-positive T cells was determined by plotting CD8 vs. CD4 gated on CD3+.
Data are expressed by mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) and analyzed statistically by two- or one-way ANOVA and Sidak’s multiple comparison post-test using the GraphPad Prism 6 software. Differences were considered significant when p < 0.05.
Several studies have been showing that the course and severity of Chagas’ disease depends on varied factors, among them are the route of infection and host genetic background [25].
The most frequent route of Chagas’ transmission is currently by ingestion of contaminated food and beverages, especially in Brazil and some other endemic countries [19, 40, 41, 42]. Infection by oral route usually leads to a more severe acute disease than vector-borne infection. The amount of metacyclic trypomastigotes contained in a triatomine crushed in food or beverage may be more than 100 times higher than what is typically found on its feces [43]. Furthermore, the digestive mucosa represents an extensive gateway, containing different molecules that serve as attachment points to the parasite [44]. Therefore, orally infected patients tend to experience a more severe acute phase, with more rapid progression to long-term cardiac or gastrointestinal dysfunction and higher mortality [43]. In the experimental model, intraperitoneal inoculation is the most common route of infection, but it does not mimic any natural infection. It delivers elevated loads of trypomastigotes directly in the peritoneum, bypassing all natural barriers in the skin and mucosa. When mucosa and systemic
Influence of the route of infection on parasitaemia, mortality, and heart histopathology. Swiss Webster outbred mice were infected either intraperitoneally (IP) or intragastrically (IG) with 107 TCC of
The success of
Influence of the mouse strain on the parasite load. Inbred mice from A and BALB/c genetic backgrounds were infected intragastrically (IG) with 107 metacyclic forms of
In our study, BALB/c and A mice presented parasites nest on the heart (Figure 2D and E). Cardiac damage in acute Chagas disease is closely related to cases of death [5, 59]. The highest number of deaths observed in BALB/c
In this work, hypochromic anemia was the main hematological alteration found after
Hematological analysis. A-E inbred mice from A and BALB/c genetic backgrounds were infected intragastrically (lg) with 107 metacyclic forms of
A reduced life span or sequestration of RBC by autoantibodies or other mechanisms have been described as a factor that can contribute to anemia in protozoan and viral infections [64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69]. The average life span of a red blood cell is 40 days in a normal mouse [70]. In this study,
Bone marrow suppression is related with the activity of several cytokines, and among them are TNF-α and IFN-γ [71, 72, 73, 74]. It was shown that an excessive production of TNF-α and IFN-γ promotes damage in hematopoiesis in mice infected with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) [71]. In studies with malaria, TNF-α has been described as an important anemia mediator [64]. In previous studies, inhibitory effects of TNF-α on erythropoiesis have been demonstrated [74, 75]. This inhibitory effect was also observed during acute infection by
One consequence of the depressed bone marrow function, characterized by the poor quality or insufficiency of the blood elements production, is extramedullary hematopoiesis (EMH). EMH can occur in adult mouse livers [65, 66] under myelosuppression by various pathological lesions, including hemoglobinopathies, most commonly sickle cell anemia and thalassemia [67, 68]. In our study, we observed the occurrence of extramedullary hematopoiesis in the livers of
Leukocytosis is another hematological alteration described after
White blood cell count analysis. Inbred mice from A (A) and BALB/c (B) genetic backgrounds intragastrically infected with 107 metacyclic forms of
Recognition of
In our study, the frequencies of CD4+, CD8+, CD4+/CD8+ T cells and B cells in different organs varied according to the route of infection, and mouse strain. After intraperitoneal infection by
T cells present in the inflammatory infiltrate. Swiss Webster outbred mice were infected either intraperitoneally (IP) or intragastrically (IG) with 107 TCC of
Cell proliferation in the spleen. Swiss Webster outbred mice were infected either intraperitoneally or intragastrically with 107 TCC of
In the blood, IG-infected mice showed a reduction of CD4+ T cells frequency (26 dpi) and an increase of CD8+ T cells 26 and 33 days after infection (Figure 5B). Meanwhile, the analysis of lymph nodes showed a decrease of CD4+ T cell frequency on both infected groups: IP-infected mice at 11 dpi and IG-infected mice 26 and 33 dpi (Figure 5C). The variation in the T cells frequency in the mesenteric lymph nodes is caused by depletion of lymphocytes and increased apoptosis rates, which may be related to the production of different cytokines [92].
These results show a fluctuation in the percentage of lymphocytes in the analyzed tissues. This variation demonstrates the differentiated role of each compartment and a different response profile with a specific and coordinated response of these sites against the parasite [93]. Besides, we demonstrated the influence of infection route on the lymphocyte’s frequency and magnitude, once
The differences in expansion and distribution of T and B cell frequencies in the blood, liver, and heart of A and BALB/c mice IG infected by
Influence of the mouse strain on cell recruitment. Inbred mice from A and BALB/c genetic backgrounds were infected intragastrically (IG) with 107 metacyclic forms of
CD4+/CD8+ double-positive T cells, under normal conditions, are found in the thymus, where they undergo differentiation into mature CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. During
In
Redistribution and circulation of lymphocyte subtypes to other sites are modulated by the local and systemic immune system [106]. This regulation is affected by the infection and often related to the severity of the clinical manifestations.
Several murine studies have described the importance of proinflammatory cytokines during
Cytokine production by mice from different strains. Inbred mice from BALB/c (A) and A (B) genetic backgrounds were infected intragastrically (IG) with 107 metacyclic forms of
After infection,
In this study, we observed differences in the parasite load and inflammatory infiltrate intensity depending on the inoculation route used. IP infection showed an higher tissue colonization by SC2005
Histopathological alterations in intragastrically-infected mice. Swiss Webster outbred mice were intraperitoneally (IP) infected with 107 TCC of
On the other hand, IG infection induced a moderate-to-intense diffuse inflammatory infiltrate essentially lymphomonocytic in the esophagus, stomach, liver, kidney, bladder, uterus, brain, intestine, heart, pancreas, and adipose tissue (Figure 10). Mast cells were observed in the inflammatory infiltrates of the adipose tissue, bladder, and stomach (Figure 10A). Parasite nests were observed in lower numbers than IP-infected mice only in stomach, heart, bladder (Figure 10D), and adipose tissue. Thymus showed no changes in these animals. A common alteration observed in both IP- and IG-infected animals was the germinal centers hyperplasia in spleen and lymph nodes (Figure 6C), as well as omental and mesenteric milky spots were activated (Figure 10C), and myeloid cells are present. In addition, the liver of the infected mice showed immature cells, megakaryocytes, and dividing cells.
Histopathological alterations in intraperitoneal infected mice. Swiss Webster outbred mice were intragastrically (IG) infected with 107 TCC of
Both infected mice showed a redistribution and an increase of collagen fibers, associated with inflammatory infiltrates and a decrease of these infiltrates with the course of infection, with exception of the heart, where there is an increase of these infiltrates in the later times (IP-18 dpi and IG-33 dpi). These inflammatory infiltrates were preferentially located in the muscle layer of the organs. In the heart, they were preferentially located in the atria, while parasites were found in the heart ventricles. IP-infected mice showed an increase in heart parasitism at 18 dpi. On the contrary, IG-infected mice showed scarce parasite nests in this organ at 33 dpi and a much larger inflammatory infiltrate (essentially lymphoid) than observed in IP-infected mice (Figure 1C and D).
Similar to the observed Swiss mice infected by IG or IP routes, A and BALB/c mice IG infected by SC2005
Histopathological alterations in intragastrically-infected BALB/c mice. Inbred BALB/c mice were infected intragastrically (IG) with 107 metacyclic forms of
As it can be observed, the SC2005
The presence of immature cells and megakaryocytes in the liver was also a common finding in all infected mice. This finding suggests that extramedullary hematopoiesis was occurring in this organ. During the acute phase of
Altogether, the findings of this study point that
The intraperitoneal infection proved to be more infective and severe than the intragastric route, leading to a higher parasitaemia, mortality, tissue colonization, and tissue inflammatory response.
The mouse strain influences the immune response, pointing to a role for host genetics in the susceptibility to infection. In this study, although
This study adds highlights on the factors that influence the pathology of Chagas disease, helping in the understanding of its different outcomes.
The authors would like to thank the Flow Cytometry Core Facilities of the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz/FIOCRUZ-RJ. We also thank Sandy Santos Pereira for providing technical support, and Thaize Q. Chometon for operating the Cytoflex Flow Cytometer.
This work was supported by CAPES by student scholarship and Oswaldo Cruz Institute.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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Evans",authors:[{id:"96409",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Evans",slug:"carla-evans",fullName:"Carla Evans"},{id:"96472",title:"Prof.",name:"Budi",middleName:null,surname:"Kusnoto",slug:"budi-kusnoto",fullName:"Budi Kusnoto"},{id:"172854",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia Taneva",middleName:null,surname:"Taneva",slug:"emilia-taneva-taneva",fullName:"Emilia Taneva Taneva"}]},{id:"18426",doi:"10.5772/18746",title:"Factors Affecting the Success of Dental Implants",slug:"factors-affecting-the-success-of-dental-implants",totalDownloads:17471,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Carlos Nelson Elias",authors:[{id:"32438",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Elias",slug:"carlos-elias",fullName:"Carlos Elias"}]},{id:"32161",doi:"10.5772/38059",title:"Caries Through Time: An Anthropological Overview",slug:"caries-archaeological-and-historical-record",totalDownloads:6523,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"1742",slug:"contemporary-approach-to-dental-caries",title:"Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries",fullTitle:"Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries"},signatures:"Luis Pezo Lanfranco and Sabine Eggers",authors:[{id:"115399",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Pezo-Lanfranco",slug:"luis-pezo-lanfranco",fullName:"Luis Pezo-Lanfranco"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61046",title:"Optical Diagnostics to Improve Periodontal Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"optical-diagnostics-to-improve-periodontal-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:7100,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The performance of clinicians undertaking periodontal assessment or periodontal therapy can be improved by using optical methods as adjuncts to visual inspection and periodontal probing. Subtle changes that occur over time in periodontal tissues that are below the detection limit of visual examination or periodontal probing can be found and tracked accurately over time using 3D imaging, fluorescence spectroscopy, and optical coherence tomography. During debridement of teeth and dental implants, the effective removal of subgingival microbial biofilms and dental calculus deposits can be enhanced using magnifying loupes and operating microscopes and by novel methods based on the interactions of light with bacterial deposits, such as differential reflectometry and light-induced fluorescence. While such techniques can also be used using initial case assessment, their primary purpose is for checking debridement procedures, since the point when bacterial deposits are no longer present represents an endpoint for treatment. The concept of real-time feedback has been developed, using fluorescence readings to control the removal of deposits. Overall, optical methods can support traditional periodontal diagnosis and improve treatment planning and clinical periodontal care.",book:{id:"7244",slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fardad Shakibaie and Laurence Walsh",authors:[{id:"179467",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",slug:"laurence-walsh",fullName:"Laurence Walsh"},{id:"235443",title:"Dr.",name:"Fardad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakibaie",slug:"fardad-shakibaie",fullName:"Fardad Shakibaie"}]},{id:"24363",title:"Biomechanics of Tooth-Movement: Current Look at Orthodontic Fundamental",slug:"biomechanics-of-tooth-movement-current-look-at-orthodontic-fundamental",totalDownloads:26705,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"277",slug:"principles-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Joanna Antoszewska and Nazan Küçükkeles",authors:[{id:"50158",title:"Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Antoszewska",slug:"joanna-antoszewska",fullName:"Joanna Antoszewska"}]},{id:"71271",title:"Flap Techniques in Dentoalveolar Surgery",slug:"flap-techniques-in-dentoalveolar-surgery",totalDownloads:2538,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most dentoalveolar procedures involve the reflection of mucosal flaps. This step is crucial for exposure or removal of impacted teeth, implant bed preparation, exposure of the alveolar bone for augmentation, periodontal surgeries, and repair of mucosal soft tissue defects, such as oroantral fistula. Because of the rich vascularity of the oral mucosa, great freedom is allowed for flap design, but it tends to result in carelessness and lack of thoughtful planning, which may lead to uneventful outcomes or/and complications. In this chapter, we review oral anatomy, classification, indications, and complications of common oral flap techniques; common flap designs are illustrated, and their fundamental principles are highlighted. The review has covered various flap designs based on their indications. Yet the common flap’s principles are fundamental for all types of flaps regardless of their application, namely, it should provide wide exposure, clear vision, good access, and assure rich vascularity and good final aesthetic outcome.",book:{id:"9387",slug:"oral-diseases",title:"Oral Diseases",fullTitle:"Oral Diseases"},signatures:"Randa Abdulmoein AlFotawi",authors:[{id:"308701",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",middleName:"Abdulmoein",surname:"Alfotawi",slug:"randa-alfotawi",fullName:"Randa Alfotawi"}]},{id:"65088",title:"Evaluation and Management of Mandibular Fracture",slug:"evaluation-and-management-of-mandibular-fracture",totalDownloads:2864,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The mandibular bone is an important component of the facial bone, which has a unique role in digestive system, speech, and facial esthetics. For these important functions of mandibular bone, it is vital that surgeons should not only treat function but also consider the esthetics together. Mandibular fractures are among the most common traumatic injuries of the maxillofacial region. Even though treatment modalities are well established and being practiced for a long time, untreated and postoperative complications still decrease the patient’s quality of life. This chapter aims to describe the cause, clinical presentations, diagnoses, and current treatment methods on the basis of resent literature.",book:{id:"7572",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry"},signatures:"Guhan Dergin, Yusuf Emes and Buket Aybar",authors:[{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin"},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes"},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar"}]},{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2624,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The permanent incisors are the front teeth that erupt between 6 and 8 years of age. They are eight in number, four upper and four lower, two centrals and two laterals. They have sharp biting surfaces designed for shearing and cutting of food materials into small chewable pieces. They are the teeth most visible to the others during eating, smiling and talking, and thus, they have high aesthetic value for the individuals. The unique characteristics, arch position, function, development and chronological age of each tooth will be highlighted. In addition, the different aspects with their geometric outlines, outlines and surface anatomy of these teeth will be described. A brief explanation about the pulp cavity, tooth socket and normal occlusion for each tooth will be included.",book:{id:"5814",slug:"dental-anatomy",title:"Dental Anatomy",fullTitle:"Dental Anatomy"},signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. Grawish",authors:[{id:"82989",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:"E",surname:"Grawish",slug:"mohammed-grawish",fullName:"Mohammed Grawish"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"174",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",abstract:"This chapter will address evidence-based prosthetic concepts in dental implantology as well as clinical evidence with focus on appropriate logic and technical skills. Those prosthetic factors are as just important as surgical factors, and long-term success can only be achieved if both of those factors are considered, respected, and strictly followed from planning to prosthetic phase of treatment. This chapter will deal with materials selection for prosthetic part, shape, size, and design of supracrestal parts of abutments and their influence on soft tissue and bone stability around dental implants. Furthermore, one of most important decisions is about choosing the proper way of retention: screw- vs. cement-retained restorations, and it will be discussed in detail. Additionally, emergence profile and its function in soft tissues adaptation and adhesion to different prosthetic materials also have important role in long-term success of dental implant restorations.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Ivica Pelivan"},{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",abstract:"Breathing is essential for life in all of its stages. Cellular, mitochondrial respiration requires an adequate supply of oxygen, provided by the air we breathe, after airway conduction, treatment by the lungs, and transport to tissues. At different stages of life, pediatric dentists and orthodontists can intervene in the upper airway, expanding it, which helps with ventilation. The greater airway space, if used, contributes in different ways to the child’s development and the recovery of respiratory problems and should always be present as a weapon that physicians and the population should know. The value of the techniques becomes even more important when applied to children and young people with disabilities who can significantly improve their development and performance. Rapid Maxillary Expansion and Extraoral Traction Appliances are two important pediatric resources to treat these children. Clinical practice of the authors, is discussed, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and the need for multi and interdisciplinary collaboration in the follow-up of disabled people.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman"},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",abstract:"This study compared the perception of pain experienced by patients undergoing orthodontic treatment with conventional, self-ligating brackets and aligners, and investigated the impact that pain had on their daily lives. 346 consecutive patients were included in the study: 115 patients treated with conventional brackets, 112 Patients treated with self-ligating brackets, and 119 patients treated with aligners. The quantitative aspect of pain was assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale, while the qualitative aspect of pain was evaluated using the Moroccan Short Form of McGILL Pain questionnaire. In all three groups experienced pain after activation tended to decrease in the following week. This pain was greater in patients with conventional braces and less in patients with aligners. Using the M-SF-MPQ to describe the qualitative aspect of the pain revealed that the “cramping مزير,” “aching تيألم ” aspect was most accentuated in the 3 groups. Medication intake was correlated with the intensity of pain experienced in all 3 systems. As for the impact of pain on daily activities, patients in groups of conventional and self-ligating braces showed more pain than those in the aligners group. Overall, aligners were less painful than conventional and self-ligating appliances. Patients did not suffer from an alteration in their quality of life due to orthodontic treatment.",book:{id:"10780",title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg"},signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani"},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",slug:"herbs-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",abstract:"Herbal medicine has long been used to prevent and control disease, and it can minimize the potential side effects of chemical products. However, side effects from herbs do exist. Most of the challenges with herbal medicine revolves around inadequate information about the effect of herbs in the oral cavity, the mechanism of action, and potential side effects. There are several herbs described in this chapter have anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal in oral micro-organisms. It includes aloe vera, ginger, clove, cinnamon, garlic, neem, miswak, turmeric, tulsi, green tea, chamomile, fenugreek, anise plant, peppermint, bloodroot, caraway, eucalyptus, phyllanthus emblica, black seed, myrrh, rosemary, sage, and thyme; some may act as an alternative management option to current treatments for oral conditions such as caries prevention, gingivitis, periodontitis, oral burn, ulcers and inflammation, after extraction, dry mouth, pain reduction, anesthesia, intracanal medications, ill-fitting dentures, peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis. It can be used in several forms such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, topical agents or local drug delivery devices. However, more research is needed to understand their mechanisms and potential side effects.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Zuhair S. Natto"},{id:"80500",title:"Novel Dental Implants with Herbal Composites: A Review",slug:"novel-dental-implants-with-herbal-composites-a-review",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101489",abstract:"Missing a permanent tooth is a miserable condition faced by a common man. A tooth decay, periodontitis, mechanical trauma, or any systemic complications lead to such a complication. These bone defects when left untreated lead to severe resorption of the alveolar bone. A proper dental filling with an appropriate bone substitute material could prevent such resorption and paves a way for subsequent implant placement. Dental implants are considered as the prime option by dentists to replace a single tooth or prevent bone resorption. A variety of bone substitutes are available differ in origin, consistency, particle size, porosity, and resorption characteristics. Herbal composites in dentistry fabricated using biphospho-calcium phosphate, casein, chitosan, and certain herbal extracts of Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna bark, Myristica fragans also were reported to possess a higher ossification property, osteogenic property and were able to repair bone defects. C. occidentalis was reported to stimulate mineralization of the bone and osteoblastic differentiation through the activation of the PI3K-Akt/MAPKs pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells of mice. This implant proved better osteoconductivity and bioactivity compared to pure HAP and other BCP ratios. Terminalia Arjuna was also worked in the incorporation in the graft to enhance the osteogenic property of the implant and gave good results. Another implant bone graft was synthesized containing BCP, biocompatible casein, and the extracts of Myristica fragans and subjected to in vitro investigations and the results revealed the deposition of apatite on the graft after immersing in SBF and also the ALP activity was high when treated with MG-63 cells, NIH-3 T3, and Saos 2 cell lines. This study indicates that the inclusion of plant extract enhances the osteogenic property of the graft. Thus, these novel dental implants incorporated with herbal composites evaluated by researchers revealed an enhanced bone healing, accelerates osseointegration, inhibits osteopenia, and inhibits inflammation. This application of herbal composite inclusion in dentistry and its applications has a greater potential to improve the success rate of dental implants and allows the implications of biotechnology in implant dentistry.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gopathy Sridevi and Seshadri Srividya"},{id:"78320",title:"Implant-Retained Maxillary and Mandibular Overdentures - A Solution for Completely Edentulous Patients",slug:"implant-retained-maxillary-and-mandibular-overdentures-a-solution-for-completely-edentulous-patients",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99575",abstract:"The main goal of modern removable prosthodontics is to restore the normal appearance, function, esthetics and speech in each completely edentulous patient. However, if all teeth are missing in a patient, it becomes very complicated to achieve it using traditional protocols. Therefore, implants were introduced into removable prosthodontics to ensure better retention and stability of the conventional dentures. In case of a large amount of bone missing in the jaw it is necessary to ensure the functioning of the dentures constructing various additional stabilizing and retentive prosthodontic solutions on the osseointegrated implants. Numerous types of attachment systems have been used recently for relating implant-retained overdentures to underlying implants: basically splinting (various bar shape designs) and non-splinting attachments (various ball type attachment, magnet attachment, telescopic coping systems). Indications for their use depend on the surgical and prosthodontic factors such as the number and position of the implants, the amount of free intermaxillary space and the type and size of the overdentures. Different indications, types of the overdentures and the attachment systems will be discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić, Robert Ćelić and Hrvoje Pezo"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:53},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/317700",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"317700"},fullPath:"/profiles/317700",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()