Parameters adopted in the modeling of TPS configurations of
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7061",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Blood Glucose Levels",title:"Blood Glucose Levels",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The main source of energy for the body is glucose. Its low blood concentrations can cause seizures, loss of consciousness and death. Long lasting high glucose levels can cause blindness, renal failure, cardiac and peripheral vascular disease, and neuropathy. Blood glucose concentrations need to be maintained within narrow limits. The process of maintaining blood glucose at a steady state is called glucose homeostasis. This is achieved through a balance of the rate of consumption of dietary carbohydrates, utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, and the loss of glucose through the kidney tubule. The liver and kidney also play a role in glucose homeostasis. This book aims to provide an overview of blood glucose levels in health and diseases.",isbn:"978-1-78985-526-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-525-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-222-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73823",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"blood-glucose-levels",numberOfPages:138,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"71d38173067c610b03c51dec97dd031d",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7061.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10646,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:46,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 4th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"178",title:"Endocrinology",slug:"medicine-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"65705",title:"Introductory Chapter: Glucose Transporters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82263",slug:"introductory-chapter-glucose-transporters",totalDownloads:1092,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Leszek Szablewski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65705",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65705",authors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],corrections:null},{id:"70043",title:"Molecular Basis of Blood Glucose Regulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89978",slug:"molecular-basis-of-blood-glucose-regulation",totalDownloads:1337,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Blood glucose level is regulated by multiple pancreatic hormones, which regulate it by different pathways in normal and abnormal conditions by expressing or suppressing multiple genes or molecular or cellular targets. Multiple synthetic drugs and therapies are used to cure glucose regulatory problems, while many of them are used to cure other health issues, which arise due to disturbance in blood glucose regulations. Many new approaches are used for the development of phytochemical-based drugs to cure blood glucose regulation problems, and many of the compounds have been isolated and identified to cure insulin resistance or regulate beta cell function or glucose absorption in the guts or GLP-1 homoeostasis or two/more pathways (e.g., either cure hyperglycemia or raise insulin resistance or cure pancreatic beta cell regeneration or augmentation of GLP-1, production of islet cell, production and increased insulin receptor signaling and insulin secretion or decreased insulin tolerance or gluconeogenesis and insulin-mimetic action or production of α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitor or conserve islet mass or activate protein kinase A (PKA) and extracellular signal regulated kinases (ERK) or activate AMPK and reduce insulin sensitivity or suppress α-glucosidase activity and activate AMPK and downstream molecules or prevents cell death of pancreatic β-cell and activates SIRT1 or lower blood glucose due to their insulin-like chemical structures or decrease lipid peroxidation.",signatures:"Asma Ahmed and Noman Khalique",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70043",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70043",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63301",title:"Role of PI3K/AKT Pathway in Insulin-Mediated Glucose Uptake",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80402",slug:"role-of-pi3k-akt-pathway-in-insulin-mediated-glucose-uptake",totalDownloads:3666,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:31,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Glucose uptake is regulated by several mechanisms, where insulin plays the most prominent role. This powerful anabolic hormone regulates the transport of glucose into the cell through translocation of glucose transporter from an intracellular pool to the plasma membrane mainly in metabolically active tissues like skeletal muscles, adipose tissue, or liver (GLUT4). This translocation occurs through multiple steps of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. In this chapter, we will focus on molecular events leading to GLUT4 translocation, starting with activation of insulin receptors through signaling cascade involving phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase B (PKB) and finally, the action of their effectors. We will present regulatory mechanisms and modulators of insulin-mediated glucose uptake.",signatures:"Ewa Świderska, Justyna Strycharz, Adam Wróblewski, Janusz Szemraj, Józef Drzewoski and Agnieszka Śliwińska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63301",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62244",title:"Cardiovascular and Biochemical Responses in Exercise Recuperation in Diabetic Rats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79084",slug:"cardiovascular-and-biochemical-responses-in-exercise-recuperation-in-diabetic-rats",totalDownloads:706,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this study was to assess the cardiovascular and biochemical responses during aerobic exercise recuperation in diabetic rats. There were utilized 12 animals, of 60 days, divided in two groups: control and diabetic. On the test day, the animals performed a 60 minutes’ session of predominantly aerobic exercise, using an overload of 6% of their body’s weight. After and before the exercise, the animals had their systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate (HR), lactate, glycerol and glucose measured. The animals were trained during 30 days by swimming tank, with an extra weight equivalent to 4% extra weight a 40-min session. A decrease in glucose value occurred in the diabetic animals after exercising, as well as an increase of lactate in the same group. 1’, 3’, 5’ and 7’ after the exercise, a significant reduction of HR in the diabetic group was noticed when compared with the control group, such behavior was also observed with double product (DP) together with SBP values 1’, 3’ and 5’ after the exercise. The diabetic animals’ recovery has been possibly affected by a reduction of blood flow and a reduction of energetic substrates contribution, as well as lactate clearance.",signatures:"Luiz Augusto da Silva, Jéssica Wouk and Vinicius Muller Reis Weber",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62244",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68511",title:"Carbohydrate Metabolism in Hypoglycemia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88362",slug:"carbohydrate-metabolism-in-hypoglycemia",totalDownloads:995,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hypoglycemia is generated by mechanisms directly related to an increase in insulin secretion, by metabolic disorders that require increased glucose consumption or by a deficient metabolic production of glucose by the body. Mechanisms include high glucose intake, increased dose of oral hypoglycemic, exogenous administration of insulin, metabolic hepatic conditions that lead to an increase in the production of amino acids, growing tumors, and in diabetic pregnant woman with abnormal increase in glucose and amino acids that end up producing insulin hypersecretion in the newborn. Work that requires high glucose expenditure or reduction of insulin antagonist, such as cortisol and glucagon, ends up in hypoglycemia. Finally, hypoglycemia is generated by metabolic deficit in pathophysiological situations such as defects in enzymatic systems, alcoholic hepatitis, and insufficient nutrition. The most characteristic symptoms include bulimia, fits of sweating, and tremors due to a strong activation of the sympathetic system. Obviously, the CNS is strongly affected by the lack of glucose, which is even more complicated because also hypoglycemia leads to a situation of decreased lipolysis and ketone bodies that finally seriously compromise the supply of energy to the nervous system, producing losses of consciousness, spasms, and even irreversible brain damage.",signatures:"María L. Kennedy and Miguel A. Campuzano-Bublitz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68511",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69558",title:"Symptoms of Hypoglycaemia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88674",slug:"symptoms-of-hypoglycaemia",totalDownloads:628,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hypoglycaemia is common in clinical practice for people with diabetes. However, the symptoms can vary between individuals and at different stages of their condition. Moreover, several factors influence symptoms experienced by people with diabetes, and many are amenable to intervention. Symptoms are commonly neuroglycopenic or neurogenic in aetiology, and these lead to different clusters of symptoms. Certain patient groups such as the elderly and pregnant women are particularly susceptible to hypoglycaemia. In this chapter, we describe the physiology and pathophysiology behind the symptoms of hypoglycaemia, with reference to current knowledge from neuroimaging studies, and outline potential interventions to modify or restore hypoglycaemia symptoms.",signatures:"Panagiota Loumpardia and Mohammed S.B. Huda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69558",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69558",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69258",title:"Hypoglycemia: Essential Clinical Guidelines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86994",slug:"hypoglycemia-essential-clinical-guidelines",totalDownloads:1419,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Hypoglycemia is the acute complication of diabetes mellitus and the commonest diabetic emergency and is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. It can be caused by too much insulin intake or oral hypoglycemic agents, too little food, or excessive physical activity. The level of glucose that produces symptoms of hypoglycemia varies from person to person and varies for the same person under different circumstances. It characterized by sweating, tremor, tachycardia, palpitation, nervousness, hunger, confusion, slurred speech, emotional changes, double vision, drowsiness, sleeplessness, and often self-diagnosed which may leads to serious symptoms of seizure, cognitive impairment, coma and death. The immediate treatment of hypoglycemia should be known by all the diabetic patients, so that need for hospitalization could be avoided. Hypoglycemia and its severity can be prevented by early recognition of hypoglycemia risk factors, self-monitoring of blood glucose, selection of appropriate treatment regimens, appropriate educational programs for healthcare professionals. The major challenges of the treatment of hypoglycemia are good glycemic control, minimize the risk of hypoglycemia and thereby minimize long-term complications. Hence there is an urgent need to understand the clinical spectrum and burden of hypoglycemia so that adequate control measures can be implemented against this life-threatening complication.",signatures:"Thenmozhi Paluchamy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69258",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69258",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69197",title:"The Effect of Ramadan Fasting on Metabolic Syndrome (MetS)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89333",slug:"the-effect-of-ramadan-fasting-on-metabolic-syndrome-mets-",totalDownloads:807,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The effect of Ramadan fasting on most of the metabolic syndrome (MetS) markers is still controversial. However, most of the available evidences showed positive effect on most of the MetS markers. In general, Ramadan fasting may help to reduce the risk of MetS. Nevertheless, most of the positive results seem to be impermanent and reading many variables (MetS markers) return to the previous reading after few weeks (~3–4 weeks). Therefore, intermittent fasting such as Ramadan fasting could be one of the cure alternatives especially in people with MetS, cardiovascular or metabolic diseases with considering their physician supervision. Again, more evidences are recommended to clarify the controversial issues related to the role of Ramadan fasting on MetS markers.",signatures:"Khalid S. Aljaloud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69197",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69197",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6581",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"85899eab2d8b01653e1297b168c470d7",slug:"adipose-tissue",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6581.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"34880b7b450ef96fa5063c867c028b02",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3857",title:"Glucose Homeostasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6d19b59871b430fbcfc4bd297e242d",slug:"glucose-homeostasis",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3857.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6246",title:"Salivary Glands",subtitle:"New Approaches in Diagnostics and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"de375ecbd9ac673d6464107a0c416763",slug:"salivary-glands-new-approaches-in-diagnostics-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Işıl Adadan Güvenç",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6246.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36790",title:"M.D.",name:"Işıl",surname:"Adadan Güvenç",slug:"isil-adadan-guvenc",fullName:"Işıl Adadan Güvenç"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7848",title:"Selected Chapters from the Renin-Angiotensin System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38e89685aa86d8cbff0718f3813ae625",slug:"selected-chapters-from-the-renin-angiotensin-system",bookSignature:"Aleksandar Kibel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"183303",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandar",surname:"Kibel",slug:"aleksandar-kibel",fullName:"Aleksandar Kibel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7269",title:"Endocrine Disruptors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"571f5c496c8b0e8db9043204fa58be2a",slug:"endocrine-disruptors",bookSignature:"Ahmed R. 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People have always migrated and have moved, but, specifically looking at the last three hundred years, involuntary migration is on the rise. Involuntary migration does not only affect Europe; Asia, Africa, and North as well as South America, have had their fair share of natural catastrophes, invasions, and wars.
\r\n\tThis book will intend to look at different migrant patterns, voluntary and involuntary migration, over the last three centuries. What influenced people to leave their home countries, family, and friends and settle somewhere else? The book may include histories of the 19th century, consider tragedies and movements activated by political events in the 20th century, and/or look at recent events of the 21st century. Push and pull factors are important points. While most of us may be influenced in a negative way by the current happenings in Eastern Europe, the Russian invasion and resulting tragedies also demonstrate some very positive human traits – the preparedness of Ukraine’s surrounding countries to help those in need and to provide a safe place for the present.
\r\n\tWhether one looks at voluntary or involuntary migration into any country, after a period of adjustment, migrants do play a positive role. The research found that migrants contribute to the economy (food, shelter, employment, tax) and enrich a country’s cultural norms. Prerequisites for successful settlements are that the host society adopts a tolerant approach and that the migrants recognize the law and the language of the host country. Nothing is ever easy or without controversy, but I am a migrant (German Australian), and life in Australia has been relatively harmonious. Issues that could be considered in the book are multicultural societies (do monocultural societies still exist?) and theories of acculturation versus integration (settlement processes).
\r\n\tTwo further issues are very important in relation to human migration. There is climate change, global warming, and the environment, which clearly affect people’s movement. Small island populations are very concerned about rising sea levels. 2021 has also seen floods costing human lives: Turkey (August 2021), Brazil (December 2021), Chile (January 2021), and South India (November 2021), to name but a few. In Australia (March 2022), farms and whole townships in New South Wales and Queensland have been flooded for the second time in five years, and plans to resettle these towns are considered. Official and social media provide ample coverage of the events, which leads me to the next issue. There is today’s very important role of the media, of the official and social media. We are constantly bombarded with images of human war tragedies and flood victims. People in industrialized, western countries must be the best-informed populace. How far do the images and up-to-date TV news influence us, make us change our behavior, and perhaps even consider us more generous than we have been?
\r\n\tClimate change and the media are relatively new to the human migration debate, but both issues play important parts, and some interesting discussions are appreciated.
\r\n\t
Currently a number of projects related to the development of reusable launch vehicles (RLV) both single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) and two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) are ongoing. This trend relates to objectives of future space missions that demand to improve vehicle operability, reducing at the same time flight costs of putting payload into orbit. Several preliminary studies/experiments related to this design scenario have been carried on. The European Space Agency developed two demonstrators, the EXPERT (European eXPErimental Re-entry Test-bed) program and the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV), which performed an atmospheric lifting reentry from orbital speed [1]. Besides, an unmanned lifting body developed by Boeing X-37B has been put in orbit by an Atlas-5 rocket and performed a successful lifting-guided reentry. Furthermore, a growing demand for space tourism has emerged also in recent years [2]; therefore, a great deal of research effort has been put to design RLV as blended wing bodies also allowing a conventional and more comfortable landing on runways. The main requirements currently considered for RLV design are (i) to perform very low-g (nearly 1.5 g) reentry; (ii) to adopt a lightweight (passive), fully reusable thermal protection system (TPS) to withstand several flights without any replacement; and (iii) to provide vehicle autonomy to land at a predefined location for crew rescue [3, 4]. In order to fulfill all those requirements, the duration of reentry flight increases and consequently the integrated heat load absorbed by the structure [3].
\nThe above consideration incidentally demands a trade-off among several nonlinear conflicting design objectives, also satisfying a number of constraint functions. As an example, the design of the TPS of an RLV performing a suborbital lifting reentry requires a mandatory compromise between the maximum allowed peak heating and the integrated heat load. This requirement may conflict with the adoption of a fully reusable TPS, either limiting the choice of material category or penalizing the total mass. In preliminary design practice, thousands of design configurations are typically evaluated by an optimization algorithm to find the best fit [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Therefore, a preliminary appraisal of vehicle performances is commonly performed using high-efficiency, low-order fidelity methods that give a support to a multidisciplinary analysis performed with a computational effort which fit the typical timeline of the conceptual design phase [11]. In current studies, TPS sizing is performed using several simplified assumptions, carrying out a one-dimensional heat conduction analysis with panel thickness modeled using stackups of different materials [12].
\nThe aerothermal environment is a basic design criterion for either TPS sizing or choice of materials [13, 14]. Several works dealing with TPS sizing have been published in literature. Lobbia [8] determined the sizing of a TPS in the framework of a multidisciplinary optimization. Material densities and maximum reuse temperature were computed. TPS mass was estimated assuming the category of materials used for the space shuttle and thickness distribution assigned on a review of HL-20 materials for each component. Trajectory-based TPS sizing has been proposed by Olynick [13] for a winged vehicle concept. The heating peak was determined considering an X-33 trajectory, discretized in a number of fixed waypoints. The resulting aerothermal database was used as an input for a one-dimensional conduction analysis, and several one-dimensional stackups of different materials representative of TPS were consequently sized. Bradford et al. [14] developed an engineering software tool for aero-heating analysis and TPS sizing. The tool is applicable in the conceptual design phase for reusable, non-ablative TPS. The thermal model was based on a one-dimensional analysis, and TPS was modeled considering a stackup of ten different material layers. Mazzaracchio [15] proposed a method to perform the sizing of a TPS depending on the locations of ablative and reusable zone on a TPS considering the coupling between trajectory and heat shield. Multidisciplinary analysis, integrating a procedural NURBS-based shape representation, is adopted for a preliminary design [3]. NURBS parameterization allows a simple control over the aerodynamic shape using a limited number of sensitive design parameters acting as geometrical modifiers.
\nHowever, derivation of a unique parameterization to describe the overall changes of geometry resulting from a shape optimization is not always possible, and several surfaces are used to parameterize different parts of the geometry. Implicit surfaces are a powerful and alternative tool for creating shapes due to their smooth blending properties enabling creation of arbitrary shape. In the present work, a soft object-derived representation for TPS thickness and material attribution is introduced. According to the legacy formulation of this technique, originally developed in computer graphics for the rendering of complex organic shapes [16], three-dimensional object surfaces are (implicitly) obtained by defining a set of source points (or even more complex varieties) irradiating a potential field that is subsequently tracked according to an assigned isosurface. Following a quite different paradigm developed in [17], the full potential field irradiated by a set of by-dimensional soft objects is congruently mapped on a discretized RLV shape. The methodology is able to create arbitrary TPS distributions seamlessly increasing the thickness where critical heat loads are experienced and dropping out elsewhere. A similar, slightly modified procedure is also applied to create an arbitrary binary map of different TPS materials that may be operated independently (or synchronized) with the thickness distribution. The present formulation is formalized in the framework of a parametric model which exploits simple variations of parameters to perform the soft object mapping over discretized surface. Applications of the developed procedure to different arbitrary vehicle shape show the flexibility of the method.
\nSoft objects constitute a modeling technique which typically represents a domain using a scalar field, namely, a field function F, defined over a three-dimensional space. An implicit surface S defined as
\nthat is, an isosurface S of the field function F specified by the threshold T represents an object instance using a raster conversion algorithm. Soft object modeling overcomes the drawback given by the parametric surfaces; that is, they automatically allow a self-blending between different primitives. Therefore, complex shapes can be modeled defining n ≥ 1 potential field fi, with origin in points
A commonly adopted notation
\ncomposes the distance metric di (which determines the shape of the objects associated to the key point
A more powerful representation used in soft object modeling is based on morphological skeleton that synthesizes the morphological properties of a given domain. A skeleton Sk can be defined as a basic geometric entity (such as points, segments, and plain closed domains) around which more complex shapes can be created once the distance function is provided. The simplest soft object was introduced by Blinn that originally proposed the “blobby molecule,” an isotropically decaying Gaussian function modulated in strength and radius [16]:
\nwhere d is the Euclidean distance (k = 2 in Eq. (4)). Blobby molecule is a soft object defined around a point skeleton, and its field function has an infinite support. This aspect affects the computational effort in a practical implementation, because it has to be evaluated in all points of the space. However, in literature, several finite support potential functions have been proposed for different modeling purposes. Wyvill et al. [19] developed the following field function:
\nBlanc [18] proposed another field function introducing an internal hardness factor p, which tunes the blending between two different blobs. A higher value of p makes a blob stiffer in the blending, while a low hardness factor generates larger rounded shapes [17]:
\nThe field function
Two-dimensional soft objects preserve self-blending property. Figure 1a, b shows the support and the strength field, respectively, created superposing n = 6 discrete point source blobs with radius r, with origins in key point xi. If δe < 2r, two or more blobs superposes, and the strength of the potential field is obtained summing up the strengths of each blob (see Figure 1b). A set of n blobs represents a too complex entity if used to model a parametric variation of shape (a single blob is characterized by five independent parameters, i.e., scalar coordinates of centers, strength, and radius). Therefore, blobs can be conveniently and easily arranged in macroaggregates with key points placed on a geometric segment (straight or curved) denoted from now on as “sticks.” The point source blobs emulates a segment skeleton with the distance function expressed by Eq. (4) (see Figure 1a). However, a simple algebraic summation of potential fields creates a stick support having “bulges.” Increasing the number of blobs, the shape of the support becomes more regular, but the strength of the field function diverges. The above drawback is overcome modifying the definition of potential field given by Eq. (2) with the relation:
\nSupport (a) and strength field (b) of a stick created by a superposition of n = 6 point source blobs.
Equation (9) where F0(P) = 0 expresses the global potential field Fj(P) irradiated by a set of j blobs at a generic point P of space placed at a distance d from the key points, as the max between the previous j − 1 potentials accounted by the assembly layer Fj − 1(P) and the current potential Gj over the plane disk of radius r:
\nFigure 2a, b shows the support and the strength field of a two-dimensional stick primitive obtained with nblob = 6 and 20, respectively, computed with Eq. (8). By increasing the number of blob on a stick, the strength of F is still bounded to a maximum unit value. Figure 2c, d shows the same behavior for a tapered primitive having a linear variation of the blob radius along the axis of stick. Therefore, a seamlessly blending of blobs, with a bounded strength, is obtained adopting Eq. (9). The procedure proposed here relies on a similar idea to the one developed in [17] to generate self-stiffened structural panels. Specifically, rather than modeling an object tracking an iso-contour of its potential field, the full integral field generated by a set of blobs spatially arranged on a two-dimensional grid generates a smoothly varying field.
\nStick primitives obtained with nblob = 6 and 20: constant radius (a, b); variable radius (c, d). The stick support becomes more regular increasing nblob; the strength field remains bounded to unit value.
A generic shape of an RLV is represented by a grid formed by a quadrangular and/or by either degenerated triangular panel grid. Grid points are obtained using a proprietary procedure that authors fully detailed in [20, 21]. Without going into details of the shape model, we remark that the mesh arrangement over the RLV surface is obtained with no NURBS support surface: a three-dimensional parametric wireframe is created using cubic rational B-splines [22] and used to reconstruct computational surface grid. The control parameter allows a wide range of shape variations to handle different design objectives (thermal or dynamical) for a reentry mission. Grid topology is equivalent to a spherical surface with no singularities (open poles) and allows a mapping of the points in UV coordinates over an equivalent cylindrical surface. The above considerations ensure a topologically invariant shape.
\nThe modeling procedure for the TPS is defined starting from the definition of a set of soft objects which are represented on the topological map associated with the current morphology of the object, as shown in Figure 3. Consequently, the supports of the sticks are adjusted according to the normalized dimensions relative to this map. The topological map is emulated introducing a two-dimensional grid (from now, denoted as B-grid) having the same topology tree than the vehicle open grid (number of points, panels, and connectivity) but unit size. A geometric mapping between the B-grid and the vehicle grid is established, and elements of B-grid are univocally mapped onto corresponding elements of the vehicle surface (see Figure 3). Therefore, each centroid of panels which belong to topological map has the same neighboring points either on the topological or morphological map. Several stick primitives are emulated on B-grid placing a number of n equally spaced isotropic blobs, with radius r and length l, respectively, in a normalized unit. Stick emulation is performed by overlapping n blobs using the special formulation reported in [17] that ensures a convergent envelope of the finite support and a limited value of the blob strength. An exemplificative spatial distribution of sticks on the B-grid is shown in Figure 3.
\nMorphological (left) vs. topological map (right).
Position and orientation of each stick are determined by assigning coordinates of centers Ci and precession angles θi, respectively, with respect to a Cartesian frame of reference Oxz oriented as in Figure 3. Therefore, a generic distribution of sticks created on vehicle grid is equally mapped on the vehicle surface whatever is the morphological map considered. In the present case, gray-colored regions (1) denote points of the B-grid mapped on the windward side of RLV shape (see Figure 3), while white regions (2) relate to leeward regions of the vehicle. Regions of vehicle surface mainly subjected to heating peaks during the reentry maneuver are (i) nose, (ii) leading edge, and (iii) tail. The global potential field generated by the sticks onto the B-grid is adjusted in a suitable dimensional scale and subsequently mapped on the mesh panels of the vehicle surface grid to obtain an easy and powerful control of the thickness distribution. The proposed methodology is able to create virtually arbitrary TPS distributions and can be easily tuned up to locally increase the thickness where critical heat loads are expected and dropping out elsewhere. A similar, slightly modified procedure is also applied to create an arbitrary binary map distribution of different TPS materials that may be operated independently of the thickness distribution. Figure 4 shows an arbitrary distribution of stick primitives (not suitable for application purposes) created over the topological map.
\nArbitrary stick distribution created over the topological map.
The resulting potential field created by the superposition of sticks modulates y-coordinate of grid points as shown in Figure 4.
\nAs demonstrative example, a parametric representation of TPS is obtained using a limited set of sticks primitive (nstick = 5), oriented as shown in Figure 5. Skin sticks characterized by a large radius and limited strength are spread over the skin surface in longitudinal direction in order to provide a thickness graded baseline. A constant minimum thickness is superposed in all remaining points of B-grid, ensuring a nonzero value in any point of the grid. Furthermore, additional parametric sticks, specifically positioned and oriented to affect thickness in critical regions as nose, leading edge, and trailing edge, complete the support for TPS and create a rational distribution of insulating material suitable with a reentry mission. Parametric position of sticks and axis of orientation are defined by assigning centroid coordinates xc,zc and angle θth, measured with respect to the system of reference reported in Figure 5. Length (l) and strength (th) are expressed with the parametric relations
\nArbitrary stick distribution with a longitudinal gradient onto B-grid adopted for TPS modeling.
Skin (q = 1, 2) and nose sticks (q = 3) have a tapered support obtained imposing a linear variation of point source blob radius. Conversely, a constant radius is adopted for the leading edge (q = 4) and trailing edge (q = 5) sticks.
\nA similar but completely independent stick-based parameterization has been also defined to model a dynamic distribution map of different insulating materials, denoted here generically as material 1 and material 0 represented with red and blue colors, respectively. We assume that material 1 outperforms material 0. Therefore, material 1 is adopted on the nose, leading edge, and trailing edge, respectively. Differently than sticks used for thickness distribution, this additional set of primitives returns just binary values used to define specific materials. In this case the field function mth (see relation (12)) assumes a constant value equal to one inside the finite support of a stick and zero elsewhere. The parametric equations which describe material assignments are
\nwith normalized parameters reported in Table 1.
\nParameter | \nValue | \nParameter | \nValue | \n
---|---|---|---|
st1, ad | \n0 | \nmt1, ad | \n1 | \n
st2, ad | \n0.01 | \nmt2, ad | \n0.01 | \n
st3, ad | \n0.05 | \nmt3, ad | \n0.05 | \n
st4, ad | \n1 | \nmt4, ad | \n1 | \n
st5, ad | \n0.8 | \nmt5, ad | \n0.8 | \n
lt1, ad | \n1 | \nmlt1, ad | \n1 | \n
lt2, ad | \n0.1 | \nmlt2, ad | \n0.1 | \n
lt3, ad | \n1 | \nmlt3, ad | \n1 | \n
lt4, ad | \n1 | \nmlt4, ad | \n1.2 | \n
lt5, ad | \n1 | \nmlt5, ad | \n1 | \n
pt1, ad | \n1 | \n_ | \n_ | \n
pt2, ad | \n0.2 | \n_ | \n_ | \n
pt3, ad | \n0.5 | \n_ | \n_ | \n
pt4, ad | \n0.2 | \n_ | \n_ | \n
pt5, ad | \n0.6 | \n_ | \n_ | \n
d1min, ad | \n0.5 | \nd1max, ad | \n1 | \n
d2inin, ad | \n0.01 | \nd2max, ad | \n0.3 | \n
d3min, ad | \n0.09 | \nd3max, ad | \n1 | \n
d4min, ad | \n0.1 | \nd4max, ad | \n0.5 | \n
d5min, ad | \n0.02 | \nd5max, ad | \n0.5 | \n
th’min, ad | \n0.07 | \nth’max, ad | \n0.12 | \n
th”min, ad | \n0.132 | \nth”max, ad | \n0.25 | \n
Parameters adopted in the modeling of TPS configurations of
The previously introduced modeling procedure has been applied on a conceptual RLV shape created with the model described in Section 4 and detailed in [20, 21]. Figure 6 shows a topological map obtained for an arbitrarily chosen distribution of stick primitives.
\nTopological map created to represent TPS thickness on different RLV configurations.
A local thickness is assigned on the nose, the leading edge, and the trailing edge. The topological map shown in Figure 6 creates a morphologically adaptive TPS on two RLV shapes with different dimensions: (RLV-1) with length ltot = 9.8 m, wingspan ws = 5.6 m, cabin height h = 1.6 m, and (RLV-2) with length ltot = 15 m, wingspan ws = 9.2 m, and cabin height h = 2 m. The parameters characterizing the distribution of thickness and of the materials are reported in Table 1. Figure 7a, b shows the application of TPS modeling over the first configuration (RLV-1), on leeward (a) and windward (b) surface, respectively. Different colors denote different values of thickness and are represented in a dimensional scale.
\nExample of thickness and material distribution over RLV configuration (RLV-1): (a, b) thickness modulation [m]; (c, d) two material map (red/blue color indicates material 1/0, respectively).
It can be observed that the thickness map can be easily tuned up for best covering of regions where maximum heat loads occur (i.e., the nose and leading edge). Figure 7 shows the capability to create arbitrary seamless thickness distribution up to the value of the baseline thickness which has been arbitrarily set equal to thmin = 0.05 m (denoted in blue color). This corresponds to a region of the leeward surface not covered by the skin stick. Figure 7c, d shows the map of two different insulating materials created with Eq. (7). Red colors indicate material 1, which is placed on regions of the vehicle subjected to higher heat loads. Comparisons between Figure 7a, b and Figure 7c, d also exhibit the capability of the model to handle independently both the thickness and material distribution. Finally, Figure 8a, b and Figure 8c, d show the same blob distribution adopted either for thickness or material modeling applied on a different RLV configuration (RLV-2). The procedure creates, as it was expected, the same TPS distribution both for thickness or materials on two different shapes and is completely independent by their morphology.
\nExample of thickness and material distribution over RLV configuration (RLV-2): (a, b) thickness modulation [m]; (c, d) two material map (red/blue color indicates material 1/0, respectively).
In the present paper, a special modeling procedure of the TPS designed for a conceptual RLV has been developed. A set of macroaggregates of point source blobs organized in envelopes of finite supports, and with a bounded strength, has been successfully created on the topological map associated with the computational grid. Applications of the modeling procedure to different design configurations highlighted the sensitivity and powerful control to radically change the TPS using a limited number of parameters. The promising capabilities of the developed modeling procedure suggest that the present methodology can give support to a multidisciplinary analysis optionally included in a conceptual design framework. Further developments of the considered procedure are about to be integrated in a companion paper by the authors [23].
\nThis work was supported by the Universitá della Campania: “Luigi Vanvitelli.”
\nThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this chapter.
According to the World Stroke Organization (WSO) [1], almost 14 million people have their first stroke every year, and worldwide over 80 million people are living with the impact of stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA). Additionally, researchers have estimated that, as of 2019, there are more than 17,000 new cases of SCI (spinal cord injury) each year and between 249,000 and 363,000 people are currently living with this injury in the United States [2]. These types of disorders, in most of the cases, are associated with the partial or total loss of the sensory motor and autonomic function. The persons affected by these disorders present a lower quality of life and often dependent on other persons. It is possible to recuperate one part of these loosed sensory motor function with the aid of the rehabilitation therapy, but these treatments are very expensive in health resources and very long in time.
Today, the wearable exoskeletons are present in the hospitals and rehabilitation centers, such as support in the rehabilitation therapy. Although most of this rehabilitation devices focused on the lower limb rehabilitation, commercial solutions such Armeo Power from Hocoma [3], InMotion Arm for Neurological Rehabilitation [4], Amadeo from Tyromotion [5] AlexARm from Kinetek [6] can be founded for the upper limb rehabilitation. Most of these solutions are static devices, with different degrees of freedom (DOF) actuated by DC motors, designed to do the rehabilitation therapy with the patients in the specialized centers. Although the development of the rehabilitation devices for the upper limb was approached in the last years, at present there is still a lack of improvements in this field, so that these devices can be used not only in rehabilitation therapy but also daily life. In this way, the exoskeleton offers the users more autonomy and at the same time improves his quality of life. To optimize the future exoskeletons, different improvements are suggested according to the patient’s opinion, which tested these devices. The order proposed by them was easy to use, small and lightweight, tailor-made, safe, comfortable, less distinctive, durable, and affordable [7]. Many of these characteristics are directly related to the actuators used in these devices.
In the past years, the exoskeletons, especially those of the upper limb, were actuated by different types of actuators: DC and AC motors, pneumatic actuators, hydraulic actuators, and other types of actuators such as the shape memory alloy (SMA) [8]. Although the electric motors are one of the most common actuation systems for the exoskeleton, these are still limited by characteristics such the weight, need of gearboxes to reduce the velocity, and the operation noise. On the other hand, the hydraulic and pneumatic actuators present a good force-weight relation but still limited by the noise and the need of compressed air. The Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) is a metallic alloy, which has the property of recovering its original shape (the memorized shape) after being deformed when heated above the transformation temperature between a martensite phase (at low temperature) and an austenite phase (at high temperature). This presents a good force-to-weight ratio, small volume, and noiseless operation, the SMA-based actuators being considered a good actuation solution for wearable and soft robotics applications and in particularly for rehabilitation devices. The principal disadvantages of this type of actuators are represented by the hysteresis effect, which makes its control difficult, and the low work frequency. These disadvantages limit the use of this type of actuators for certain applications.
Recently, this type of material was used as an actuator in various rehabilitation devices for lower and upper limb and for prosthesis. In [9], a glove actuated by SMA for rehabilitation exercise and assistance was presented. This soft robotic device can provide for the user in grasping 40 N force. The actuator used in this device is based on an SMA wire with diameter of 0.38 mm, cooled by air fans. In [10], the SMA wires were used as actuator for a 3 DOF wrist rehabilitation device. Similarly, in this work, to improve the cooling stage of the actuator, mini air fans were used. The proposed methods do not present the actuator flexibility, and with the air fans, the size of the device increases. In [11], the SMA was used as a hybrid actuator for a hand exoskeleton, combining the SMA springs with a servomotor. Also, the SMA springs were used as actuators for a soft wrist assistive device [12]. In [13] three SMA wires were used in parallel configuration as actuator in a suit-type elbow flexion assistance. For the lower limb, the SMA actuator was embedded in smart clothes for the ankle assistance [14]. This is a totally soft device, which can assist in the ankle with a torque of 100 Ncm. In most of the publications, the authors do not give details about the actuator position response on the cooling stage, where the actuator needs to cool to extend. This necessary time depends on the wire’s diameter, ambient temperature, and if it is or not forced to cool, and this time can affect the device performances.
Our research group, RoboticsLab from Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain, developed different exoskeletons for the upper limb rehabilitation actuated by SMA-based actuators. For the user’s comfort, we propose lightweight exoskeletons, but maintaining the power performance of a rigid exoskeleton. Also, the proposed devices have noiseless operation, low-cost fabrication, and are more compact. These exoskeleton characteristics, in great measure, are due to the used actuator—a flexible structure based on Bowden cable without additional cooling system. According to the proposed actuator based on SMA, we developed three different exoskeletons, which will be presented in this study, for the elbow joint, the wrist joint, and hand rehabilitation. Each one presents two or more DOF according to the articulation where it operates, and the actuators have the possibility to work in antagonistic configuration. According to this configuration, the position error decreases significantly in the cooling stage.
This study is divided into four sections. Section 2 presents the proposed SMA-based actuator used in the exoskeleton structure with its electronic hardware and its control algorithm. This section continues with the presentation of the developed exoskeletons from our laboratory, which have used the SMA-based actuator. Section 3 presents the discussions in terms of the current and future perspective of rehabilitation exoskeleton improvements. Section 4 introduces some conclusions and future works.
This section presents the SMA-based actuator used on the upper limb exoskeletons with its electronic hardware and its control algorithm. Also, in this section, the different exoskeletons configurations for the upper limb, elbow, wrist, and hand, will be presented.
The actuator used in rehabilitation devices is based on SMA and consists of one or more SMA wires, a Bowden cable, a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tube, and the terminal parts. The actuator force and its dimensions can vary depending on the number of wires and their diameter. According to the necessary force to mobilize different upper limb joint, three wire diameters was considered. The characteristics of these SMA wires used in the configuration of different actuators can be seen in Table 1, where the current represents the approximate current for 1 second contraction.
Diameter size | Resistance | Current | Force | Cooling 70 | Cooling 90 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(mm) | ( | (A) | (N) | (s) | (s) |
0.31 | 12.20 | 1.50 | 12.55 | 8.10 | 6.80 |
0.38 | 8.30 | 2.25 | 22.06 | 10.50 | 8.80 |
0.51 | 4.30 | 4.00 | 34.91 | 16.80 | 14.00 |
Properties of the SMA wires [15].
The actuator structure with a single SMA wire can been seen in Figure 1, left side. On the right side, a schematic actuator cross section can be observed. The actuator has been adapted in length, diameter, and number of wires according to the final application. The principal components of the actuator, enumerated in Figure 1, are detailed below:
1 – Bowden cable. It is a type of flexible cable used to transmit the force. In this case, it is composed of a metallic spiral covered with a nylon sheath. This gives the flexibility advantage of the actuator and helps to dissipate the heat when the SMA wire is in the cooling stage (recovering the initial length). In Figure 1, a Bowden cable with 3.5 mm diameter is represented. This Bowden cable is used only for actuators with only one SMA wire. For actuators with more SMA wires, a Bowden cable with diameter 6.5 mm is used. In this last case, depending on the SMA wire diameter, the actuator can have up to five wires if the SMA wires have a diameter 0.51 mm.
2 – PTFE tube. It is transparent, chemically inert, and nontoxic material, which facilitates the SMA wires displacement, considered to be a solid lubricant. This is placed between the SMA wire (or the SMA wires for the multi wires actuator) and the Bowden cable, acting as an electrical insulator. In addition, it can also work at high temperatures, over 250
3 – SMA wire. In Figure 1, the actuator is composed of only one SMA wire. The actuator structure can be modified to include more SMA wires, whose diameter and length are calculated according to the necessary force and the final displacement of the device.
4 – Terminal unit. This is used to fix the SMA wire with the Bowden cable, at one end, and the SMA wire with the actuated system or the tendons of the actuated system, at the opposite end. The terminal unit is composed of two pieces screwed together, which permit to tense the SMA wire, after being mounted in the final application. Furthermore, those terminal units are used as connectors for power supplying the actuator.
SMA-based actuator. Right side: 1 – Bowden cable; 2 – PTFE tube; 3 – SMA wire; 4 – Terminal unit; left side, actuator cross section.
In the exoskeleton structures presented in this chapter, the multi-wire actuators have all the SMA wires inside of only one PTFE tube and everything in a Bowden cable.
This flexible SMA actuator based on Bowden transmission system certainly has some features that make it a good alternative to the use of conventional actuators in soft exoskeletons. Using long SMA wires inside a flexible tube makes it possible to design an actuator that can provide the necessary displacements required by soft exoskeletons. Also, these are easy to integrate and adapt into the flexible and dynamic structures. The possibility of flexing and physical arrangement of the actuator in almost any way has allowed us to better approach the “soft-robotics” concept, so that the actuator no longer imposes rigid mechanical structures on the joints [16].
The electronic hardware consists of one or more position sensors depending of the rehabilitation device (these will be detailed when each device will be described), a microcontroller, and a power circuit required to control the SMA-based actuators.
The electronic power circuit for SMA wires is based on MOSFET transistors. The transistors are activated by pulse width modulation (PWM) provided by the controller. The transistors open and close the circuit with a power supply for the actuators. With these electronics (developed by our research group), the control hardware architecture can manage two, four, or six different actuators (each actuator with one or more SMA wires).
The controller board is based on the STM32F407 Discovery kit [17], from STMicroelectronics, which is programmed with Matlab/Simulink [18]. This manages signals from the sensors, executes the control algorithm for controlling the actuators, and generates the required PWM signals.
Due to the characteristic of hysteresis and the nonlinear behavior of the SMA-based actuator, the control algorithm is a quite complex. A bilinear proportional integral derivative (BPID) controller was proposed to compensate these nonlinearities, which schematically is presented in Figure 2. This is based on previous works and the literature [19, 20, 21].
BPID control algorithm.
In Figure 2, the BPID controller is schematically represented where:
In this section, different exoskeletons prototype developed by our research group is presented. According to the target joint (elbow, wrist, or hand/fingers), the proposed actuator is implemented in different configurations: with only one or more wires with different diameters and lengths.
The elbow joint is a complex articulation that helps to position the hand in space. The humeroulnar and the humeroradial articulations are classified as hinged joints and permit the elbow flexion extension movement. On the other hand, the proximal radioulnar articulation permits the forearm pronation and supination movement and is classified as a trochoid joint [22]. Although the elbow joint in the flexion-extension movement permits a range of movement between 0 and 150 degrees, in a daily living (ADL), the functional range is estimated between 30 and 120 degrees. Similarly, the human body permits approximately 71 degrees of pronation and 81 degrees for supination, though in the ADL the functional range is estimated in 50 degrees of pronation and 50 degrees of supination.
The proposed device can be seen over the human body in Figure 3 (left side frontal plane and right side sagittal plane) and was detailed in a previous work” SMA Based Elbow Exoskeleton for Rehabilitation Therapy and Patient Evaluation” [23]. This has two degrees of freedom (DOF), which permit the movement of flexion-extension and pronation-supination. For safety, the flexion-extension movement was mechanically restricted between 0 and 150 degrees and the pronation-supination movement between −60 and 60 degrees. This is a low-cost device with most of the pieces 3D printed except the pieces that are subjected to high forces made in aluminum. Although it has a rigid structure, this can be set according to the patient segments (arm and forearm) dimensions to maintain the exoskeleton rotation axis aligned with the biomechanics of human body (elbow axis). This can be easy set customizing the exoskeleton for each patient. The segments and articulation of the device are mechanically restricted according to the human body limitations, to carry out a safe rehabilitation therapy. Due to the SMA-based actuator, the exoskeleton presents a noiseless operation and more compact dimensions, which make it less distinctive. The total weight of this device including the actuators is less than 1 kg, which can be classified between the most lightweight elbow rehabilitation devices with 2 DOF.
Elbow exoskeleton over the human body.
The actuators used in this device are based on the SMA wire with 0.51 mm of diameter. The actuators for the flexion-extension movement are composed of four SMA wires each in the same PTFE tube and a Bowden cable, as presented in the Section 2.1. Each actuator in this configuration can exert a nominal force of approximately 140 N, and considering that the linear displacement is converted to rotary displacement through a pulley with a diameter of 0.06 m, the nominal torque in the elbow exoskeleton joint is around 4.2 Nm (a maximum torque of 13.56 Nm). These two actuators work in antagonist configuration, simulating the biceps–triceps muscle group. For the prono-supination movement, the actuators each are based only one SMA wire, each one presenting a force of 35 N. According to the necessary displacement, the actuators have a length of 1.5 m for the flexion-extension and 2 m for the prono-supination. The total weight of the actuators is around 0.54 kg.
The exoskeleton was tested and evaluated with the healthy subjects and post-stroke patients. In total 10 patients with age 61.8 ± 12.98 and six physiotherapists tested the elbow joint exoskeleton and completed the usability test, QUEST 2.0 [24]. The test results were promising with a score of 33 ± 6.90, where the most appreciated items were the weight and dimensions of the exoskeleton, both scored 4.3 ± 0.674. The least appreciated was the item of effectiveness scored with only 3.8 ± 1.03, followed by the comfort and simplicity. These results were influenced by the fact that during the tests, the exoskeleton was in an improvement stage and only was tested in passive mode where the patients with the activity in the motor function do not consider it useful for their rehabilitation therapy.
An active rehabilitation therapy, with the elbow exoskeleton, based on the superficial electromyography (sEMG) signals from the biceps–triceps muscles groups was proposed in [25]. The position reference trajectory for the elbow exoskeleton was generated according to the user movement intention detected on the sEMG signals. This approach improves the exoskeleton effectiveness due that the user is motivated to participate in rehabilitation therapy. The elbow exoskeleton response according to the position reference generated in accordance with the sEMG signals can be seen in Figure 4. Here the blue signal represents the position reference generated by the high-level control algorithm, and the red signal represents the exoskeleton angular position. The green signal represents the normalized sEMG signals from the bicep muscle. The first
Elbow exoskeleton position response according to the sEMG signal activation.
The wrist or carpus is a collection of bones, ligaments, tendons and soft tissues, which connect the forearm with the hand. This complex structure offers a wide range of movement that increases the function of the hand and fingers while also giving them a considerable degree of stability [22]. The wrist articulation plays an important role on the daily life manipulation tasks because its kinematic function allows the orientation of the hand with respect to the forearm, and the kinetics allow the transfer of loads from the forearm to the hand and vice versa. The wrist is composed of several joints that make the connections between the radius and ulna bones with the metacarpal bones and the connections with the first and second row of the carpal bones (midcarpal). The wrist joint presents two movements: in the sagittal plane, presents the flexion-extension movement (90 degrees of flexion and 85 degrees of extension) and in frontal plane, presents the ulnar and radial deviation (ulnar deviation 45 degrees and radial deviation 20 degrees).
The wrist exoskeleton actuated by SMA, proposed by our research group, can be seen in Figure 5 [26]. This presents 2 DOF, one for the flexion-extension movement and the second one for the radial deviation and ulnar deviation. The range of movement achieved with this rehabilitation device is 15 degrees for the flexion, 35 degrees for the extension, 15 degrees with the radial deviation, and 20 degrees with the ulnar deviation. A large part of the device structure is 3D printed and together with the actuators and electronic hardware weighing less than 1 kg. Similar with the elbow joint exoskeleton and the hand rehabilitation glove, due to the actuators’ properties, this is considered a lightweight rehabilitation device with a noiseless operation.
Wrist exoskeleton actuated by SMA.
The actuators of this device are based on SMA wires with 0.51 mm of diameter and are composed of only one SMA wire, inside the PTFE tube and everything inside the Bowden cable. According to the necessary displacements for the wrist mobilization, and according to the electronic power supply, all the actuators of this device present 2.2 m length. With these characteristics, the rehabilitation device can generate a torque greater than 0.5 Nm in the wrist joint. The length of the actuators does not represent an inconvenience, considering their flexibility and the possibility to adapt to the shape of the human body.
Considering that during the rehabilitation therapy, the movements are slow, and continuous, a possible reference can be the sinusoidal one. For example, the step reference is not considered because a sudden movement can cause a muscle spasm. Figure 6 presents the wrist exoskeleton position response on the radial-ulnar deviation with a healthy subject. The control strategy used in this test was based on BPID controller in an antagonist configuration. This configuration works similar such the flexor–extensor muscles group: when the flexor muscles contract the extensors relax and vice versa. In this device, the actuator for the radial deviation was mounted in an antagonist configuration with the radial deviation actuator. The advantage of this configuration consists of decreasing the position error generated by the SMA, the necessary time in a cooling stage to recuperate the initial shape (when it was cool) and by the hysteresis effect. The disadvantage of the antagonist configuration is that after some cycles of continuous work, both actuators present a high temperature, and the system needs to stop to avoid the SMA wires breakage [23].
Position of wrist exoskeleton for radial-ulnar deviation [
In Figure 6, the actuators flowing a sinusoidal reference with one cycle each 25 seconds. The wrist exoskeleton presents three degrees of error, and the device works continuously during 150 seconds. The work frequency of this actuator is not a problem considering that the rehabilitation device is proposed for the first stage of rehabilitation where the movements are slowly. On the other hand, the number of cycles of continuous work in this case was 6, one cycle every 25 seconds. Although, after 150 seconds, the system was forced to stop, the device can alternate with the flexion-extension rehabilitation for a continuous rehabilitation therapy.
The proposed device has considered improvements compared with the current solutions such as portability, noiseless operation, low cost of fabrication, comfort, safety, and easy installation, largely due to the used actuator. The main disadvantage of this device is represented by the slow work frequency, which makes the system only viable for slow rehabilitation therapies. Also, this obligates the system to alternate the therapy between the flexion-extension movement and radial-ulnar deviation.
Hand function plays a fundamental role in performing ADL, maintaining an independent and healthy quality of life. When stroke, SCI, or different neuromuscular disorders occurs, and the hand is affected, the quality of life decreases, and the affected person even becomes dependent on another person. The human hand is a highly complex and multifaceted mobile effector organ that allows it to grasp and manipulate objects. The thumb together with the fingers permits us to manipulate different small objects during daily tasks. Each finger is composed of one metacarpal and three phalanges, and the thumb is composed of one metacarpal and two phalanges, which make that the hand has in total 27 DOF.
In Figure 7, a soft exo-glove developed by our research group can be seen. This is actuated by 12 actuators based on SMA wires in antagonistic configuration: six for the fingers flexion and six for the fingers extension. Each group of six actuators is divided into: one actuator for each finger and two actuators for the thumb (these two actuators permit complex movements such as thumb opposition). The SMA-based actuators are connected to the actuation box, where the position sensors are, and where the connection between the actuators and tendons is done. The tendons are routed and fixed over the glove, where its routing represents the key for the realization of the desired movement when the actuators are activated.
Soft exo-glove for rehabilitation therapies.
The actuators of this device are based on SMA wires, with diameter of 0.38 mm, which presents a force of 22.06 N. According to its characteristics, this can cool after contraction in approximately 8.8 seconds. Considering that the tendon displacement with the proposed routing is around 0.07 m and the SMA actuator when activated contracts 4% of its total length, the total length of each actuator is 2 m. Due to the actuator flexibility, this can take the arm shape and easily can be collocated behind the user.
The developed rehabilitation device is considered totally soft, except the sensors box (where also the connection between the actuators and tendons is done). The actuators, as well as in the other devices (elbow exoskeleton and wrist exoskeleton), are not in contact with the human body, found in the PTFE tube, inside in a Bowden tube, and everything in a flexible PVC tube. With this configuration, the temperature of the actuators is not felt by the user [23].
The future works of this research will focus on integrate the Myo Armband sensor [27] for the hand gesture recognition from the superficial electromyography (sEMG) signals. This gives the possibility to realize the active rehabilitation therapies, according to the user movement intention.
The exoskeletons used during the daily activities offer to the users/patients more autonomy and reduce their dependence on other persons. Also, this improves users’ lives and enhances their perceived well-being and sense of community integration [28]. This perspective to integrate the exoskeletons in the patient’s daily life to offer them more autonomy is one of the principal goals currently. This implicates the improvements of the currently wearable rehabilitation devices, strictly following the appropriate procedures according to the physiotherapists feedback. The new wearable rehabilitation structures need to be more easy to use, tailor-made according to the user, small and lightweight, less distinctive and with more autonomy. These characteristics are considered some of the most important topics of improvements and are closely related to the actuation system.
From the future perspective of the wearable exoskeletons, which can be used during the daily life, the actuators need to meet some requirements for safety, simplicity, and lightweight that human–robot interaction requires. For these reasons, recently new actuation solutions are being investigated, among which are the artificial muscles. Solutions such Pneumatic Artificial Muscles (PAM) or Shape Memory Alloy are only some of these examples, being already integrated in some prototypes of rehabilitation device. The force–weight relation makes them an excellent candidate for these devices. However, there are still limitations, in different aspects such as the control, compressed air is needed (in case of PAMs), a low work frequency, and energy efficiency (in case of SMAs). These are only a few current research topics, focused to offer viable solutions for the wearable exoskeleton actuation.
The rigid exoskeletons limit the user’s freedom movement, complicating his interaction with the environment in a natural way. According to this, we oriented our development on soft exoskeletons or exosuits, aiming of getting closer to the natural user movement. We try to develop exoskeletons that do not constrain the joints like the rigid structures. For the user comfort, we reduce the external structure weight and the actuator weight but maintaining for the most part the performance of a rigid exoskeleton.
The wearable exoskeletons actuated with the SMA-based actuators, developed by our research group, are accessible, easy to use, lightweight, and compact. The test of these devices with the stroke patients and physiotherapists has presented a great interest, obtaining very positive feedback, which encouraged the exoskeletons development initiative. The most appreciative five items on the elbow exoskeleton evaluation with the test QUEST 2.0 were the weight, dimensions, patient adaptation (ergonomics), and safety. These items are directly related to the actuator proposed and used in these devices. Although these have not yet been tested on patients, the wrist exoskeleton and the soft exo-glove stand out for their small dimensions, lightweight, and ergonomic configuration.
This contribution presented the recently work of our research group, RoboticsLab from Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain, in the field of upper limb exoskeletons. Here were presented three different wearable exoskeletons, for elbow, wrist, and hand rehabilitation, movement of which is produced by the SMA-based actuators. Due to the actuator characteristics and proposed design, these devices present: lightweight, noiseless operation, low cost of fabrication, simplicity, and soft or semi-soft structures. According to these characteristics, the proposed devices are not only rehabilitation exoskeletons, which can be used only in the specialized rehabilitation center, but also have the perspective to be used in daily life.
The proposed SMA-based actuator retains the advantages of SMA wires and, in addition, improves the working frequency and adds flexibility to the actuator. This is a promising solution for different applications and especially for softer exoskeletons, which can better adapt to the patient’s requirements and offer better ergonomics. The principal disadvantages of this actuator are the low work frequency (viable for slow movement such as the movements of first phase of rehabilitation therapy) and the energetic efficiency.
The elbow joint exoskeleton was tested with the post-stroke patients and physiotherapists. The items best valued in the QUEST 2.0 test were related in great part with the used actuator: the weight, dimensions, patient adaptation (ergonomics), and safety. Although the wrist and the soft exo-glove have not been tested with patients, these devices also present the same advantages.
The future works will focus on the improvement of the exoskeletons structure, closer to a soft and easy-to-use device, especially improving the current actuation system. Although topics such as the work frequency and efficiency were approached in the previous works [29], these represent the key to develop exoskeletons that can be used like support in daily life, giving a certain autonomy when this is needed.
The research leading to these results have received funding from the” Sistema robótico para propiciar la marcha en niños pequeños con Parálisis Cerebral” under Grant PID2019-105110RB-C32/ AEI / 10.13039/501100011033, funded by Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI); from RoboCity2030-DIH-CM, Madrid Robotics Digital Innovation Hub, S2018/NMT-4331, funded by Programas de Actividades I&D en la Comunidad de Madrid; and co-funded by Structural Funds of the EU.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ADL | Activities of daily living |
BPID | Bilineal Proportional Integral Derivative |
DOF | Degree of Freedom |
PAM | Pneumatic Artificial Muscles |
PID | Proportional Integral Derivative |
PTFE | Polytetrafluoroethylene |
PWM | Pulse width modulation |
SCI | Spinal Cord Injuries |
sEMG | Superficial electromyography |
SMA | Shape Memory Alloy |
WSO | World Stroke Organization |
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The aim of this article is ensuring quality of service (QoS) in IMS network. Admission control (AC) is used to manage incoming traffic and to prevent the network congestion. The main function of AC is to maximize the utilization of network resources and to ensure the level of QoS. AC was applied on constant bit rate (CBR) and variable bit rate (VBR) traffic. Three methods were chosen for VBR traffic and they were compared. 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The purpose of implementing AC methods in IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) is to control the access of incoming connections to network resources. At the Institute of Telecommunications, we have built an experimental laboratory, which is used to test these methods. In this paper, we focus on Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) services; therefore, we have created a variable bit-rate IPTV traffic generator that is used as the input to the network, so we can test the behavior of selected AC methods. They are implemented in a simulated IPTV service provider access network, so we can examine the effects of variable bit-rate IPTV streams on the decisions made by those methods. To calculate the required bandwidth of an input stream, two simulation scenarios with different number of input packets were performed. One of these AC methods was modified where the peak input rate parameter of an IPTV stream was replaced by the average bit-rate of this stream. 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Previous researches stated the various characteristics of Chinese labor market. However, with rapid development, the labor market in China has some new and unpredicted changes in recent years. With the comprehensive, rigorous, and consistent data investigated from 2000 to 2015, which come from the National Bureau of Statistic of China (NBSC), this paper does a descriptive research on verification of common features stated in the previous literature, disclosing some new features and changes of current Chinese labor market. These features include the following: (1) the average wage in society keeps increasing with a relative decrease of return to education; (2) the old pattern of labor mobility, from rural area to urban area, is steady; however, the growth rate of urban population keeps decreasing, and the mobility of labor forces showed significant regional inequality; (3) the effectiveness and conduction of labor law and regulation are challenged by labor market segmentation caused by informal employment; and (4) the labor force participation rate (LFPR) in China keeps stable after 2010, with four different definitions. This paper designs a new way of measurement of informal sectors and indicates that the labor force participation rate in China is steady, not declining, after 2010. 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Previous researches stated the various characteristics of Chinese labor market. However, with rapid development, the labor market in China has some new and unpredicted changes in recent years. With the comprehensive, rigorous, and consistent data investigated from 2000 to 2015, which come from the National Bureau of Statistic of China (NBSC), this paper does a descriptive research on verification of common features stated in the previous literature, disclosing some new features and changes of current Chinese labor market. These features include the following: (1) the average wage in society keeps increasing with a relative decrease of return to education; (2) the old pattern of labor mobility, from rural area to urban area, is steady; however, the growth rate of urban population keeps decreasing, and the mobility of labor forces showed significant regional inequality; (3) the effectiveness and conduction of labor law and regulation are challenged by labor market segmentation caused by informal employment; and (4) the labor force participation rate (LFPR) in China keeps stable after 2010, with four different definitions. This paper designs a new way of measurement of informal sectors and indicates that the labor force participation rate in China is steady, not declining, after 2010. 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By using various programming languages and open-source software tools, we can integrate prepaid voice services with this system, so its functionality is resembled as much as possible the operation of traditional GSM network provider. 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Such high bandwidths impact network flow analysis and as a result require significantly more powerful hardware. Methods used today concentrate mainly on analyses of data flows and patterns. It is nearly impossible to actively look for anomalies in network packets and flows. A small amount of change of monitoring patterns could result in big increase in potentially false positive incidents. This paper focuses on multi-criteria analyses of systems generated data in order to predict incidents. We prove that system generated monitoring data are an appropriate source to analyze and allow for much more focused and less computationally intensive monitoring operations. By using appropriate mathematical methods to analyze stored data, it is possible to obtain useful information. During our work, some interesting anomalies in networks were found by utilizing simple data correlations using monitoring system Zabbix. Afterwards, we prepared and pre-processed data to classify servers and hosts by their behavior. We concluded that it is possible to say that deeper analysis is possible thanks to Zabbix monitoring system and its features like Open-Source core, documented API and SQL backend for data. 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\r\n\tGlobally, the ecological footprint is growing at a faster rate than GDP. This phenomenon has been studied by scientists for many years. However, clear strategies and actions are needed now more than ever. Every day, humanity, from individuals to businesses (public and private) and governments, are called to change their mindset in order to pursue a virtuous combination for sustainable development. Reasoning in a sustainable way entails, first and foremost, managing the available resources efficiently and strategically, whether they are natural, financial, human or relational. In this way, value is generated by contributing to the growth, improvement and socio-economic development of the communities and of all the players that make up its value chain. In the coming decades, we will need to be able to transition from a society in which economic well-being and health are measured by the growth of production and material consumption, to a society in which we live better while consuming less. In this context, digitization has the potential to disrupt processes, with significant implications for the environment and sustainable development. There are numerous challenges associated with sustainability and digitization, the need to consider new business models capable of extracting value, data ownership and sharing and integration, as well as collaboration across the entire supply chain of a product. In order to generate value, effectively developing a complex system based on sustainability principles is a challenge that requires a deep commitment to both technological factors, such as data and platforms, and human dimensions, such as trust and collaboration. Regular study, research and implementation must be part of the road to sustainable solutions. Consequently, this topic will analyze growth models and techniques aimed at achieving intergenerational equity in terms of economic, social and environmental well-being. It will also cover various subjects, including risk assessment in the context of sustainable economy and a just society.
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