Electrochemical performance of Sn-based composites with CNFs.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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However, their convergence is not straightforward, and more research is needed in both fields. Thus, this book presents some of the latest advances in the convergence of BC and AI, gives useful guidelines for future researchers on how BC can help AI and how AI can become smarter, thanks to the use of BC. This book specifically analyzes the past of BC through the history of Bitcoin and then looks into the future: from massive internet-of-things (IoT) deployments, to the so-called metaverse, and to the next generation of AI-powered BC-based cyber secured applications.",isbn:"978-1-78984-094-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-093-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-553-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91580",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"advances-in-the-convergence-of-blockchain-and-artificial-intelligence",numberOfPages:94,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"700eff7270bae63fd214974a0bd8e77f",bookSignature:"Tiago M. 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Fernández-Caramés (S\\'08-M\\'12-SM\\'15) works as an associate professor at the University of A Coruña (UDC), Spain, where he obtained his MSc degree and Ph.D. degrees in Computer Science. He has worked in the Department of Computer Engineering at UDC: from 2005 to 2009 through different predoctoral scholarships and, in parallel, since 2007, as a professor. His current research interests include blockchain, internet of things (IoT) and industrial IoT (IIoT) systems, wireless sensor networks, and augmented and mixed reality (AR/MR), as well as the different technologies involved in Industry 4.0 and Industry 5.0 paradigms. 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She has participated in over 30 research projects funded by the regional and national government and has research and development (R&D) contracts with private companies. She is actively involved in many professional and editorial activities. She has worked as an expert evaluator and adviser of several national and international agencies. Her current research interests include Industry 5.0, internet of things (IoT), cyber-physical systems (CPS), augmented and mixed reality (AR/MR), edge computing, blockchain, and distributed ledger technologies (DLT), and cybersecurity.",institutionString:"University of A Coruña",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"516",title:"Data Management System",slug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-data-management-system"}],chapters:[{id:"79564",title:"Introductory Chapter: Opportunities and Challenges on the Convergence of Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101389",slug:"introductory-chapter-opportunities-and-challenges-on-the-convergence-of-blockchain-and-artificial-in",totalDownloads:109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Paula Fraga-Lamas and Tiago M. 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This innovation and its underlying technology, the blockchain, have been at the root of a change of paradigm, as the joint use of blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI) seed the next technological revolution. However, as it is often the case, these revolutionary inventions have also been met with skepticism in the financial sector and society at large. Using the case of Bitcoin and the blockchain, this paper analyzes the intersection between the philosophy and technology underlying these innovations, and the outlook of a sector of society who fears these developments while others try to profit. In this chapter, we first look at the history of Bitcoin together with that of those behind it. We then review the mixed reception it obtained after coming to the market. 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Traditional machine learning approaches require the training data to be collected and processed in centralized servers. With the advent of new decentralized machine learning approaches and mobile edge computing, the IoT on-device data training has now become possible. To realize AI at the edge of the network, IoT devices can offload training tasks to MEC servers. However, those distributed frameworks of edge intelligence also introduce some new challenges, such as user privacy and data security. To handle these problems, blockchain has been considered as a promising solution. As a distributed smart ledger, blockchain is renowned for high scalability, privacy-preserving, and decentralization. This technology is also featured with automated script execution and immutable data records in a trusted manner. In recent years, as quantum computers become more and more promising, blockchain is also facing potential threats from quantum algorithms. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the current state-of-the-art in these cutting-edge technologies by summarizing the available literature in the research field of blockchain-based MEC, machine learning, secure data sharing, and basic introduction of post-quantum blockchain. 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However, drug resistance is turning into one of the major problems that are rapidly getting attention synchronically with other essential dilemmas with which humankind encounters, such as a quickly growing population, scarcity of food, and environmental concerns. To cope with the growing challenge of drug resistance and to improve the quality of life, we must either synthesize novel biomedical agents or thoroughly analyze and advance the currently used drugs. It is important to mention that new medicines should be cost-effective as well as with none or almost no side effects. Besides, the stability and solubility in water and other liquids present in the human body are also important factors to be taken into account for increasing their efficiency against harmful parasites and other disease-provoking agents. One of the relatively facile and highly effective approaches to meet these requirements is the modification of existing drugs via co-crystallization with various agents, with the formation of numerous co-crystals with smaller molecules, including those of different solvents such as water and alcohols. Despite its relative easiness, when employing this approach numerous factors such as (weak) intermolecular interactions should be taken into account, because they can significantly affect structures and properties of the target co-crystals and, as a result, properties and potential applications of the drugs of interest.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-312-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-311-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-313-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"a9e50e249a320b0fba2dfaf478848854",bookSignature:"Prof. Aleksey Kuznetsov and Dr. Akbar Ali",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11432.jpg",keywords:"Solid-State, Supercritical Fluid, Infrared Spectroscopy, Solubility, Melting Point, Bioavailability, Stability, Tabletability, Co-Crystals, NBO Analysis, Intermolecular Interactions, Dispersion Interactions",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 16th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 7th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A computational chemist in the areas of the computational design of novel complexes of porphyrins and studies of various compounds with pharmacological and anticorrosive applications, co-author of all-metal aromaticity discovery with h-index 21.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An organic chemist in the numerous areas of synthesis and characterization of various organic compounds with possible applications in photochemistry and as drugs, an expert in drugs modification and co-crystals preparation.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"201033",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksey",middleName:null,surname:"Kuznetsov",slug:"aleksey-kuznetsov",fullName:"Aleksey Kuznetsov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201033/images/system/201033.png",biography:"Dr. Aleksey Kuznetsov obtained his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry at the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, the USA. He graduated after 3 years of doctorate studies with a specialization in Computational/Theoretical Chemistry. Since graduation, he has been researching various subareas of this field, and in 2019, after several postdoctoral and visiting professor positions in Germany, the USA, and Brazil, Dr. Kuznetsov acquired a permanent faculty position at the Department of Chemistry, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa Maria, in Santiago, Chile, where he has been working on the computational design of various complexes of porphyrins, including core-modified porphyrins, with nanoparticles, fullerenes, and graphenes, along with computational studies of various transition metal complexes, organic compounds with potential pharmacological applications, metal-fullerene complexes, compounds with anticorrosive properties, etc.",institutionString:"Federico Santa María Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Federico Santa María Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"442007",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"akbar-ali",fullName:"Akbar Ali",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003Gt50ZQAR/Profile_Picture_1634896524560",biography:"Dr. Akbar Ali is currently working as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan. Previously he worked as Assistant Professor at the Institute of Chemistry, University of Sargodha, Main Campus Sargodha, Pakistan. Dr. Ali completed his PhD in the area of Synthetic Organic Chemistry, in 2017, from Federal University of Sao Carlos (UFSCar), Sao Paulo Brazil & Leibniz institute of Plant Biochemistry (IPB) Germany. He completed his Master in the subject of Organic Chemistry from University of Malakand K.P.K Pakistan in 2007 and then his M.Phil in the same subject from Hazara University K.P.K Pakistan in 2011. His research interests include Organic Synthesis, Click Chemistry, Photochemistry, Multicomponent Reactions (MCRs), Drugs Modification and Co-crystals preparation.",institutionString:"Government College University, Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:null,chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"441704",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Javor",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441704/images/20009_n.jpg",email:"ana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors, and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9953",title:"Azoles",subtitle:"Synthesis, Properties, Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87a84470866a4c146b5c9c8e46185779",slug:"azoles-synthesis-properties-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Aleksey Kuznetsov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9953.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201033",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksey",surname:"Kuznetsov",slug:"aleksey-kuznetsov",fullName:"Aleksey Kuznetsov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50608",title:"Carbon Nanofiber-Based Materials as Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries",doi:"10.5772/63235",slug:"carbon-nanofiber-based-materials-as-anode-materials-for-lithium-ion-batteries",body:'\nEnergy conversion and storage become more and more important in the context of the increasing global energy demand because of the inadequacy of fossil fuels, climate change, and deteriorating environmental conditions. Currently, among the available energy conversion and storage technologies, lithium-ion battery (LIB) is the most versatile and successful technology that possess high-energy densities (2–3 times higher than conventional batteries), no memory effects, relatively slow self-discharge rates, and longer battery lifetimes, and therefore they have received intense attention from both the academic community and industry as the dominant power source in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and full electric vehicles (EVs) [1–4]. For further enhancing the performance of LIBs, many studies concentrated on changing either the chemical composition or macroscopic structure of the components [5, 6].
\nAs one of the most important components in LIBs, anode plays an important role in determining the overall performance of LIBs. At present, most commonly used anode materials for commercial LIBs are graphite powders that have limited theoretical capacity (372 mA h g−1) and long diffusion pathways for the lithium ions [7]. This may result in low energy and low power densities, which cannot meet the ever-expanding demands for next-generation LIBs. To resolve the problem, a variety of nanostructured carbonaceous materials have been investigated as anode materials for LIBs, such as carbon nanobeads [8], hollow carbon nanospheres [9, 10], carbon nanotubes [11–13], carbon nanofibers (CNFs) [14–16], graphenes [17–19], and their composites [20–22].
\nAmong various carbon nanostructures, CNFs and its morphological-controlled derivatives (such as porous or hollow CNFs) have attracted much attention because they could provide an enhanced surface-to-volume ratio for the electrode–electrolyte interface, short transport lengths for ionic transport, and efficient one-dimensional (1D) electron transport along the longitudinal direction when compared to the powder materials [23]. Moreover, these CNFs can be used to encapsulate various second phases to form functional composite, meeting the ever-growing demand for advanced batteries. Electrospinning has been widely used as a simple, versatile, and cost-effective industry-viable technology to prepare various CNFs and their composites in a continuous process, with controllable morphology and compositions [24–42]. The principle of electrospinning has been well introduced in several excellent reviews on electrospun materials for energy-related applications [43–46]. In this chapter, we have summarized some recent advances in the area of 1D CNF-based materials for LIB anodes, covering the structure evolution from electrospun solid CNFs into morphology-constructed porous CNFs, and their composites with various functional nanoparticles.
\nCarbon materials including graphite, graphene, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and CNFs have attracted tremendous attention in both fundamental research and industrial applications, especially in the applications of energy storage and conversion devices such as LIBs [47, 48]. Among these various carbon materials, 1D electrospinning-derived CNFs are of high interest as potential anode materials due to their high-specific surface area, good conductivity, and structural stability, which are the key factors influencing the electrochemical properties of carbon electrodes [23, 49–52]. The 1D nature of the CNF anode not only facilitates the electron transport along the axial direction, but also reduces the lithium-ion diffusion distance through short radial direction, both of which are beneficial for the improved specific capacity and rate capability.
\nThe CNFs can be derived from many synthetic or natural polymeric precursors such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), lignin, or cellulose. It should be noted that the physical and chemical properties of CNFs highly depend on the chemical structure of the carbon precursors. Currently, the commonly used precursor for CNFs is PAN, which has good spinnability, and can yield a high amount of carbon residue after simple stabilization and carbonization processes [44]. Moreover, owing to the robust integrated network structure and good electrical conductivity, PAN-derived CNF webs can be directly used as the anode materials without adding any adhesive and conductive additives, which can reduce the weight of anode, and thus improving the energy density of a full cell [53]. Endo’s group [23] synthesized the PAN-derived CNF webs by the electrospinning technique combined with two-step heat-treatments and investigated their lithium-storage properties along the variation of carbonization temperature (from 700°C to 2800°C). The composition ratio of amorphous carbon and graphitic carbon in these CNFs was demonstrated to affect the reversible capacity, slope or plateau charge–discharge characteristic, and rate/cycling performance. The high-purity CNF web thermally treated at 1000°C shows the high-rate capability (350 mA h g−1 at a charge current of 100 mA g−1) owing to the interlinked nanofibers, a large accessible surface area, and relatively good electrical conductivity, which make it an ideal candidate for the anode material of high-power LIBs. Nevertheless, the large-scale applications of PAN-derived CNFs might be hampered by the following two reasons. First, PAN is a relatively expensive synthetic polymer, of which the price varies with that of the crude oil [54]. Second, PAN is hard to dissolve in many solvents, and its most commonly used solvent, dimethylformamide (DMF), is known to be harmful for human beings during the electrospinning process [55].
\nWater or ethanol/polymer system is a better choice to avoid the aforementioned problems and lower the production cost. PVP is the type of water-soluble polymer, and has been widely used in industry due to its merits of low cost, nontoxicity, and good compatibility with metallic precursors. The preparation process of well-controlled PVP-derived CNFs has also been comprehensively investigated; however, the lithium-storage of this fiber-based electrode is temporarily lower than that of PAN-derived CNFs [54]. Other common water-soluble CNF precursors such as PVA [55, 56], lignin, and cellulose [57, 58] have been used to prepare fibrous electrode; nevertheless, all of them show low mechanical properties as compared with PAN-derived CNFs.
\nCoaxial electrospinning or coelectrospinning, a breakthrough in the electrospinning method, has been used to prepare core–shell soft-hard CNFs, in which a spinneret consisting of two coaxial capillaries is used, with PAN/DMF as the external solution and mineral oil as the inner solution (Figure 1) [59]. After the stabilization and carbonization processes, the soft–hard core–shell CNFs were obtained with shell PAN converted to hard carbon and core mineral oil decomposed to soft carbon. The coaxial CNFs combine the advantages of both hard carbon (possess a high capacity of 400–500 mA h g−1, but poor capacity retention performance) and soft carbon (has a lower, but reversible capacity of 200–300 mA h g−1, however, it shows a very serious voltage hysteresis during the delithiation process), and therefore exhibits enhanced reversible capacity as an anode in LIBs (390 mA h g−1 at a charge current of 100 mA g−1) even though the kinetics of the charge process requires further improvement.
\nSchematic illustrations of (a) the coaxial electrospinning apparatus and (b) preparation of coaxial CNFs [
Recent research has showed that the introduction of various porous structures into CNFs could greatly enhance both the specific capacity/capacitance and the rate capability. This is because the incorporated pore can possibly create high-specific surface area that provides more charge transfer. Up to date, many strategies have been used to control the porous structure in CNFs for LIB application. Template-based processes are of great interest for the preparation of porous CNFs with high surface area. Kang’s group [60] synthesized porous CNFs by etching off the silica template in CNFs from pyrolysis of the electrospun polyamic acid/tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) nanofibers. The porous CNF electrode showed a high reversible capacity of 445 mA h g−1 after 50 cycles, which is higher than that of commercial graphite (372 mA h g−1). The nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms showed that the specific surface area can reach to 950 m2 g−1, which is contributed to the large amounts of micropores. Here, the micropores can serve as the active “reservoir” for absorbing more lithium during cycling, thus improving the lithium-storage capacity based on the bare CNFs. Lee et al. [61] have utilized coaxial electrospinning to fabricate hollow CNFs (HCNFs) as anode materials and studied the effect of carbonization temperature on the electrochemical performance. Styrene-co-acrylonitrile (SAN) and PAN in DMF solutions were served as the core and shell materials. The as-spun nanofibers were stabilized at 270–300°C for 1 h in air, and then carbonized at 800, 1000, 1200, and 1600°C for 1 h in nitrogen, respectively. During thermal treatment, the linear PAN molecules were transformed to the ladder structure and got carbonized in the following process; meanwhile, the core component burned out leading to the hollow structure (Figure 2). The large continuous hollow pore can facilitate the Li+-carrying electrolyte penetrate into the inner part of CNFs, thus highly reducing the Li+-diffusion distance, and making the full use of the active lithium-storage part at high charge–discharge rate. The capacities after 10 cycles at a current of 50 mA g−1 were 390, 334, 273, and 243 mA h g−1 in accordance to their carbonization temperature (800–1600°C), with a very high coulombic efficiency. The reversible discharge capacities are slightly reduced even though four times higher current density is supplied (Figure 3).
\nFE-SEM images of HCNFs carbonized at (a) 800°C, (b) 1000°C, (c) 1200°C, and (d) 1600°C [
Discharge capacity vs. discharge rate for the HCNFs carbonized at various temperatures [
Recently, nitrogen-doped carbon materials are a researchers owing to the high capacity and rate capability [10, 62–65]. In a recent research, Liu et al. fabricated a new type of nitrogen-doped carbon tube by pyrolyzing polydopamine (PDA) using silica nanofibers as templates (Figure 4) [65]. The SiO2 NFs were first fabricated by an electrospinning technique and subsequent calcination in air, and then immersed in a dopamine aqueous solution (pH: ~8.5). Subsequently, the dopamine monomers were covalently joined via aryl–aryl linkages owing to the oxidization and cyclization reactions, forming a PDA coating layer on the surface of the SiO2 NFs. Then, the core–shell SiO2 NFs/PDA nanofibers were carbonized at 750°C for 3 h in a N2 atmosphere. Finally, N-CTs were obtained by etching off the silicate template with sodium hydroxide solution. The N-CTs show a fibrous morphology (diameter, 200–400 nm; length, several micrometers), a typical hollow feature (wall thickness, ~16 nm), and discontinuous and randomly constructed graphene-like layers (the d002 interlayer spacing, 0.354 nm) (Figure 5). The PDA-derived carbon tubes (N-CTs) as anode materials for LIBs show a remarkable self-improved capacity along cycling. This is contributed to the continuous interlamellar spacing expansion between the graphene-like carbon layers during cycling. (Figure 6) Moreover, owing to the unique hollow structure, ultrafine carbon-tube wall, and nitrogen doping, the N-CT electrode shows very high specific capacity, outstanding rate capability, and robust durability, giving a superior reversible capacity of 1635 mA h g−1 at 100 mA g−1 after 300 cycles and 1103 mA h g−1 at 500 mA g−1 after 500 cycles. The excellent electrochemical performance makes the N-CTs a potential anode material for the next-generation LIBs.
\nSchematic illustration of the synthesis of N-doped carbon tubes [
(a) SEM image of SiO2 NFs, (b and c) SEM images of N-CTs, and (d–f) HR-TEM images of N-CTs [
Illustration of lithium-ion storage/transport in N-CTs during the repeated lithiation and delithiation processes [
(a) Schematic illustration of the preparation of the HPCNF electrode. (b and c) Photographs of supported and flexible HPCNF film [
Besides, some other additives such as ZnCl2 and H3PO4 usually act as the activating agents to produce porous structures in CNFs [66, 67]. These activating agents lead to large amounts of micropores in the surface of CNFs, thus providing more surface active sites for absorbing the Li+. Lately, a novel and simple method (air activation method) have attracted much attention as the method needs no template and activating agents. Yu’s group [68] prepared highly porous CNFs (HPCNFs) by two-step carbonization of electrospun PAN nanofibers. During carbonization process at 1000°C in Ar, a certain volume of air were mixed into the Ar flow, where the CNFs were partially burnt off and numerous micro/mesopores were formed simultaneously (Figure 7). The as-synthesized HPCNFs exhibit a paper-like external morphology and highly porous internal nanostructure. When used as a binder-free anode in LIBs, the HPCNFs deliver a very high capacity of 1780 mA h g−1 at 50 mA g−1 after 40 cycles, greatly improved rate capacity and ultralong cycle life (1550 mA h g−1 at 500 mA g−1 after 600 cycles) in comparison with CNFs. The outstanding electrochemical performance is contributed to the electrospinning-derived 3D porous interconnected networks and the air-activated mesoporous structure in the CNFs that can facilitate the electrolyte into the electrode, thus reducing the Li+ diffusion distance. Consideration of the low-cost and efficient preparation, this method is hoped to design highly porous materials in large-scale production used for advanced energy-storage devices.
\nThe capacities of pure CNFs are insufficient for high-performance batteries. Therefore, various components such as silicon, tin and tin oxides, titanium oxides, and other metal oxide nanoparticles have been loaded into CNFs via an electrospinning process to enhance the performance.
\n\nSilicon nanoparticles (with a theoretical specific capacity of 4200 mA h g−1) could be incorporated into the CNF matrix by electrospinning PAN–Si nanoparticles and the subsequence carbonization to improve the poor cycling performance resulted from large volume changes (~400%) and nanoparticle aggregation upon the alloying and dealloying reaction with Li+ [69, 70]. By optimizing the Si content, Si particles were dispersed homogeneously along the fibers, thus inhibiting the agglomeration of Si nanoparticles and suppressing mechanical failure during Li+ insertion and extraction [71]. Additionally, introduction of various porous structures into CNFs could greatly enhance the specific capacity and rate performance of Si/CNF composite electrodes. For example, porous Si/CNF composites used without binding and conductive additives showed high discharge capacity of 1100 mA h g−1 at a high current density of 200 mA g−1 [72].
\nAnother example, Si–CNF core–shell fibers with void space in the core section were fabricated by coaxial electrospinning, in which Si–PMMA was chosen as the core and PAN as the shell [73]. After carbonization process, PAN can still remain stable in the shell, while PMMA could be removed to form the void space in the core of the fibers, which can accommodate the volume expansion of Si (Figure 8). This unique Si–CNF core–shell structure shows a high capacity of 1384 mA h g−1 at a rate of C/10 and an outstanding cycle life of 300 cycles with 99% capacity retention. Another promising strategy to improve the performance of Si/CNFs is adding conductive component such as graphitized carbon [74] or TiO2 [75] into the electrospun Si–CNF composite. The electrical conduction of the surrounding material significantly improved the reversible capacity and cycling stability.
\nSchematic illustration of Si–CNF core–shell fibers [
Tin and its oxides have much higher theoretical capacities (Sn: 992 mA h g−1, SnO2: 780 mA h g−1) than the commercial graphite (372 mA h g−1), but they also suffer from large volume changes and nanoparticle aggregation during cycling, resulting in capacity and stability losses. Dispersing these metallic nanoparticles into CNFs via electrospinning is an efficient approach to overcome these drawbacks because CNFs can hinder particle aggregation, provide continuous long-distance electron transport pathway, support numerous active sites for charge-transfer reactions, and eliminate the need for binding or conducting additive [23]. Yu et al. [53] fabricated a reticular Sn/CNF webs used as anodes for rechargeable LIBs via electrospinning technique and carbonization treatment, and studied the carbonization temperature effect on electrochemical performance of the Sn/CNF webs. It is demonstrated that carbonization temperature will influence Sn grain size, surface area or fiber diameter, and the electrical conductivity of CNFs, which dominate the electrochemical performance of the electrode. The Sn/CNF webs carbonized at 850°C exhibited a reversible capacity of 450 mA h g−1 after 30 cycles at a current of 25 mA g−1. Herein, the overall capacity looks low because the direct electrospinning technique limits the loading amount of active materials (with ~22 wt% Sn particles), which could be improved by constructing novel nanostructures.
\nPorous or hollow structure is introduced into Sn/CNF systems to enhance the cycling stabilities and rate capabilities. Sn nanoparticles have been encapsulated into porous multichannel carbon microtubes (SPMCTs) [76] and bamboo-like hollow CNFs (SBCNFs) [77] using a single-nozzle and a coaxial electrospinning technique, respectively. Such porous or hollow carbon shells could provide appropriate void volume to buffer the large volume change, prevent pulverization of the Sn nanoparticles, serve as an electron supplier, and allow more Li+ access. As a result, both of them showed good cycling stabilities and excellent rate capabilities. Specifically, the SBCNFs display a better cycling stability and a more excellent rate capability with a reversible discharge capacity as high as 480 mA h g−1 at 5 C after 100 cycles.
\nSnOx/CNF composites have been synthesized by electrospinning and subsequent thermal treatment [78, 79]. For example, ultrauniform SnOx/carbon nanohybrid (denoted as U-SnOx/C) has been fabricated by solvent replacement and subsequent electrospinning homogeneous dispersion of SnO2 nanoparticles in PAN/DMF solution [79]. The strong interaction between SnOx and nitrogen-containing CNFs (Sn–N bonding) could effectively confine the uniformly embedded SnOx. This unique nanostructure can not only suppress the agglomeration of SnOx and tolerate the substantial volume change during cycling, but also enhance the transport of both electrons and ions due to shortened conducting and diffusion pathways. As a consequence, the U-SnOx/C nanohybrids exhibit a high reversible capacity of 608 mA h g−1 after 200 cycles, with excellent rate capability. However, the effect of homogeneous distribution is also limited. Sn- or SnO2/CNF composites have also been doped with various transition metals, such as Co, Cu and Ni, to improve the cycling stability and rate performance. Co–Sn alloy particles embedded in CNFs improved the cycling stability by increasing the conductivity of the CNF and also enhanced the specific anodic capacity because of different Co–Sn alloys in the structure, as controlled by the carbonization temperature [80]. Incorporation of amorphous Cu into Sn/CNF achieved the highest cycling stability of 490 mA h g−1 after 600 cycles at a current density of 156 mA g−1 [81]. Addition of Ni into SnO2 CNF suppressed the reduction of SnO2 to Sn during carbonization and the agglomeration of SnO2, thus enhancing the cycling stability [82].
\nIn recent literature, Yu et al. [83–86] have achieved the in-site addition of transition metallic (Ti and Cu) and nonmetallic elements (P and B) into SnOx/CNF composites for the enhancement of cycling stability and rate performance via the electrospinning technique and subsequent thermal treatments. It was demonstrated that the doped SnOx nanoparticles were all ultrafine and uniformly dispersed in the conductive CNF matrix, and the doping content should be kept to an optimal value. The incorporation of heteroatoms into SnOx/CNFs endowed them with the enhancement of cyclic capacity retention and rate performance compared with the pristine SnOx/CNFs (Table 1) due to the more complete reversible conversion reaction and the higher Li+-diffusion coefficient. Especially, the addition of Cu into SnOx/CNFs exists in the form of Cu2O, which can be transformed into Cu nanoparticles dispersed in a lithia matrix (Li2O), inhibiting the aggregation of Sn particles in the following alloying–dealloying cycling (Figure 9). Meanwhile, the existence of Cu nanoparticles not only improves the Li+-transport capability and the electronic conductivity of the overall electrode, but also enhances the chemical reacting activity of Sn back to SnOx during the Li+-extraction process; therefore, the addition of Cu+ can endow the SnOx/CNF electrode with greatly enhanced reversible capacity and rate capability [86].
\nMaterials | \nPerformance | \nRates | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
SnOx/CNFs | \n640 mA h g−1 after 60 cycles | \n200 mA g−1 | \n85 | \n
230 mA h g−1 after 100 cycles | \n2 A g−1 | \n\n | |
Ti-doped SnOx/CNFs | \n670.7 mA h g−1 after 60 cycles | \n200 mA g−1 | \n84 | \n
302.1 mA h g−1 after 80 cycles | \n2 A g−1 | \n\n | |
P-doped SnOx/CNFs | \n676 mA h g−1 after 100 cycles | \n200 mA g−1 | \n85 | \n
288 mA h g−1 after 120 cycles | \n2 A g−1 | \n\n | |
B-doped SnOx/CNFs | \n670.2 mA h g−1 after 100 cycles | \n200 mA g−1 | \n86 | \n
300 mA h g−1 after 80 cycles | \n2 A g−1 | \n\n | |
Cu-doped SnOx/CNFs | \n743 mA h g−1 after 100 cycles 347 mA h g−1 after 1000 cycles | \n200 mA g−1 5 A g−1 | \n87 | \n
SnO2@PC/CTs | \n1045 mA h g−1 after 300 cycles 499 mA h g−1 after 1000 cycles | \n500 mA g−1 2A g−1 | \n88 | \n
U-SnOx/CNFs | \n608 mA h g−1 after 200 cycles 175 mA h g−1 after 40 cycles | \n500 mA g−1 5 A g−1 | \n80 | \n
Electrochemical performance of Sn-based composites with CNFs.
(a and b) HRTEM images of SnOx/CNFs and (c) corresponding selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern; (d and e) HRTEM images of SnOx–20%Cu/CNFs and (f) corresponding SAED pattern after 1000-cycle performance test at a current density of 2 A g−1 [
Highly enhanced performance of SnO2 could be achieved by designing a novel 1D nanostructure. Liu et al [87] have designed and synthesized a novel fiber-in-tube hierarchical nanostructure of SnO2@porous carbon in carbon tubes (denoted as SnO2 @PC/CTs), with 1D SnO2@PC as the fibrous core and PDA-derived carbon tubes as the tubular shell, through N-doped carbon coating on electrospun hybrid nanofiber template and a post-etching technique (Figure 10). The internal PC skeleton could link and support SnO2 nanoparticles for inhibiting the nanoparticle aggregation during cycling, while the external carbon protective shell could confine the volume expansion of SnO2 for preserving the integrity of the overall electrode and facilitate electron and ion transport to the internal active materials. As a result, compared with SnO2/CTs (without internal porous carbon skeleton), the SnO2@PC/CT nanohybrids exhibit a higher reversible capacity of 1045 mA h g−1 at 0.5 A g−1 after 300 cycles and a high-rate cycling stability after 1000 cycles (Table 1) compared with those of SnO2/CTs (without internal porous carbon skeleton). This unique 1D hierarchical nanostructure could be extended for improving other high-capacity metal oxides materials such as MnO/MnO2, Fe2O3, and Co3O4.
\nSchematic illustration on the preparation of SnO2@PC/CT and SnO2/CT nanohybrids: (A) preparing nanofiber web using electrospinning technique; (B) calcining electrospun nanofiber web (B1) at 500°C for 1 h in air to obtain SnO2/SiO2/C HNF web and (B2) at 600°C for 6 h in air to obtain SnO2/SiO2 HNF web (C) coating PDA on the surface of SnO2/SiO2/C HNFs or SnO2/SiO2 HNFs at room temperature; (D) carbonizing two types of PDA-coated HNFs at 600°C, and then etching SiO2 to obtain SnO2@PC/CTs with a fiber-in-tube hierarchical nanostructure or SnO2/CTs with a particle-in-tube nanostructure [
TiO2 has been regarded as a promising high-rate anode material due to its low cost, high working voltage, and structural stability during lithium insertion and extraction processes [88–93]. Bulk TiO2 particle has poor ion and electron conductivity, which has limited its practical capacity and high-rate capability. So much attention has been paid to produce nanostructured and open-channeled TiO2 materials, which can provide increased reaction active sites and short diffusion lengths for electron and lithium-ion transport [94–100].
\nSchematic representation of the preparation for the 3D porous TiO2 nanotube/carbon nanofiber architecture (ST–TiO2/C: electrospun TiO2/C nanofibers after calcination as a starting raw material; 3D-TiO2/C: 3D porous TiO2 nanotube/carbon nanofiber architecture prepared by a hydrothermal method) [
Moreover, tailoring these TiO2 fires by coating or incorporation of carbon materials can greatly influence the capacity values and hence the battery performance [101, 102]. CNFs have also been used to load TiO2 particles or fibers for improving electrochemical performance [103–106]. The TiO2–CNF composite nanofibers were prepared by electrospinning technique and thermal treatment. Owing to the unique features of encapsulating TiO2 nanocrystals into porous conductive carbon matrix, the composite nanofibers demonstrated an excellent electrochemical performance [103, 104]. A coaxial electrospinning technique combined with subsequent calcination treatment was also used to develop porous TiO2–CNFs for LIB anodes [105]. In addition, a 3D porous architecture composed of TiO2 nanotubes connected with a CNF matrix was successfully prepared by a hydrothermal method using electrospun rutile TiO2/C nonwoven as the starting raw material (Figure 11) [106]. With its unique structure and connected conductive CNF network, the 3D architecture of the electrode resulted in superior rate performance: the reversible capacities were 214, 180, 138, and 112 mA h g−1 at the rate of 5, 10, 20, and 30 C, respectively. Additionally, the 3D structured electrode shows a very stable cycling performance, especially at a high rate of 30 C, without undergoing decay after 1000 cycles.
\nSpinel Li4Ti5O12 has attracted particular attention for LIB application due to its nearly zero-strain characteristics [107] However, the practical application of Li4Ti5O12 in LIBs is hampered by its poor natural electronic conductivity. In order to improve the conductivity of Li4Ti5O12 materials, various approaches such as surface coating with conductive materials, e.g., Ag nanoparticles [108, 109], dispersion of Li4Ti5O12 nanoparticles into a carbon matrix [110–112], and preparation of submicron or nanosized Li4Ti5O12 [113, 114] aiming to significantly shorten the Li+-diffusion length, etc., have been developed.
\nLi4Ti5O12/carbon hybrid nanowebs consisting of interconnected nanofibers were prepared by a combination of electrospinning and subsequent thermal treatments [115, 116]. The as-prepared Li4Ti5O12/carbon nanowebs exhibited high reversible charge stability and good cycling performance (166 mA h g−1 at 0.1 C). Highly porous Li4Ti5O12/C nanofibers are successfully designed and prepared through electrospinning combined with a post-two-step annealing process [117]. The Li4Ti5O12/C hybrid with a well-defined porous nanoarchitecture exhibits ultrahigh cycling rates and superior cycling stability. Mesoporous structures were also obtained by adding an amphiphilic triblock copolymer surfactant into a PVP solution, driving the self-assembly of a hydroxyl Li–Ti–O precursor to form mesopores after calcination [118]. Even better performances were obtained from combining dual-phase Li4Ti5O12–TiO2 with CNFs, prepared by immersing TiO2/CNF in a LiOH solution at high temperatures. This imparted a pseudocapacitive effect, with a 204 mA h g−1 discharge capacity after 200 cycles at 100 mA g−1 from an initial capacity of ~220 mA h g−1 [119].
\nMany other metal oxide nanoparticles have also been incorporated into the CNF matrix for the usage of LIB anode materials. For example, the MnOx particles, existed as MnO or Mn3O4, were incorporated into porous CNFs via electrospinning technique and subsequent heat treatment [120]. The porous MnOx/C nanofibers experienced limited volume change with Li+ insertion/extraction because the ductile and strong C matrices suppressed the disintegration and aggregation of MnOx. Compared with pure CNF anodes, the MnOx/C exhibited larger charge and discharge capacities (542 mA h g−1 for MnOx/C and 396 mA h g−1 for pure CNF at the 50th cycle) [121]. MnOx was also incorporated into fibrous structures by the electrochemical deposition of MnOx nanoparticles on PAN-based electrospun CNFs [122]. Similarly, Zhang et al. [123] prepared porous Co3O4–CNFs, which show an improved electrochemical performance compared to pure Co3O4 nanoparticles. C/Fe3O4 nanofibers with amorphous C structure and crystalline Fe3O4 particles were carbonized at a relatively low temperature (600°C), and showed high reversible capacity of 1007 mA h g−1 at the 80th cycle and excellent rate capability [124]. Recently, maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles were uniformly coated on CNFs by a hybrid synthesis procedure combining an electrospinning technique and hydrothermal method. Electrospun PAN nanofibers serve as a robust support for iron oxide precursors during the hydrothermal process and successfully limit the aggregation of nanoparticles at the following carbonization step (Figure 12) [125]. Such design not only increases the loading of Fe2O3 up to more than 60%, but also limits the aggregation of nanoparticles in the following carbonization step, which leads to a high reversible capacity of above 830 mA h g−1 after 40 cycles.
\nSchematic of the preparation of γ-Fe2O3@CNFs and its microstructure and performance [
In this chapter, the progress in electrospun CNFs and the composites with CNFs, which are used as LIB anode materials, has been summarized. Silicon, tin-based materials, and transition metal oxides are the candidates for the next generation anodes due to their expected high theoretical capacity, but suffer from some issues such as the vast volume change and low electronic conductivity, which could result in lower cycling stability and rate performance. Fortunately, these issues might be solved via composing with electrospun CNF matrix due to their superior mechanical properties and electrical conductivity as well as unique 1D nanostructure. More importantly, these CNF-based composite anodes with an interfibrous web structure could be directly used as anodes without any conductive agent and binder or current collectors, which can greatly reduce the inactive weight and cost of the cells, and significantly improve the electrochemical performance of LIBs [126, 127]. Further enhancement of electrochemical performance could be achieved by constructing controllable 1D nanostructures and doping various materials with CNF-based hybrid nanofibers.
\nIn addition, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are new-emerged promising candidates for new battery systems especially for large-scale and long-term electric energy storage applications due to their cost advantages [5, 6, 128–133]. Currently, many researchers have paid more attention to electrospun materials for SIBs [134–142]. So far, research has mainly focused on the electrode materials based on electrospun 1D composite with CNFs. By constructing controllable 1D nanostructure to take full advantage of the electrospun materials including shorter diffusion pathways, high surface areas and porosities, good mechanical strengths, etc., one can find the wide use of the electrospun materials in commercial LIBs or SIBs, and even in flexible battery devices in the years ahead.
\nPerovskite solar cells (PSCs) have received a great deal of attention in the past few decades due to their impressively high power conversion efficiency (PCE) [1]. To date, PCE as high as 25.6% has been successfully recorded. This performance has already been compared with the single-crystalline silicon solar cells system. With the advancement in the perovskite properties control, including the crystallinity properties, grain size, and stability properties, further improvement in the PCE is expected to be achieved soon. The continuous growth in the preparation of the high-performance charge selective layer in the perovskite solar cells further contributes to the rapid progress in the PCE improvement of the PSC [2].
Along with the transparent conducting electrode (TCE) and the top metal contact, a PSC device is composed of an electron-transport layer (ETL), an organometal-halide perovskite active layer, and a hole-transport layer (HTL). In these solar cells, the perovskite and its photoelectrical properties are the keys to the overall photovoltaic process. Its unique high-optical absorption constant drives massive photon absorption and exciton generation in the device. Despite this key fact, the carrier transport and interfacial charge transfer dynamics play another crucial factor for the generation of the overall PSC performance. These two parameters depend on the nature of the surface and the crystallinity properties of the charge-selective layers [3].
One of the serious problems in perovskite solar cell devices is the loss of charge carriers during the transport process in the carrier layer. This is because, the carrier layer has low crystallization, high grain boundary resistance as well as experiences loss of carrier charge during extraction to the outer electrode. The main factor of carrier charge lost during extraction to the outer electrode is due to the high interface resistance between the electrode and the carrier layer. Therefore, it is expected that when a carrier layer that has high crystallinity, very low thickness, and good coupling conditions with external electrodes is used, then the performance of the device will increase.
The electron transport layer (ETL), for example, TiO2, and other semiconducting oxides, such as SnO2, ZnO, have been widely applied in the perovskite solar cells fabrication. Despite the excellent performance demonstrated by them, this ETL suffers from large-density surface defects related to oxygen vacancy, particularly in the TiO2 system. The defect from such vacancy causes immense trap-limited (Shockley-Read-Hull) transport in the extraction of the photogenerated carrier to the external electrode. This in many cases degrades the photovoltaic performance of the PSC up to a certain degree, reducing the power conversion efficiency of the device. Even though there exist several methods in the passivation of such defects, such as acid passivation, etc., the improvement is minute. In addition, this method may add additional resistance to the photocarrier transport reducing the power conversion efficiency. Along with these crucial factors, the crystallinity properties of the ETL add an additional issue to the photocarrier transport dynamic in the device. As normal in the high-performance PSC fabrication, mesoporous TiO2 or SnO2 was used as ETL along with a compact layer of TiO2 or SnO2 (See Figure 1), [4]. As the figure reveals, the mesoporous layer is composed of a large number of interconnected small grain particles that produce grain boundary resistance due to lattice mismatch among the connected particles. This resistance should be massive due to their large-scale existence on the layer. This certainly complicates the transport of photogenerated electrons to the electrode layer, such as high internal resistance or radiationless recombination [5, 6]. Therefore, the selection of the right material for the carrier layer is important in determining the performance of a device. Such resistance boundary further augments the presence of mesoporous-compact layer interface resistance in the ETL system of the PSC. From this picture, we can estimate the loss would be suffered by the device during the photovoltaic process. This means that if such ETL is replaced with the single-crystalline ETL system, the performance of the perovskite solar cells can be improved.
Mesoporous TiO2 ETL. (A and C) Top and side view of mesoporous TiO2 layer on compact layer TiO2. (B and D) Top and side of mesoporous TiO2 layer. (Reprinted from [
Recently, materials of two-dimensional (2D) dichalcogenide transition metals (TMDs), such as MoS2, WS2, TiS2, CdTe, and others, have been used as carrier layers in perovskite solar cells due to their high charge carrier mobility, unique optoelectrical properties, large exciton binding energy, very fast interface charge transfer properties as well as excellent physical and chemical stability properties [7]. Their optoelectronic properties were also found to correspond to the number of layers, dopants, and strains (straining). The phenomenon of the massive charge transfer process in these van der Waals crystals driven by the collective motion of excitonic surfaces enables a high interfacial charge extraction and reduces charge recombination for an effective photovoltaic process [8]. One of the uniqueness of the TMDs layer is that it has an atomic-scale thickness (very thin) and has high crystallinity. With its planar (2D) structure, it will produce a strong coupling when grown on the electrode surface. Therefore, it has great potential for a carrier layer in perovskite solar cells.
Transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) has the chemical formula of MX2 where M is the transition metal from groups 4 to 10 in the periodic table system, and X is a chalcogen atom such as sulfur (S), selenium (Se), or tellurium (Te). Figure 2 shows the typical structure of TMD. The structure has two layers of chalcogen that clamp a transition metal layer making this material have its uniqueness in electronic, optoelectronic properties, and chemical stability [10]. The electronic and optical properties of TMDs materials change significantly depending on the number of layers. For example, the MoS2 band gap increases from 1.29 eV (multilayered MoS2) to 1.59 eV (monolayer MoS2), and also this bandgap changes from an indirect bandgap to a direct bandgap as the number of layers decreases [11].
Typical structure of transition metal dichalcogenide materials. (A) Typical layer stacking structure in bulk transition metal dichalcogenide structure. T and X represent the transition metal and chalcogen elements, respectively. (B) Top and side view of single-layer of TMD with 2H-phase. (C) Side view of single-layer TMD with 1T-phase. (Reprinted from [
As is well known, most of these 2D TMD materials have ambipolar properties that enable the materials to transport both electrons and holes [12]. In other words, this allows 2D TMDs material to be used as ETL or HTL in n-i-p or p-i-n perovskite solar cells. However, most perovskite solar cell applications use these 2D TMD materials as HTL. Only MoS2 and TiS2 have been used as ETLs and have successfully produced efficiencies as high as 13.14% and 18.79% [7, 13]. Table 1 shows several PSC device structures utilizing TMD as ETL. Recently, there was a first simulation study on the photoelectric properties of WS2 as an ETL in perovskite solar cells reported with efficiencies as high as 25.70% [23]. By having high electron mobility as well as energy levels appropriate to the perovskite layer, the WS2 atomic layer is expected to function as an ETL capable of producing high-performance perovskite solar cell devices.
Material | Device structure | PCE (%) | Ref. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TiS2 | FTO/TiS2/MAPbI3/spiro-OMeTAD/Au | 23.38 | 1.05 | 0.71 | 17.37 | [14] |
TiS2 | ITO/TiS2/ FAxMA1-xBrxClyI1-x-y/spiro-OMeTAD/Ag | 24.68 | 1.00 | 0.75 | 18.79 | [7] |
MoS2 | FTO/MoS2/MAPbI3/spiro-OMeTAD/Au | 21.70 | 0.89 | 0.63 | 13.14 | [15] |
MoS2 | ITO/MoS2/Csx(MAyFA1-y)1-xPb(IzBr1-z)3/spiro-OMeTAD/Au | 16.24 | 0.56 | 0.37 | 3.36 | [16] |
MoS2/TiO2 | ITO/TiO2/MoS2/MAPbI3/spiro-OMeTAD/Au | 13.36 | 0.65 | 0.51 | 4.43 | [17] |
MoS2/SnO2 | ITO/SnO2/MoS2/FAxMA1-xBrxClyI1-x-y/spiro-OMeTAD/Ag | 24.57 | 1.11 | 0.79 | 21.73 | [18] |
MoS2 | Graphene/MoS2/MAPbI3/PTAA/Au | 20.92 | 0.91 | 0.76 | 14.42 | [19] |
MoS2 | ITO/MoS2/MAPbI3/PCBM/Al | 12.50 | 0.85 | 0.57 | 6.01 | [20] |
SnS2 | ITO/SnS2/MAPbI3/Spiro-OMeTAD/Au | 23.70 | 0.95 | 0.61 | 13.63 | [21] |
SnS2 | ITO/SnS2/MAPbI3/Spiro-OMeTAD/Au | 21.70 | 1.011 | 0.60 | 13.20 | [22] |
Photovoltaic parameters of perovskite solar cell devices using dichalcogenide transition metals (TMDs) as ETLs.
TiS2 is one of the TMDC family that has been intensively studied recently due to its semi-metallic properties with low-bandgap value, i.e., 0.2 eV. With high electrical conductivity, i.e., 1 x 104 S m−1, this material is potential as an electrode in many applications including lithium-ion batteries and solar cells. Despite its excellent electrical properties, the use of TiS2 as independent electrode material in the application is limitedly demonstrated. It is mainly stacked with other materials such as MoS2 [24] or TiO2 to improve the properties in applications. For the case of MoS2 stacked with TiS2, the TiS2 can form Schottky contact with MoS2 with barrier height [24] between these two atomic layers can be varied by the doping type and concentration either in the MoS2 or TiS2 side (Figure 3). This certainly provides a wider opportunity to modify the electrical properties of the system for desired performance in application. In the typical process, n-type-doped TiS2–MoS2 (ML) contacts exhibit a barrier height relatively larger, i.e., 1.0 eV below doping level degeneracy. Nevertheless, these n-type-doped contacts still have the potential as the switch in high-power as well as tunnel Schottky barrier MOSFETs. In contrary to the n-type doped system, the p-type-doped TiS2–MoS2 (ML) exhibits a zero barrier height at a particular doping concentration, i.e., 5 × 1018 cm−3. Under this condition, the depletion region width is zero and the band becomes flat, revealing that the contact is ohmic and the barrier height is small. These results reveal the unique unusual interfacial properties arising from this ultimate thin contact that promise a special function in the application. This phenomenon could be the driving factor for an efficient photocarrier extraction in the perovskite solar cells using ETL modified with MoS2 or TiS2 atomic layer.
PLDOS of TiS2–MoS2 (ML) FET-like junctions doped with different doping concentrations and the variation of band structure at interface B. a–d The doping concentrations are: N = 5 × 1019 cm−3, N = 1 × 1019 cm−3, N = 5 × 1018 cm−3, and P = 5 × 1018 cm−3. The thickness of TiS2 is four layers. On the right side, the plot shows the variation of band structure under different doping concentrations. The scale bar is from 0.0 to 90.0 (1/eV). Interface A is the interface between TiS2–MoS2. (Reprinted from [
For example, in the perovskite solar cells system with SnO2 ETL (Figure 4), there is an increase in the energy band alignment between the ETL and perovskite layer when the 2D TiS2 is attached to the surface of SnO2 [18]. The conduction band level of ETL (SnO2) reduced from 4.68 to 4.63 eV in the presence of 2D TiS2. This has narrowed the offset energy between the ETL and perovskite (conduction band level at 4.36 eV). As the result, the photogenerated carrier extraction becomes enhanced, improving the photocurrent and the power conversion efficiency. As shown in Figure 4C–4F, the power conversion efficiency increases from 19.65% to 21.73% when the SnO2 ETL is modified with the 2D TiS2 atomic layer. The nature of interfacial photocarrier dynamic improvement in the presence of the 2D TiS2 atomic layer can be seen from the increase of the
(A) Cross-sectional SEM image of the PSC. (B) The energy level diagram. (C) Representative J-V curves of the PSCs with SnO2 or SnO2 /2D TiS2 as ETLs. (D) EQE curve and integrated current density of the PSC with SnO2 /2D TiS2 as the ETL. (E) Histogram of the PCE of PSCs with SnO2 and SnO2 /2D TiS2 as ETLs analyzed from 25 cells. (F) Steady-state efficiency of the PSCs with SnO2 and SnO2/2D TiS2 as ETLs measured under constant voltages of 0.86 V and 0.92 V, respectively. (Reprinted from [
Figure 5 explains in detail how the photocarrier dynamic in the device was impressively modified in the presence of a 2D TiS2 atomic layer on the surface of SnO2 ETL. As presented, the photocurrent is enhanced impressively. This is the result of enhanced interfacial charge transfer as indicated by the transient and steady-state photoluminescence analysis result, which is also supported by the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy result, showing decrease in the interfacial charge transfer resistance in the device.
Comparison of SnO2 and SnO2/2D TiS2 as ETLs in PSCs: (A)
We also in our recent result have coupled the TiS2 atomic layer on top of the TiO2 surface to compensate for surface defect due to the oxygen vacancy, enhancing the interfacial charge transfer and transport dynamic when applied as ETL in perovskite solar cells [25]. The perovskite solar cells’ performance improves from 18.02 to 18.73% (Figure 6). Electrochemical impedance analysis revealed that there is an improvement as high as 13% in interfacial charge transfer in the ETL with 2D TiS2 and 43% improvement in the charge recombination resistance (Figure 7A). The latter is verified by the increase in the photocurrent (Figure 7B) and the decrease in the leakage current of the device when 2D TiS2 passivates the TiO2 surface (Figure 7C). We can relate this process to the reduction in the trap density in the device as shown by the value of
Photovoltaic performance of the 2D TiS2-TiO2 NG and TiO2 NG-based PSC. (A) Schematic structure of 2D TiS2-TiO2 NG-based PSC. (B)
Photoelectrical properties of the PSC device. (A) Electrochemical impedance spectra and equivalent circuit of the device. (B) Photogenerated current of the PSC device (
MoS2 atomic layer is the most studied TMD system because of its excellent optical and electrical properties [26, 27, 28] and has been used widely in perovskite solar cells as a hole-transport layer (HTL) and an electron-transport layer (ETL) [11, 15, 26] in the form of colloidal or flakes thin film [15, 28, 29, 30]. Table 1 lists down several perovskite solar cells using MoS2 as ETL with a particular device configuration. For example, Singh, Giri, et al. [13] have obtained power conversion efficiency as high as 13.2% from PSC devices using MoS2 material as ETL. In this study, they synthesized the MoS2 film directly on FTO substrate using microwave irradiation-assisted reduction method. It is found that the efficiency obtained by MoS2 material is close to the efficiency value obtained from TiO2 and SnO2 material making MoS2 material comparable to other ETL materials. Abd Malek et al. [16] have also developed different structures of MoS2 ETL on the ITO substrate. Instead of colloidal or flake structured film, an ultrathin layer of MoS2 prepared from ultrasonic spray pyrolysis was fabricated to obtain its functionalities as ultrathin ETL in the PSC device. The result showed that the PCE device performance depended on the condition during the preparation of the MoS2 atomic layer, particularly the substrate temperature. It is demonstrated that substrate temperature of 200°C is suitable for growing high-quality MoS2 atomic layer on ITO surface, thus, optimizing the power conversion efficiency of the PSC (Figure 8). This MoS2 thin-film-based device as ETL has shown high-stability properties where its efficiency can be maintained as much as 90.24% of the original efficiency after 80 s exposure continuously under simulated solar light illumination (AM1.5).
The photovoltaic parameter for MoS2 as ETL in PSC. (A) Schematic structure of the PSC device. (B) The
In addition to being used singly in the ETL, TMD materials can also be combined with other organic or inorganic electron transport materials to form electron transport materials. For example, Ahmed et al. [31] have added a MoS2 layer on top of the TiO2 layer to be used as ETL in perovskite solar cells. The use of MoS2/TiO2 as ETL has successfully increased the efficiency of the device by 16% higher than the device that only uses TiO2 as ETL. Similarly, Huang et al. [18] have successfully produced an n-i-p type plane device using SnO2 and 2D TiS2 as ETL. High efficiency was recorded by this group, which was as high as 21.73% with a relatively small hysteresis value. The increase in efficiency in this device is due to the matching of the ETL energy level and the appropriate perovskite layer as well as the lack of electron trap density in the ETL.
Tungsten disulfide (WS2) share common basic properties of TMD with other systems, such as high-mobility properties, unique optoelectronic properties, large exciton-binding energy, and good physical and chemical stability as well as ambipolar properties [11]. In addition, WS2 has an energy level that is suitable for the perovskite layer of three types of cations (Figure 9) and can be easily synthesized by the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis method. WS2 also has high stability as well as having fast interface charge transfer properties [32]. Among the available 2D TMD, the energy band structure of WS2 is a much better match with the common perovskite of MAPbI3 (Figure 10). Furthermore, it also has a relatively larger bandgap if compared with the other system in this class of materials, promising facile excitonic separation during the photovoltaic process and producing better power conversion efficiency.
Energy levels of dichalcogenide transition metal materials (TMDs) as ETLs and MAPbI3 as perovskite layers in perovskite solar cells.
Energy level diagram for n-i-p perovskite solar cells using WS2 ETL.
Recently, we have realized the PSC device utilizing the WS2 layer as ETL and evaluated how the number of layers of WS2 influences the carrier dynamic in the device [5]. We prepared the WS2 atomic layer via ultrasonic spray pyrolysis. Figure 11 shows a schematic diagram of the 2D atomic layer preparation. A modified commercially available ultrasonic spray system (Daiso, Japan) was used. A homemade solution container was placed on the top of the ultrasonic membrane of the system (Figure 11). Ultrasmall solution precursor mist can be produced from the process and fall on the ITO substrate surface that is positioned approximately 5 cm below the membrane. The temperature of the substrate was set at 350°C.
Schematic diagram of ultrasonic spray pyrolysis for the preparation of TMD ETL.
The typical morphology of the WS2 atomic layer on the ITO substrate is shown in Figure 12A. The WS2 nanosheet’s morphology resembles a circular structure that is produced from the precursors’ mist that emerged from the ultrasonic spray membrane. Confocal Raman imaging further indicated the existence of a very thin layer of structure from the circular structure as shown in Figure 12B. Raman analysis then confirmed the phase crystallinity of the WS2 (Figure 12C). As the figure reveals, there are two sharp peaks obtained from the Raman spectrum that is centered at 348.9 cm−1and 412.3 cm−1, which are associated with the in-plane (E2g) and the out-of-plane (A1g) vibration modes of the lattice (see inset in Figure 12C) [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. According to the value of the separation between these two peaks, the thickness of the atomic layer is estimated to be in the range of 10 L. The X-ray diffraction analysis further confirmed the phase crystallinity of the WS2 layer (Figure 12D) [40, 41, 42]. The high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) analysis results (Figure 12F and G) show that the sample is single crystalline. However, the presence of SAED composed of a triple spot is related to the stacking of the WS2 atomic layer during the transfer to the lacey grid for HRTEM analysis. The XPS analysis then further confirmed the Raman and XRD analysis results on the phase crystallinity of the sample of which it belongs to WS2 (Figure 12H–I).
The morphology, phase crystallinity, chemical state properties of WS2 nanosheet. (A) FESEM image of WS2 nanosheet on the ITO substrate. (B-C) Raman imaging and spectrum of WS2 were obtained using 532 nm laser excitation. The inset in (C) shows the corresponding main vibration mode of Raman. (D) XRD spectrum for WS2 nanosheet showing 2H phase. (E-F) Low and high-resolution TEM image of WS2 nanosheet. (G) SAED pattern of WS2 nanosheet showing at least three stacking WS2 nanosheets. (H-I) High-resolution scan of XPS at W and S binding energy of WS2 nanosheet. (Reprinted from [
PSCs device was fabricated using the WS2 atomic layer as ETL and investigated how the thickness of the WS2 ETL influenced the photovoltaic process. The structure of the PSC device is ITO/WS2 nanosheets/Perovskite/Spiro-OMeTAD/Au. Perovskite used was triple cations system of Cs0.05[MA0.13FA0.87]0.95Pb (I0.87Br0.13)3 [43].
It was found that the thickness, represented by the number of layers, of the WS2 atomic layer ETL, strongly influences the power conversion efficiency of the PSC device (Figure 13). The results show that the PCE performance improves with the increase of thickness from 4 L to the optimum thickness of 7 L (WS30 sample in the figure). The optimized WS2 ETL thickness can produce a PSC device with PCE as high as 18.21% with
The photovoltaic performance of PSC using different thicknesses of WS2 ETL. (A)
To understand the extent effect of the WS2 atomic layer as ETL in the PSC device, the device performance was compared with the reference PSC utilizing well-known SnO2 ETL. In the typical process, the performance of SnO2-based PSC shows lower performance than the WS2 atomic layer–based device (Figure 14). Steady-state and transient photoluminescence analysis revealed that the interfacial charge transfer from the perovskite to ETL is high in the WS2 atomic layer [45], the result of optimized coupling due to ultra-flat surface morphology offered by the WS2 atomic layer. This phenomenon is further confirmed by the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis result where it is obtained that the interface charge transfer resistance is lower in the WS2-based PSC device than the SnO2-based device. Thus, it can be remarked that the WS2 atomic layer enables highly active interfacial charge transfer for a high-performance PSC device.
The comparison of the photovoltaic parameter between WS2 (7 L, WS30 sample) and SnO2-based PSC device. (A)
2D atom thick TMD promises facile charge extraction and transport in the perovskite solar cells due to its ultimate thin and single-crystalline nature. The optimization of the 2D TMD layer to obtain a large dimension on the substrate surface is necessary to further promote a highly dynamic photogenerated carrier in the perovskite solar cells device. These materials may become a potential platform for high-performance perovskite solar cells.
We acknowledged the financial support from the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for supporting this project under GUP-2019-071 and DIP-2021-025.”
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
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In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/31563",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"31563"},fullPath:"/profiles/31563",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()