\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Patients with chronic pathologies such as diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, obesity, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, congenital or trauma injuries, changes due to excessive weight loss and others, as well as patient-tourists who have traveled enormous distances are now able to receive cosmetic and reconstructive surgeries that in the past were rejected. The authors of this book also discuss various contemporary topics of anesthesia for plastic and reconstructive surgery that are especially interesting and controversial due to the latest developments on this subject.",isbn:"978-1-78985-458-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-457-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-101-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68700",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",numberOfPages:164,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1a0c61779ec291eb0cf0adfafe2c274e",bookSignature:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo",publishedDate:"April 3rd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6221.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14708,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 6th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 13th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 16th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169249/images/system/169249.jpg",biography:"Dr. Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo graduated from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. He completed a residency in Internal Medicine at Hospital General de México, and a residency in Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine at Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City. He also completed a fellowship in the Anesthesia Department, Pain Clinic, University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Currently, Dr. Whizar-Lugo works as an anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group. He is also a researcher at the National Institutes of Health. He has many publications on anesthesia, pain, internal medicine, and critical care to his credit. He has edited four books and given countless conferences at congresses and meetings around the world. He has been a member of various editorial committees in anesthesiology journals, past chief editor of the journal Anestesia en México, and is currently the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Anesthesia and Critical Care: Open Access. He is the founding director and current president of Anestesiología y Medicina del Dolor (www.anestesiologia-dolor.org), a free medical education program.",institutionString:"Institutos Nacionales de Salud",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1139",title:"Anesthesiology",slug:"surgery-anesthesiology"}],chapters:[{id:"64328",title:"Anesthesia for Plastic Surgery Procedures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81284",slug:"anesthesia-for-plastic-surgery-procedures",totalDownloads:2015,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plastic surgery is currently more popular and available with increasing frequency throughout the world. Its advances are related to progress in anesthesiology. Nowadays, it is possible to operate patients with pathologies that previously did not allow this type of surgery. The developments in perioperative monitoring, pharmacology, prevention of complications, and the wide communication between patients and physicians, as well as the development of surgical units that facilitate a prompt programming and reduce the total costs, have resulted in a logarithmic growth of plastic and reconstructive surgery procedures. Local, regional, or general anesthesia, anesthetic monitoring, or conscious sedation is used routinely, allowing to manage patients as ambulatory or short stay. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism remain the most frequent complications, followed by postoperative pain, nausea, and vomiting.",signatures:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo and Ana C. Cárdenas-Maytorena",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64328",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64328",authors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],corrections:null},{id:"57388",title:"Brain Monitored Propofol Ketamine for Elective Cosmetic Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71442",slug:"brain-monitored-propofol-ketamine-for-elective-cosmetic-surgery",totalDownloads:1029,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Brain monitored level of propofol hypnosis provides a numerically reproducible paradigm to block negative ketamine side effects. 50 mg IV ketamine 3 minutes prior to local anesthetic injection blocks virtually all midbrain NMDA receptors and is the basis for nonopioid preemptive analgesia. Opioid avoidance essentially eliminates postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) as well as the need for antiemetic agents. Over the past 20 years, no elective cosmetic surgical cases required hospital admission for either postoperative pain control or PONV.",signatures:"Barry L. Friedberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57388",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57388",authors:[{id:"213331",title:"M.D.",name:"Barry",surname:"Friedberg",slug:"barry-friedberg",fullName:"Barry Friedberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"60106",title:"Pediatric Anesthesia for Patients with Cleft Lip and Palate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74926",slug:"pediatric-anesthesia-for-patients-with-cleft-lip-and-palate",totalDownloads:1886,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Cleft lip and palate are the most common craniofacial deformities in the United States of America and México. Their aesthetic and functional implications influence the lifestyle of the patient: social relationships, school and working performances, self-esteem and health. Surgical repair of the cleft lip is around the third to sixth month of age and the palate repair is when the patient is between six and eighteen months old. There are other surgical repairs during childhood and ideally all of them should be performed by an experienced surgeon teaming up with a pediatric anesthesiologist following the gold standards in cleft care, in a setting where the safety of the patient is paramount.",signatures:"Alyssa Brzenski, Ofelia Ham-Mancilla, Silvia Peña-Olvera, Amanda\nGosman and Alicia Sigler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60106",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60106",authors:[{id:"213145",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",surname:"Sigler",slug:"alicia-sigler",fullName:"Alicia Sigler"},{id:"241222",title:"Dr.",name:"Alyssa",surname:"Brzenski",slug:"alyssa-brzenski",fullName:"Alyssa Brzenski"},{id:"241223",title:"Dr.",name:"Amanda",surname:"Gosman",slug:"amanda-gosman",fullName:"Amanda Gosman"},{id:"241225",title:"Dr.",name:"Ofelia",surname:"Ham-Mancilla",slug:"ofelia-ham-mancilla",fullName:"Ofelia Ham-Mancilla"},{id:"241227",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Pena-Olvera",slug:"silvia-pena-olvera",fullName:"Silvia Pena-Olvera"}],corrections:null},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83630",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:6219,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65467",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65467",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}],corrections:null},{id:"63197",title:"Regional Anesthesia for Urgent Reconstructive Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80647",slug:"regional-anesthesia-for-urgent-reconstructive-surgery",totalDownloads:871,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In polytrauma patients, the primary goal is to administer early resuscitation and effective analgesia with medications or techniques, which minimally affect the patient’s physiology. Adequate pain control will reduce posttraumatic stress disorder and facilitate in early functional recovery and better wound healing. Most of these polytrauma patients are hemodynamically unstable and require anesthesia and analgesia with techniques that produce minimum hemodynamic derangements; these techniques depend on the severity of trauma. The complexity of the surgery varies from primary closure to free flap reconstruction. More complicated injuries with larger tissue loss require free flap cover for better wound healing and optimal functional outcome. Optimum care of flap is an important part of perioperative management to prevent flap failure. Regional anesthesia has been proven to prevent flap failure by increasing perfusion to injured area by blocking local sympathetic system and minimizing pain-induced vasospasm. Postoperative prevention of hypothermia maintaining normocarbia plays a vital role in maintaining perfusion of free flap and prevention of flap failure. Regional anesthesia allows safe management of these patients.",signatures:"Shivakumar M. Channabasappa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63197",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63197",authors:[{id:"209682",title:"Prof.",name:"Shivakumar.M",surname:"Channabasappa",slug:"shivakumar.m-channabasappa",fullName:"Shivakumar.M Channabasappa"}],corrections:null},{id:"62958",title:"Pain Management in Plastic Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79302",slug:"pain-management-in-plastic-surgery",totalDownloads:1263,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Most patients who undergo cosmetic surgery do not report pain during the immediate postoperative period. However, most patients who underwent liposuction combined with or without other plastic surgical procedure suffer pain after surgery. There are three main techniques in acute pain management postoperatively which are systemic analgesia, regional analgesia, and local/topical analgesia, and these are the extent of trauma during the procedure, surgeon’s skill, prior disease, location and type of incision, and psychological and cultural factors. Treatment for each type of plastic surgery and the resulting pain require techniques that can be used as single method or combined with each other to relieve postoperative pain after plastic surgery. Nausea, vomiting, constipation, somnolence, etc., are well-known adverse effects of opioids. Although these effects may seem minor, they can lead to significant complications following some type of plastic surgeries, for example, face-lift hematoma following nausea and vomiting, pulmonary complications from respiratory depression, and even thromboembolic phenomena from bed rest following prolonged opioid use. Multimodal pain management has been documented to increase patient satisfaction and reduce both opioid use and the incidence of PONV. Combination of pain management in plastic surgery included patient-controlled analgesia intravenous (PCA-IV), patient-controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA), patient-controlled regional analgesia (PCRA), field block (TAP block), continuous wound infusion system using pain pump and tumescent analgesia with local anesthetics.",signatures:"I Gusti Ngurah Mahaalit Aribawa, Made Wiryana, Tjokorda Gde\nAgung Senapathi and Pontisomaya Parami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62958",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62958",authors:[{id:"208429",title:"M.D.",name:"I Gusti Ngurah",surname:"Mahaalit Aribawa",slug:"i-gusti-ngurah-mahaalit-aribawa",fullName:"I Gusti Ngurah Mahaalit Aribawa"},{id:"209749",title:"Dr.",name:"Tjokorda Gde Agung",surname:"Senapathi",slug:"tjokorda-gde-agung-senapathi",fullName:"Tjokorda Gde Agung Senapathi"},{id:"209750",title:"Mrs.",name:"Pontisomaya",surname:"Parami",slug:"pontisomaya-parami",fullName:"Pontisomaya Parami"},{id:"209752",title:"Prof.",name:"Made",surname:"Wiryana",slug:"made-wiryana",fullName:"Made Wiryana"}],corrections:[{id:"66062",title:"Corrigendum to: Pain Management in Plastic Surgery",doi:null,slug:"corrigendum-to-pain-management-in-plastic-surgery",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"64750",title:"Perioperative Complications in Plastic Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82269",slug:"perioperative-complications-in-plastic-surgery",totalDownloads:1425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anesthetic complications in the perioperative period in plastic surgery are extremely rare, although they can be catastrophic and sometimes fatal. The proper selection and correct preoperative assessment of patients are the key to stay away from unwanted events. Preanesthesia evaluation is mandatory in each patient and must include clinical history, complete physical examination, and routine and special laboratory tests in patients with associated pathologies. Anesthetic management is based on these results, type of surgery, experience of the anesthesiologist, and the operating environment. The anesthetic technique can be local, regional, or general with standard noninvasive monitoring. It is recommended that an anesthesiologist be present in all plastic surgery procedures. Complications are usually the result of moving away from the guidelines already established for an excellent practice or the result of sentinel events rather than human errors. Pulmonary embolism is probably the most feared complication, with soft tissue infections being the most frequent complication in plastic surgery. Less common complications include arrhythmias, overhydration, allergies, bleeding, skin necrosis, dehiscence of wounds, brain damage, and dead. Anesthesiologists, surgeons, nurses, and all personnel involved in the care of these patients must work as a team of highly qualified and updated professionals.",signatures:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo, Jaime Campos-León and Alejandro\nMoreno-Guillen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64750",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64750",authors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. 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The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"df3f380c5949c8d8c977631cac330f67",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11850.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 20th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 10th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 29th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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It produces unimaginable quantities of energy. Solar energy is a very perfect source of power. It can be captured passively by solar panels or other collectors. When the collectors have been produced, there will be no carbon emissions or waste products [1]. There are no moving parts to hurt wildlife. There is no dependence on foreign entities. The energy is produced and delivered for free by the sun [2]. The uranium division begins progressing with the absorption of the smooth-moving neutron from the non-strong U-235 isotope. The obtained U-236 is split into Ba-139 and Kr-94 as well as three unfastened neutrons. The mass deficiency of approximately 20% of atomic mass units has also been converted into 210 MeV energy units [3, 4]. There were 447 nuclear fission power stations in service globally, 55 in construction and 111 in the design processes [5].
In the United States in 2018, 19.3% of the electricity supply was produced by 97 nuclear power plants. This amounts from zero percent to the other countries, for example, in New Zealand, and 71.7% in the European Union; the total global energy demand in 2018 was 10.3% [6].
With 11 new reactors under development, China has the most quickly expanding nuclear power program. Pakistan aims to construct three to four nuclear power stations by 2030 [7].
Several countries had nuclear installations in the past, but they still do not have nuclear plants in operation. Italy closed all the nuclear power stations between them by 1990, and, as a consequence of the referendums established by the Italians in 1987, nuclear power already has stopped [8]. A number of nations currently run nuclear power stations but are considering the process of nuclear technology. These countries are Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and Spain [3]. Also according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), solar power increased by 39% in the United States from 2014 to 2017 [4]. Starting at 10 GW and ending at 27, this growth trend for the field is very encouraging. In addition, carbon dioxide emissions have decreased by a few percent, the lowest since 1991 [5]. If it continues down this path, more study is likely to be carried out as a result of the growth in the market for efficient, cheap solar energy, in order to attempt to develop even more carbon-free or low-carbon fuels such as wind and nuclear power [6]. There are two big issues relating to nuclear plants: waste disposal and potential failure. Nuclear power plants produce dangerous wastes; for example, a 1-GW nuclear power plant can produce 300 kg of nuclear waste, with a half-life of almost 24,000 years, and cause environmental issues. The current methods for disposing of these kinds of waste are inadequate. The complete reprocessing of all radioactive waste and the chemical transformation of long fission products will be an ideal option. However, trends in this area have not progressed extensively [7]. The first and most critical problem is its disparity; the amount of solar energy that can be harvested depends widely on the time, location, season, weather, and several other factors. In order to improve this topic, engineers are exploring the development of new storage methods for large quantities of energy generated [5]. One of these storage techniques suitable for mountainous areas is pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES) that also uses excess energy generated during nonpeak hours of the day to pump water from a reservoir in a much high elevation. PHES is just one of the several potential storage methods used by many people, and it is so essential because it provides a clean, efficient use of solar energy when normally none is generated by replacing it with hydroelectricity [8]. Because of the good use and storage of solar energy, it becomes more difficult to determine whether to use solar energy or some other form of renewable energy for power companies and individuals. Despite the obvious cost of installing solar power, this is a higher investment opposed to the use of fossil fuels due to much lower maintenance and occasional overproduction of energy.
Solar energy is a key player in the sustainable power plan. In sunny places, many residents built panels on their roofs to support air-conditioning, heating, and other household needs and the panels were set up by themselves. Study in the collection and storage of solar energy should be a major effort worldwide [9]. But in less sunny areas, there are a few expensive homes which run 100% on solar power, using large battery banks to power them through the nights.
Solar energy has the capacity to boost everything we need; however our ability to turn the energy of the sun into electrical power and also to store energy is simply not fully developed. Energy storage in particular has proven to be challenging, as solar panels have a very irregular energy intake because it depends on season, climate conditions, time of day, and so on. The inability to use all solar power harvested efficiently is an issue that is likely to force even more development in the field to come soon after it has been resolved. The industry is full of possible innovations that have yet to be made and which can be recognized if time is taken to develop the innovative technology. Therefore, when looking at potential ways of storing the energy produced, PHES may not be the most cost-effective, but it is proven to be safe and can be added to some existing infrastructure at the same time as analysis seeks to make it more efficient.
Solar technology, i.e., renewable wind, offers a reliable and stable supply of solar energy during the year. As our natural resources are likely to decline in the years to come, it is necessary for the entire world to shift toward sustainable sources. Solar power is a reactive electromagnetic sunlight energy that can be used for a wide range of still-evolving applications, such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar electricity, solar thermal processing, artificial molten, salt power plants, and photosynthesis.
Solar energy is a significant source of green energy, and its techniques are generally characterized as either passive solar energy or active solar energy based on whether solar energy is absorbed and transmitted or transformed into solar energy. Strong solar technologies involve the use of photovoltaic devices, concentrating solar power and solar water heaters to harvest electricity. Passive methods include the alignment of a system or building to the sun, the use of products with desirable light properties or thermal mass, and the construction of spaces that automatically disperse air.
The biggest advantage of solar energy is that it can be quickly installed by both home and business consumers, because it does not involve any major construction, such as in the case of wind and geothermal power stations. Solar energy not only benefits individual owners but also benefits the environment. Figure 1 shows a simple model of a solar thermal system.
Solar thermal system [
The technology of solar cells is developing, and as our nonrenewable supply decreases, it is necessary for the world to transition into renewable energy sources. There are, though, a range of issues that prohibit solar energy from being used more widely. Solar energy drawbacks are likely to be resolved as technology advances, and their use grows as people continue to realize the benefits of solar energy.
Solar energy can either be thermal or photovoltaic. The photovoltaic type is one of the most stable types of converting radiant energy into electrical energy. It really is suitable in many countries with adequate sunlight, such as Iran, and countries close to the equator, in terms of the quantity and availability of this technology. The energy source does not relate to someone and requires permission to use it. This feature has given rise to solar energy becoming special among renewable energy sources. Solar energy from ancient times is used by people using a magnifying glass to light the fire. Throughout this way, the sunlight was concentrated on dark wooden surfaces, and the fire became ignited. Also, solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells convert solar energy directly into DC electricity. This power source may be used to power solar clocks, calculators, or signals. These are also found in areas which are not linked to the power grid. Figure 2 shows a concentrated solar power (CSP) plant. Solar heat energy (SHE) can be used to heat water or air, which requires ventilation of the room inside the house.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) plant [
Solar energy can be broadly categorized as active or passive solar energy depending on how they are captured and utilized. For active solar power, specific solar heating equipment is used to transform solar power into thermal energy, but there is no specialized equipment for passive solar power [11]. Active solar requires the use of mechanical devices such as photovoltaic panels, solar trap fans, and solar thermal collectors or reservoirs. Passive solar solutions transform solar energy into thermal energy without the usage of active mechanical devices. It is primarily a method to use curtains, doors, plants, positioning of buildings, and other basic methods to catch or block the sun for usage. Passive solar heating is a smart way to save electricity and optimize its consumption. An example of passive solar heating is what happens to your car on a hot summer day.
Although solar energy is recognized to be one of the cleanest and most renewable sources of energy today, it also has several environmental impacts. Solar energy uses photovoltaic panels to generate solar electricity. Nevertheless, the processing of photovoltaic cells to generate the energy includes silicon and to produce other waste products. Inappropriate handling of such materials can result in hazardous exposure to humans and the environment [12]. Installing solar power plants will entail a significant portion of land that may have an effect on established habitats. Solar energy does not pollute the air when converted to electricity by solar panels. It is found in abundance and does not help in global warming.
Solar power is now expected to play a greater position in the future due to recent developments that will result in lower costs and better efficiency. In fact, the solar photovoltaic industry is preparing to supply half of all future US power generation by 2025. More and more architects understand the importance of active and passive solar power and know how to successfully integrate it into building designs. Solar hot water systems can compete economically with conventional systems in some areas. Shell has predicted that by 2040, 50% of the world’s electricity supply would come from sustainable resources. Over recent years, the rate of generating photovoltaic cells has declined by 3% per year while policy subsidies have increased. While certain other information about solar energy is meaningless, this renders solar energy an even more efficient source of electricity. Solar energy is projected to be used by millions of households across the world in the next several years, as seen by developments in the United States and Japan. Aggressive financial incentives in Germany and Japan and China have made these countries global leaders in solar deployment for years [13].
A renewable resource that can be used to generate power is solar. The sun itself is a source of radiant, daylight, and other energy sources on Earth. Steam engines are a perfect illustration of radiant energy, by having sunrays magnified by mirrors guided to the turbine to heat water and produce steam, which in effect drives the turbine and causes steam to escape, and this pushes the piston. Calculators often work on solar power by storing light rays and transmitting energy to enable the calculator to function even though no light is present. Trevor Smith1 notes that “solar rays can be used to fuel or cool houses, supply hot water and produce steam for turbines generating energy. Sunlight can be converted directly into energy by photovoltaics, a fast-growing branch of solar technology.” This allows people to generate energy from renewable resources. James Bow notes that in 1977, 1 W of solar power costs $76.67. In 2014, the cost dropped to around $0.60. This suggests that modern solar power projects are far more economical, which means that renewable energy has come a long way and will continue to grow. One of the greatest declines in solar power is that, first, the sun is still growing and dropping, ensuring that the energy provided and processed is confined to the location of solar panels. Second, the batteries used to store electricity generated by the sun are expensive and produce a large amount of emissions. Third, in order to allow the best of the light, wide quantities of solar panels or mirrors need to be installed, which could be a function of restricted resources. The energy generated by the solar is a type of renewable energy used by today’s society.
Nuclear power is the energy of an atom. Atoms are very tiny objects which make up a single body in the universe. There is enormous power in the links that connect the nucleus unchanged. Power is generated when the ties are disbanded. Nuclear energy may be used to create electricity, but it must be produced first. Nuclear power can be produced by both nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fission, atoms are separated into smaller atoms, which generate steam. Nuclear power stations have been used for electricity generation. Another method of generating nuclear energy is through nuclear fusion. The combination of atoms to each other and the creation of heavier atoms are established. When atoms are coupled, a lot of energy is released. These reactions occur together in the sun to generate thermal energy to radiation. Numerous studies are currently underway, although this technique has not yet been commercialized and it is not known if it is possible to generate electricity from this method. Uranium (U-235) is the most commonly produced nonrenewable material for nuclear fission. Plants use a particular type of U-235, as the atoms are readily isolated. During nuclear fission, the neutron hits and splits the uranium atom, releasing a large sum of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released as the uranium atom is separated. Some neutrons proceed to hit other uranium atoms, and the process begins over and over again. It’s a chain reaction, too. Although uranium is around 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is extremely scarce. Most of the US uranium is extracted in the western United States, but only 17 percent of the plutonium reactors is generated abroad. Uranium provided to US reactors in 2013 arrived from a number of nations, including Russia, Australia, and several other African countries. Figure 3 displays the map of uranium mines in the world [14].
Map of uranium mines in the world.
There are 648 nuclear power stations in the world. There are 61 nuclear power stations and 99 research facilities in the United States. Nuclear plants are found in 30 states, and 46 are situated east of the Mississippi River. After 1990, nuclear power has supplied around one-fifth of US electricity annually. Nuclear power provides as much electricity as all the fuel consumed in California, New York, and Texas together. Nuclear energy plants supply more than 20% of US energy. Figure 4 shows the map of nuclear power stations in the world.
Map of nuclear power stations in the world.
Uranium fission occurs with the capture of the slow neutron by the non-isotope U-235. The resultant U-236 generates three free neutrons and separates into Kr-94 and Ba-139. The mass defect of roughly 0.2 atomic mass units is converted into 210 MeV energy units.
Many power stations, like nuclear power plants, use heat to produce electricity. Power plants rely on steam from hot water to drive massive turbines, which then produce electricity. Because of using fossil fuels to produce electricity, nuclear power plants employ nuclear fission energy. The fission occurs in the nuclear power plant reactors. Nuclear reactors are devices which contain and regulate nuclear chain reactions while releasing heat at a regulated rate. The nucleus of the device, which includes nuclear fuel, is at the top of the plant. The uranium fuel is constructed of ceramic pellets. Each ceramic pellet contains at about the same amount of energy as 150 gallons of gasoline. Such energy-rich pellets are packaged in 12 foot wire fuel pipes. The array of fuel rods, sometimes hundreds of them, is called a burn unit.
The heat generated during the fission at the center of the reactor is used to boil water to steam, which turns the turbine blades. The energy can be generated while the rotor blades rotate. Afterwards, the steam is pumped back into the atmosphere in a different power plant system called a cooling tower. The product will be collected.
Nuclear power plants do not emit carbon dioxide emissions during operation compared to fossil fuel-fired power stations. Methods for the extraction and refining of uranium oxide and the processing of nuclear fuel, however, require a large amount of power. Nuclear power stations supply large quantities of metal and concrete which also require a substantial amount of energy to be produced. When fossil fuels are used for the production and refining of uranium oxide or for the installation of a nuclear power plant, the emissions generated by the burning of these fuels may be associated with the energy emitted by nuclear power plants. The main environmental concerns linked to nuclear power include the processing of toxic waste such as uranium mine tailings, expended reactor fuel, and other nuclear waste. These materials can stay radioactive and dangerous to human health for thousands of years. Animals are subject to strict laws governing their care, delivery, preservation, and treatment for the protection of human health and the environment. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates the operations of nuclear power plants. Nuclear waste is classified as small and large rates of emissions. Radioactivity of these materials may range from just over natural background rates, including in mill tailings, to much higher amounts, such as spent nuclear fuel or sections of a nuclear plant. Radioactivity of toxic waste is decreased as time passes by a process called nuclear decay. The period of time taken to reduce the radioactivity of hazardous material to half of the original level is considered the contaminated half-life of the substance. Short-lived radioactive waste is also treated permanently prior to disposal in order to mitigate the future danger of contamination to staff handling and carrying waste, as well as to the amount of pollution at production sites.
Nuclear waste stored in tanks is very dangerous. These vessels are kept under special conditions in the water with safety shields until their half-life exceeds the standard of security. Various countries have specific laws on the processing of nuclear waste. The United States has set out strict rules on the storage and management of radioactive fuel and waste. Some nuclear power plant fuels can be stored in dry storage tanks. In this way, nuclear fuel tanks are stored in separate rooms with cement or steel air-conditioning devices.
Typically, once a nuclear reactor stops, it shifts. It involves the controlled extraction of the reactor and other devices that have been damaged from operation and the elimination of radioactivity to a degree that permits other uses of the site. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has stringent regulations regulating the decommissioning of nuclear power facilities, including the washing up of radioactively polluted reactor processes and equipment, including the disposal of atomic waste.
Uncontrolled nuclear reactions in a nuclear reactor will potentially contribute to extensive pollution of air and water. The probability of this occurring at nuclear power plants in the United States is known to be very low due to the complex and robust safeguards and multiple protection measures in effect at nuclear power plants, the preparation and expertise of reactor workers, the monitoring and service operations, and the legislative standards and oversight of the United States. A wide-field near nuclear power plant is controlled and supervised by trained security forces. Some of the reactors have containment vessels that are designed to withstand extreme weather events and earthquakes.
According to the laws of physics, energy is neither produced nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one kind to another, including the transfer of electrical energy into mechanical energy of electric motors. From the structure of the atom, much of its mass exists in a part called the core, and this mass contains protons with a positive electric field and neutrons with an ineffective or neutral electric field. Studies and experiments have indicated that neutrons weigh a lot more than protons. Nuclear energy is the energy generated by a nuclear explosion or a nuclear fusion under the specific conditions of the nucleus of an atom. A lot of energy can be released as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion happens. Once the heavy element, uranium, was exploded with neutrons, it was found that something special occurred instead of causing radioactivity as other materials. This cycle has been called fission. When nuclear fusion or nuclear fission happens as a product of neutron impacts, not only are two lighter elements produced and many radiations released, but more neutrons are generated, as can be seen in Figure 5. It is therefore obvious that concurrently released neutrons can start a chain reaction by acting on released light atoms, increasing the intensity of the reaction. This reaction may spread throughout uranium.
Uranium-235 radioactive fission.
A lot of energy would be produced through the fission of the uranium-235 nucleus (see Figure 5). To consider the amount of this energy, it’s enough to remember that this amount is around 60,000,000 times greater than when a carbon atom burns. During a nuclear fission reaction, the atom decomposes and releases a lot of kinetic energy into the environment. Obviously, kinetic energy is directly related to the generation of heat. The first reactors to generate a functional volume of electricity were installed in the Calder Hall in England. Atomic bombs may be produced of mere fissionable material. Of the two bombs dropped on Japan to end the World War 2, one contained plutonium and the other very highly enriched uranium-235.
There is no question that nuclear technology has found its way into the future; however, like most electricity forms, it still suffers from certain significant disadvantages.
Various nuclear energy projects are ongoing in both developed and emerging countries, such as India. Not to note, the benefits of nuclear technology are well ahead of the drawbacks of fossil fuels. That’s why energy generation technology has been the most preferred technology.
By concatenating uranium extraction from seawater, manifestly safe breeding reactor technology, and borehole disposal of nuclear waste, a viable, planetary-scale nuclear energy network can be developed, i.e., another that is capable of supplying such an enormous quantity of energy at such a high degree of intensity that it can be relied on to sustain much—and possibly much—of the human society in virtually much possible scenarios of significant concern. For that way, nuclear technology is qualitatively distinct from other consumable technology options and must be assumed to be completely renewable in other respects. Throughout the immediate future, it is possible that the opportunity to build and demonstrate manifest protection for the latest generation of modern nuclear plants would be necessary to establish the basis for a prosperous future focused on nuclear technology.
Human civilization needs fossil energy because of its current facilities and its basic needs. This need and the high use of fossil fuels in the industrial, commercial, and residential sectors have contributed to major rapid climate change. The challenge of global warming is one of the massive problems confronting governments around the world. Earth heating may change the ecosystems and create many long-term problems. Greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide are rising water levels in the oceans. Some droughts are in risk of extinction. These concerns are so significant that crisis analysts have described the modern century as a fuel for sustainability and protection of the planet.
Many countries have adopted official targets for the share of renewable energy in their grids, and others are considering them (Figure 6). Now that the governments of the world have a common issue, human beings will take collaborative action. Global organizations have been set up to manage this issue. The usage of renewable resources is one of the proposals created by global organizations to manage this crisis. Those alternative sources of energy include renewable energy and nuclear power. Countries must make decisions based on the long-term future to determine and improve the energy structures of the nation and calculate the various costs. At present, taking into account the cost factor, it is not possible to fulfill all energy demand from clean energy sources. But the good news is that this is possible with the cooperation of nuclear and renewable energy. Several countries have, in their perspective, made the energy demand share dependent on renewable and nuclear energy. Specific planners engage in predicting future projects and their costs. Figure 6 constitutes some of the OECD-calculated costs. The key competition today is between solar and nuclear energy. The cost of using solar energy over active nuclear energy continues to be substantial and significant. They are also ideal for all levels of challenging electricity. Costs for involvement in the energy market are assessed by the OECD per year. In Figure 6, the authors made the data comprehensible. Six countries pioneered the use of nuclear energy and renewable energy sources. Figure 6 shows that the United States has been able to keep the cost of participating energy resources low, with the highest level of technology.
Costs of combining nuclear technology with renewable energy.
If the nuclear energy program is properly and sustainable way installed and the cost limit is eliminated, supplying electricity from nuclear energy resources will be reasonable and resolve these critical challenges for decades to come. It therefore seems necessary that we, as founders and citizens of a global society, begin to lay down the technological and structural foundations that will enable a viable, full-scale nuclear energy network to become operational in the immediate future while at the same time doing the same with regard to other realistic types of renewable energy supply on a scale [14].
One of the problems for nuclear power plants, as discussed earlier, is the difficulty of supplying 100 percent of electricity through these power plants. If we allow the setup and control share to be 10 percent and that share is given by solar energy, then the problem will be solved. However, if their share is assumed to be relatively large, then the cost of the system will increase, presenting another challenge.
These are rather heroic calculations given the paucity of sources, but they do indicate plausible effects. Increasing the penetration of renewable has small effect on backup costs since they tend to increase in direct proportion to the renewable capacity (MW) that needs backup and the increased capacity adds proportional MWh. However, balancing costs increase because more spinning reserve capacity is required at lower load factors. Since research is lowering the price of the solar-connected grid, the next problem is network costs. When renewable sources of energy such as photovoltaic systems manage to meet a district or village’s full demands, then there will be a crisis. Power plants continue to use energy for spending networks indefinitely, and it is not clear how cost-effective these networks are. In this case, it would be illogical to establish and to develop a network [15]. (As a side note, backup and balancing are less costly in the United States because the dispatchable power is typically gas fired, which is less costly there.)
Another inference can be drawn from these results: the marginal cost of the system will generally increase with increased penetration of renewables, essentially due to their intermittentness and tendency toward remote locations. In addition to marginal system cost per MWH, there is another critical metric: marginal cost per ton of CO2 emissions reduced by increased deployment of renewables. After all, that is a primary policy driver for renewable targets.
The United States has set ambitious targets for renewable penetration: 33% by 2020, not including hydro. Further consideration (up to 51% in the legislative proposal) has been given for the future. The 33% level is thought to result in an implicit cost of $50/ton carbon reduction. Some energy companies have carried out important research on target utilization of 50% nuclear power and 50% solar energy. This research includes researching this topic in both scientific and economic terms. It was represented in Figures 6 and 7. If the target is 50%, the lowest cost is $403, and the lowest cost is $340 for 40%. When energy storage technologies, such as nighttime high-altitude storage, are planned for solar energy, then the scenario will be more complex. This scenario shows that the size of large power plants can be utilized with good systems. For plants larger than 5000 mW, $636 per ton saves economic power [16]. Figure 7 shows the costs involved with combining nuclear and renewable energy.
The cost of getting a combination of nuclear energy and renewable energy paid by different countries.
The next challenge is solar and nuclear energy competition. Although solar power plants will fall in price each day, in most countries the price of renewable energy is still higher than in nuclear power plants. The cost of integrating and merging systems is also important. Currently, the value of building nuclear power plants in many countries is very high due to the companies concerns of moment, technology, sanctions, security, and safety hazards. It is possible to eliminate those limitations in solar energy. The same problems may not be as wide for state-owned companies or regulated markets that services have ready access to cheap capital, and that partly explains why Asia’s enthusiasm for nuclear reactors is far stronger than it is in the United States or Europe. Researchers are working to reduce the costs of technology, but the nuclear industry is not strong, although that could improve small modular reactors if they can be developed in the process. According to Figure 7, given the right facilities, the United States has to pay the lowest costs for involvement in nuclear and solar energy. South Korea also has the right structure to take this scenario forward.
Nuclear and renewable energies qualify for subsidies that vary from country to region. Some subsidies are direct, such as feed-in imports for renewable energy sources, while others shift the risks from utilities to customers.
The final guidelines would help to better compensate for nuclear and renewable costs and could help to reduce the costs of both:
Comparisons of nuclear and renewables costs should account for systems integration and differences in capacity factors.
In order to estimate nuclear costs, more attention should be given to the choice sensitivity of discount rate, as the discount rate drastically impacts the relative economic attractiveness of a nuclear project.
Findings on problems that may restrict the use of a nuclear reactor in “load-following” phase are important and should be given high priority.
Priority should be given to new reactor technologies like SMRs and regulatory reform in order to reduce nuclear capital costs. The final results of this section will include the following explanation. These explanations will help in choosing and policy making in the field of solar and nuclear energy. The outlook for these results is for the next 10 years. This outlook may change by changing conditions and creating critical conditions such as dramatically lower fossil fuel prices.
Nuclear power is dirty, dangerous, expensive, and not carbon-free and encourages nuclear proliferation. The nuclear power plant itself does not release toxic gasses such as CO2. Nevertheless, nuclear power leads to climate change; for any phase in the fuel chain used to produce electricity at the end of the day, a lot more energy is required, such as uranium extraction and uranium enrichment, which are highly energy-intensive methods. The life study of the whole fuel chain clearly indicates the relation to nuclear electricity to climate change. In a pioneering study [17], more than 100 studies have identified important but simple results, analyzing the life cycle of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to greenhouse gasses produced at nuclear power plants around the world. The results show that if the life expectancy of a plant is equal to the greenhouse gas emission equivalent to that energy production, then the emission equals 1.4 g of carbon dioxide per kilowatt hour (gCO2e/kWh) up to 288 gCO2e/kWh is variable. The mean greenhouse gas emissions equate to 66 gCO2e/kWh.
As a first conclusion, the extensive use of solar energy services for at least the next decade may be out of the issue. Photovoltaic and solar thermal systems, especially large thermal, wind, and biomass systems, will enter and expand energy networks quickly. Other renewable energy systems will be developed and priced to reduce consumption, such as biogas (wastewater, landfills, and livestock), geothermal, and possibly wave and tidal energy. This growth will be high in the next 10 years, but market with conventional systems will still take time [18]. Nuclear power is also an option when contemplating a transition from the dirtiest of fossil fuels, and thus nuclear power should be debated together with renewables. Nuclear time for building, risk, waste, and, in particular, costs must be tracked, because nuclear costs are increasing when solar energy costs are dropping. Small- and large-scale renewable energy projects and emerging storage systems are being increasingly developed by communities and nations. Also China, probably the most ambitious nation in terms of nuclear power, is introducing more wind and solar power relative to nuclear power—and not just nameplate capacity—which is actually produced. Last year alone, China installed 20.72 GW of wind (4.8 GW of production while its power factor is just 23%) and 28 GW of renewable energy (10.6 GW of production), with about 90% of its solar installations coming from utilities. In the same year, more than five nuclear plants (5.7 GW output) were added to the existing wind and solar power. China is only one example of how wind and solar power can be installed quickly while producing more electricity. At the period (and if) China finishes its 28 nuclear power plants (many are still behind schedule), with an estimated potential of 34 GW, further wind and solar power would be installed around the same timeframe—again, taking into account efficiency factors [19].
For the coming 10 years, here in the United States, the five US nuclear power facilities are 2 years behind track and have a budget of billions of dollars. Once live, they will produce 5.1 GW while renewables would produce a rather modest 131 GW.
The other two factors are systems for the energy, safety and security systems. In a nuclear power plant, when things go awry, it can be really bad because of accidents, threats, or critical situations that happen. It should be noted that the smallest incident in a nuclear power plant can often incapacitate or destroy a city or a country. Is it likely? Who knows for sure? Could you foresee the next earthquake in Southern California or somewhere else in the United States or Japan or the rest of the world? What about the next wave washing down a coastline? How about the next cyber threat or the Middle East militant organization? Compare a tragedy for a nuclear power plant against a solar power plant. When you ask me why I’m against constructing new reactors, it’s about economy, health and protection, and the reality that we can expand on current hydro and nuclear power facilities with all the renewables—and we can do it quicker.
The use of social media is growing at a rapid pace and the twenty-first century could be described as the “boom” period for social networking. According to reports provided by Smart Insights, as at February 2019 there were over 3.484 billion social media users. The Smart Insight report indicates that the number of social media users is growing by 9% annually and this trend is estimated to continue. Presently the number of social media users represents 45% of the global population [1]. The heaviest users of social media are “digital natives”; the group of persons who were born or who have grown up in the digital era and are intimate with the various technologies and systems, and the “Millennial Generation”; those who became adults at the turn of the twenty-first century. These groups of users utilize social media platforms for just about anything ranging from marketing, news acquisition, teaching, health care, civic engagement, and politicking to social engagement.
\nThe unethical use of social media has resulted in the breach of individual privacy and impacts both physical and information security. Reports in 2019 [1], reveal that persons between the ages 8 and 11 years spend an average 13.5 hours weekly online and 18% of this age group are actively engaged on social media. Those between ages 12 and 15 spend on average 20.5 hours online and 69% of this group are active social media users. While children and teenagers represent the largest Internet user groups, for the most part they do not know how to protect their personal information on the Web and are the most vulnerable to cyber-crimes related to breaches of information privacy [2, 3].
\nIn today’s IT-configured society data is one of, if not the most, valuable asset for most businesses/organizations. Organizations and governments collect information via several means including invisible data gathering, marketing platforms and search engines such as Google [4]. Information can be attained from several sources, which can be fused using technology to develop complete profiles of individuals. The information on social media is very accessible and can be of great value to individuals and organizations for reasons such as marketing, etc.; hence, data is retained by most companies for future use.
\nPrivacy or the right to enjoy freedom from unauthorized intrusion is the negative right of all human beings. Privacy is defined as the right to be left alone, to be free from secret surveillance, or unwanted disclosure of personal data or information by government, corporation, or individual (dictionary.com). In this chapter we will define privacy loosely, as the right to control access to personal information. Supporters of privacy posit that it is a necessity for human dignity and individuality and a key element in the quest for happiness. According to Baase [5] in the book titled “A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal and Ethical Issues for Computing and the Internet,” privacy is the ability to control information about one’ s self as well as the freedom from surveillance from being followed, tracked, watched, and being eavesdropped on. In this regard, ignoring privacy rights often leads to encroachment on natural rights.
\nPrivacy, or even the thought that one has this right, leads to peace of mind and can provide an environment of solitude. This solitude can allow people to breathe freely in a space that is free from interference and intrusion. According to Richards and Solove [6], Legal scholar William Prosser argued that privacy cases can be classified into four related “torts,” namely:
Intrusion—this can be viewed as encroachment (physical or otherwise) on ones liberties/solitude in a highly offensive way.
Privacy facts—making public, private information about someone that is of no “legitimate concern” to anyone.
False light—making public false and “highly offensive” information about others.
Appropriation—stealing someone’s identity (name, likeness) to gain advantage without the permission of the individual.
Technology, the digital age, the Internet and social media have redefined privacy however as surveillance is no longer limited to a certain pre-defined space and location. An understanding of the problems and dangers of privacy in the digital space is therefore the first step to privacy control. While there can be clear distinctions between informational privacy and physical privacy, as pointed out earlier, intrusion can be both physical and otherwise.
\nThis chapter will focus on informational privacy which is the ability to control access to personal information. We examine privacy issues in the social media context focusing primarily on personal information and the ability to control external influences. We suggest that breach of informational privacy can impact: solitude (the right to be left alone), intimacy (the right not to be monitored), and anonymity (the right to have no public personal identity and by extension physical privacy impacted). The right to control access to facts or personal information in our view is a natural, inalienable right and everyone should have control over who see their personal information and how it is disseminated.
\nIn May 2019 the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) clearly outlined that it is unlawful to process personal data without the consent of the individual (subject). It is a legal requirement under the GDPR that privacy notices be given to individuals that outline how their personal data will be processed and the conditions that must be met that make the consent valid. These are:
“Freely given—an individual must be given a genuine choice when providing consent and it should generally be unbundled from other terms and conditions (e.g., access to a service should not be conditional upon consent being given).”
“Specific and informed—this means that data subjects should be provided with information as to the identity of the controller(s), the specific purposes, types of processing, as well as being informed of their right to withdraw consent at any time.”
“Explicit and unambiguous—the data subject must clearly express their consent (e.g., by actively ticking a box which confirms they are giving consent—pre-ticked boxes are insufficient).”
“Under 13s—children under the age of 13 cannot provide consent and it is therefore necessary to obtain consent from their parents.”
Arguments can be made that privacy is a cultural, universal necessity for harmonious relationships among human beings and creates the boundaries for engagement and disengagement. Privacy can also be viewed as instrumental good because it is a requirement for the development of certain kinds of human relationships, intimacy and trust [7]. However, achieving privacy is much more difficult in light of constant surveillance and the inability to determine the levels of interaction with various publics [7]. Some critics argue that privacy provides protection against anti-social behaviors such as trickery, disinformation and fraud, and is thought to be a universal right [5]. However, privacy can also be viewed as relative as privacy rules may differ based on several factors such as “climate, religion, technological advancement and political arrangements” [8, 9]. The need for privacy is an objective reality though it can be viewed as “culturally rational” where the need for personal privacy is viewed as relative based on culture. One example is the push by the government, businesses and Singaporeans to make Singapore a smart nation. According to GovTech 2018 reports there is a push by the government in Singapore to harness the data “new gold” to develop systems that can make life easier for its people. The [10] report points out that Singapore is using sensors robots Smart Water Assessment Network (SWAN) to monitor water quality in its reservoirs, seeking to build smart health system and to build a smart transportation system to name a few. In this example privacy can be describe as “culturally rational” and the rules in general could differ based on technological advancement and political arrangements.
\nIn today’s networked society it is naïve and ill-conceived to think that privacy is over-rated and there is no need to be concerned about privacy if you have done nothing wrong [5]. The effects of information flow can be complex and may not be simply about protection for people who have something to hide. Inaccurate information flow can have adverse long-term implications for individuals and companies. Consider a scenario where someone’s computer or tablet is stolen. The perpetrator uses identification information stored on the device to access their social media page which could lead to access to their contacts, friends and friends of their “friends” then participate in illegal activities and engage in anti-social activities such as hacking, spreading viruses, fraud and identity theft. The victim is now in danger of being accused of criminal intentions, or worse. These kinds of situations are possible because of technology and networked systems. Users of social media need to be aware of the risks that are associated with participation.
\nThe concept of social networking pre-dates the Internet and mass communication as people are said to be social creatures who when working in groups can achieve results in a value greater than the sun of its parts [11]. The explosive growth in the use of social media over the past decade has made it one of the most popular Internet services in the world, providing new avenues to “see and be seen” [12, 13]. The use of social media has changed the communication landscape resulting in changes in ethical norms and behavior. The unprecedented level of growth in usage has resulted in the reduction in the use of other media and changes in areas including civic and political engagement, privacy and safety [14]. Alexa, a company that keeps track of traffic on the Web, indicates that as of August, 2019 YouTube, Facebook and Twitter are among the top four (4) most visited sites with only Google, being the most popular search engine, surpassing these social media sites.
\nSocial media sites can be described as online services that allow users to create profiles which are “public, semi-public” or both. Users may create individual profiles and/or become a part of a group of people with whom they may be acquainted offline [15]. They also provide avenues to create virtual friendships. Through these virtual friendships, people may access details about their contacts ranging from personal background information and interests to location. Social networking sites provide various tools to facilitate communication. These include chat rooms, blogs, private messages, public comments, ways of uploading content external to the site and sharing videos and photographs. Social media is therefore drastically changing the way people communicate and form relationships.
\nToday social media has proven to be one of the most, if not the most effective medium for the dissemination of information to various audiences. The power of this medium is phenomenal and ranges from its ability to overturn governments (e.g., Moldova), to mobilize protests, assist with getting support for humanitarian aid, organize political campaigns, organize groups to delay the passing of legislation (as in the case with the copyright bill in Canada) to making social media billionaires and millionaires [16, 17]. The enabling nature and the structure of the media that social networking offers provide a wide range of opportunities that were nonexistent before technology. Facebook and YouTube marketers and trainers provide two examples. Today people can interact with and learn from people millions of miles away. The global reach of this medium has removed all former pre-defined boundaries including geographical, social and any other that existed previously. Technological advancements such as Web 2.0 and Web 4.0 which provide the framework for collaboration, have given new meaning to life from various perspectives: political, institutional and social.
\nSocial medial and the information/digital era have “redefined” privacy. In today’s Information Technology—configured societies, where there is continuous monitoring, privacy has taken on a new meaning. Technologies such as closed-circuit cameras (CCTV) are prevalent in public spaces or in some private spaces including our work and home [7, 18]. Personal computers and devices such as our smart phones enabled with Global Positioning System (GPS), Geo locations and Geo maps connected to these devices make privacy as we know it, a thing of the past. Recent reports indicate that some of the largest companies such as Amazon, Microsoft and Facebook as well as various government agencies are collecting information without consent and storing it in databases for future use. It is almost impossible to say privacy exists in this digital world (@nowthisnews).
\nThe open nature of the social networking sites and the avenues they provide for sharing information in a “public or semi-public” space create privacy concerns by their very construct. Information that is inappropriate for some audiences are many times inadvertently made visible to groups other than those intended and can sometimes result in future negative outcomes. One such example is a well-known case recorded in an article entitled “The Web Means the End of Forgetting” that involved a young woman who was denied her college license because of backlash from photographs posted on social media in her private engagement.
\nTechnology has reduced the gap between professional and personal spaces and often results in information exposure to the wrong audience [19]. The reduction in the separation of professional and personal spaces can affect image management especially in a professional setting resulting in the erosion of traditional professional image and impression management. Determining the secondary use of personal information and those who have access to this information should be the prerogative of the individual or group to whom the information belongs. However, engaging in social media activities has removed this control.
\nPrivacy on social networking sites (SNSs) is heavily dependent on the users of these networks because sharing information is the primary way of participating in social communities. Privacy in SNSs is “multifaceted.” Users of these platforms are responsible for protecting their information from third-party data collection and managing their personal profiles. However, participants are usually more willing to give personal and more private information in SNSs than anywhere else on the Internet. This can be attributed to the feeling of community, comfort and family that these media provide for the most part. Privacy controls are not the priority of social networking site designers and only a small number of the young adolescent users change the default privacy settings of their accounts [20, 21]. This opens the door for breaches especially among the most vulnerable user groups, namely young children, teenagers and the elderly. The nature of social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter and other social media platforms cause users to re-evaluate and often change their personal privacy standards in order to participate in these social networked communities [13].
\nWhile there are tremendous benefits that can be derived from the effective use of social media there are some unavoidable risks that are involved in its use. Much attention should therefore be given to what is shared in these forums. Social platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube are said to be the most effective media to communicate to Generation Y’s (Gen Y’s), as teens and young adults are the largest user groups on these platforms [22]. However, according to Bolton et al. [22] Gen Y’s use of social media, if left unabated and unmonitored will have long-term implications for privacy and engagement in civic activities as this continuous use is resulting in changes in behavior and social norms as well as increased levels of cyber-crime.
\nToday social networks are becoming the platform of choice for hackers and other perpetrators of antisocial behavior. These media offer large volumes of data/information ranging from an individual’s date of birth, place of residence, place of work/business, to information about family and other personal activities. In many cases users unintentionally disclose information that can be both dangerous and inappropriate. Information regarding activities on social media can have far reaching negative implications for one’s future. A few examples of situations which can, and have been affected are employment, visa acquisition, and college acceptance. Indiscriminate participation has also resulted in situations such identity theft and bank fraud just to list a few. Protecting privacy in today’s networked society can be a great challenge. The digital revolution has indeed distorted our views of privacy, however, there should be clear distinctions between what should be seen by the general public and what should be limited to a selected group. One school of thought is that the only way to have privacy today is not to share information in these networked communities. However, achieving privacy and control over information flows and disclosure in networked communities is an ongoing process in an environment where contexts change quickly and are sometimes blurred. This requires intentional construction of systems that are designed to mitigate privacy issues [13].
\nEthics can be loosely defined as “the right thing to do” or it can be described as the moral philosophy of an individual or group and usually reflects what the individual or group views as good or bad. It is how they classify particular situations by categorizing them as right or wrong. Ethics can also be used to refer to any classification or philosophy of moral values or principles that guides the actions of an individual or group [23]. Ethical values are intended to be guiding principles that if followed, could yield harmonious results and relationships. They seek to give answers to questions such as “How should I be living? How do I achieve the things that are deemed important such as knowledge and happiness or the acquisition of attractive things?” If one chooses happiness, the next question that needs to be answered is “Whose happiness should it be; my own happiness or the happiness of others?” In the domain of social media, some of the ethical questions that must be contemplated and ultimately answered are [24]:
Can this post be regarded as oversharing?
Has the information in this post been distorted in anyway?
What impact will this post have on others?
As previously mentioned, users within the ages 8–15 represent one of the largest social media user groups. These young persons within the 8–15 age range are still learning how to interact with the people around them and are deciding on the moral values that they will embrace. These moral values will help to dictate how they will interact with the world around them. The ethical values that guide our interactions are usually formulated from some moral principle taught to us by someone or a group of individuals including parents, guardians, religious groups, and teachers just to name a few. Many of the Gen Y’s/“Digital Babies” are “newbies” yet are required to determine for themselves the level of responsibility they will display when using the varying social media platforms. This includes considering the impact a post will have on their lives and/or the lives of other persons. They must also understand that when they join a social media network, they are joining a community in which certain behavior must be exhibited. Such responsibility requires a much greater level of maturity than can be expected from them at that age.
\nIt is not uncommon for individuals to post even the smallest details of their lives from the moment they wake up to when they go to bed. They will openly share their location, what they eat at every meal or details about activities typically considered private and personal. They will also share likes and dislikes, thoughts and emotional states and for the most part this has become an accepted norm. Often times however, these shares do not only contain information about the person sharing but information about others as well. Many times, these details are shared on several social media platforms as individuals attempt to ensure that all persons within their social circle are kept updated on their activities. With this openness of sharing risks and challenges arise that are often not considered but can have serious impacts. The speed and scale with which social media creates information and makes it available—almost instantaneously—on a global scale, added to the fact that once something is posted there is really no way of truly removing it, should prompt individuals to think of the possible impact a post can have. Unfortunately, more often than not, posts are made without any thought of the far-reaching impact they can have on the lives of the person posting or others that may be implicated by the post.
\nAccording to Berger and Milkman [25] there are five (5) main reasons why users are compelled to share content online, whether it is every detail or what they deem as highlights of their lives. These are:
cause related
personal connection to content
to feel more involved in the world
to define who they are
to inform and entertain
People generally share because they believe that what they are sharing is important. It is hoped that the shared content will be deemed important to others which will ultimately result in more shares, likes and followers.
\n\nFigure 1 below sums up the findings of Berger and Milkman [25] which shows that the main reason people feel the need to share content on the varying social media platform is that the content relates to what is deemed as worthy cause. 84% of respondents highlighted this as the primary motivation for sharing. Seventy-eight percent said that they share because they feel a personal connection to the content while 69 and 68%, respectively said the content either made them feel more involved with the world or helped them to define who they were. Forty-nine percent share because of the entertainment or information value of the content. A more in depth look at each reason for sharing follows.
\nWhy people share source: Global Social Media Research.
Social media has provided a platform for people to share their thoughts and express concerns with others for what they regard as a worthy cause. Cause related posts are dependent on the interest of the individual. Some persons might share posts related to causes and issues happening in society. In one example, the parents of a baby with an aggressive form of leukemia, who having been told that their child had only 3 months to live unless a suitable donor for a blood stem cell transplant could be found, made an appeal on social media. The appeal was quickly shared and a suitable donor was soon found. While that was for a good cause, many view social media merely as platforms for freedom of speech because anyone can post any content one creates. People think the expression of their thoughts on social media regarding any topic is permissible. The problem with this is that the content may not be accepted by law or it could violate the rights of someone thus giving rise to ethical questions.
\nWhen social media users feel a personal connection to their content, they are more inclined to share the content within their social circles. This is true of information regarding family and personal activities. Content created by users also invokes a deep feeling of connection as it allows the users to tell their stories and it is natural to want the world or at least friends to know of the achievement. This natural need to share content is not new as humans have been doing this in some form or the other, starting with oral history to the media of the day; social media. Sharing the self-created content gives the user the opportunity of satisfying some fundamental needs of humans to be heard, to matter, to be understood and emancipated. The problem with this however is that in an effort to gratify the fundamental needs, borders are crossed because the content may not be sharable (can this content be shared within the share network?), it may not be share-worthy (who is the audience that would appreciate this content?) or it may be out of context (does the content fit the situation?).
\nOne of the driving factors that pushes users to share content is the need to feel more in tune with the world around them. This desire is many times fueled by jealousy. Many social media users are jealous when their friends’ content gets more attention than their own and so there is a lot of pressure to maintain one’s persona in social circles, even when the information is unrealistic, as long as it gets as much attention as possible. Everything has to be perfect. In the case of a photo, for example, there is lighting, camera angle and background to consider. This need for perfection puts a tremendous amount of pressure on individuals to ensure that posted content is “liked” by friends. They often give very little thought to the amount of their friend’s work that may have gone on behind the scenes to achieve that perfect social post.
\nSocial media platforms have provided everyone with a forum to express views, but, as a whole, conversations are more polarized, tribal and hostile. With Facebook for instance, there has been a huge uptick in fake news, altered images, dangerous health claims and cures, and the proliferation of anti-science information. This is very distressing and disturbing because people are too willing to share and to believe without doing their due diligence and fact-checking first.
\nEstablishing one’s individuality in society can be challenging for some persons because not everyone wants to fit in. Some individuals will do all they can to stand out and be noticed. Social media provides the avenue for exposure and many individuals will seek to leverage the media to stand out of the crowd and not just be a fish in the school. Today many young people are currently being brought up in a culture that defines people by their presence on social media where in previous generations, persons were taught to define themselves by their career choices. These lessons would start from childhood by asking children what they wanted to be when they grew up and then rewarding them based on the answers they give [27]. In today’s digital era, however, social media postings and the number of “likes” or “dislikes” they attract, signal what is appealing to others. Therefore, post that are similar to those that receive a large number of likes but which are largely unrealistic are usually made for self-gratification.
\nThe acquisition of knowledge and skills is a vital part of human survival and social media has made this process much easier. It is not uncommon to hear persons realizing that they need a particular knowledge set that they do not possess say “I need to lean to do this. I’ll just YouTube it.” Learning and adapting to change in as short as possible time is vital in today’s society and social media coupled with the Internet put it all at the finger tips. Entertainment has the ability to bring people together and is a good way for people to bond. It provides a diversion from the demands of life and fills leisure time with amusement. Social media is an outlet for fun, pleasurable and enjoyable activities that are so vital to human survival [28]. It is now common place to see persons watching a video, viewing images and reading text that is amusing on any of the available social media platforms. Quite often these videos, images and texts can be both informative and entertaining, but there can be problems however as at times they can cross ethical lines that can lead to conflict.
\nThe use of modern-day technology has brought several benefits. Social media is no different and chief amongst its benefit is the ability to stay connected easily and quickly as well as build relationships with people with similar interests. As with all technology, there are several challenges that can make the use of social media off putting and unpleasant. Some of these challenges appear to be minor but they can have far reaching effects into the lives of the users of social media and it is therefore advised that care be taken to minimize the challenges associated with the use of social media [29].
\nA major challenge with the use of social media is oversharing because when persons share on social media, they tend to share as much as is possible which is often times too much [24]. When persons are out and about doing exciting things, it is natural to want to share this with the world as many users will post a few times a day when they head to lunch, visit a museum, go out to dinner or other places of interest [30]. While this all seems relatively harmless, by using location-based services which pinpoint users with surprising accuracy and in real time, users place themselves in danger of laying out a pattern of movement that can be easily traced. While this seems more like a security or privacy issue it stems from an ethical dilemma—“Am I sharing too much?” Oversharing can also lead to damage of user’s reputation especially if the intent is to leverage the platform for business [24]. Photos of drunken behavior, drug use, partying or other inappropriate content can change how you are viewed by others.
\nAnother ethical challenge users of social media often encounter is that they have no way of authenticating content before sharing, which becomes problematic when the content paints people or establishments negatively. Often times content is shared with them by friends, family and colleagues. The unauthenticated content is then reshared without any thought but sometimes this content may have been maliciously altered so the user unknowingly participates in maligning others. Even if the content is not altered the fact that the content paints someone or something in a bad light should send off warning bells as to whether or not it is right to share the content which is the underlying principle of ethical behavior.
\nSome of the challenges experienced by social media posts are a result of a lack of understanding and sometimes a lack of respect for the varying ethical and moral standpoints of the people involved. We have established that it is typical for persons to post to social media sites without any thought as to how it can affect other persons, but many times these posts are a cause of conflict because of a difference of opinion that may exist and the effect the post may have. Each individual will have his or her own ethical values and if they differ then this can result in conflict [31]. When an executive of a British company made an Instagram post with some racial connotations before boarding a plane to South Africa it started a frenzy that resulted in the executive’s immediate dismissal. Although the executive said it was a joke and there was no prejudice intended, this difference in views as to the implications of the post, resulted in an out of work executive and a company scrambling to maintain its public image.
\nIn this age of sharing, many young persons spend a vast amount of time on social media checking the activities of their “friends” as well as posting on their own activities so their “friends” are aware of what they are up to. Apart from interfering with their academic progress, time spent on these posts at can have long term repercussions. An example is provided by a student of a prominent university who posted pictures of herself having a good time at parties while in school. She was denied employment because of some of her social media posts. While the ethical challenge here is the question of the employee’s right to privacy and whether the individual’s social media profile should affect their ability to fulfill their responsibilities as an employee, the impact on the individual’s long term personal growth is clear.
\nIn today’s information age, one’s digital footprint can make or break someone; it can be the deciding factor on whether or not one achieves one’s life-long ambitions. Unethical behavior and interactions on social media can have far reaching implications both professionally and socially. Posting on the Internet means the “end of forgetting,” therefore, responsible use of this medium is critical. The unethical use of social media has implications for privacy and can result in security breaches both physically and virtually. The use of social media can also result in the loss of privacy as many users are required to provide information that they would not divulge otherwise. Social media use can reveal information that can result in privacy breaches if not managed properly by users. Therefore, educating users of the risks and dangers of the exposure of sensitive information in this space, and encouraging vigilance in the protection of individual privacy on these platforms is paramount. This could result in the reduction of unethical and irresponsible use of these media and facilitate a more secure social environment. The use of social media should be governed by moral and ethical principles that can be applied universally and result in harmonious relationships regardless of race, culture, religious persuasion and social status.
\nAnalysis of the literature and the findings of this research suggest achieving acceptable levels of privacy is very difficult in a networked system and will require much effort on the part of individuals. The largest user groups of social media are unaware of the processes that are required to reduce the level of vulnerability of their personal data. Therefore, educating users of the risk of participating in social media is the social responsibility of these social network platforms. Adapting universally ethical behaviors can mitigate the rise in the number of privacy breaches in the social networking space. This recommendation coincides with philosopher Immanuel Kant’s assertion that, the Biblical principle which states “Do unto others as you have them do unto you” can be applied universally and should guide human interactions [5]. This principle, if adhered to by users of social media and owners of these platforms could raise the awareness of unsuspecting users, reduce unethical interactions and undesirable incidents that could negatively affect privacy, and by extension security in this domain.
\nWe believe financial barriers should not prevent researchers from publishing their findings. With the need to make scientific research more publicly available and support the benefits of Open Access, more and more institutions and funders are dedicating resources to assist faculty members and researchers cover Open Access Publishing Fees (OAPFs). In addition, IntechOpen provides several further options presented below, all of which are available to researchers, and could secure the financing of your Open Access publication.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\\n\\nDownload Waiver Request Form
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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Complex adaptive systems (CAS) are organizations that are a composite of the interconnected whole. Teams must manage and operate in emerging ecosystems, understand factors that lead to team effectiveness when managing and facilitating teams and team conflict, and understand the development of conflict models. This chapter provides an overview of teams, CAS, conflict stages, and conflict models. This chapter presents adaptive leadership as one leadership style that offers organizations with the capabilities of reacting to changing environments quickly. Adaptive leadership offers a prescriptive approach for managers and leaders to follow when dealing with organizational conflict while operating in today’s complex and global environment.",book:{id:"6305",slug:"organizational-conflict",title:"Organizational Conflict",fullTitle:"Organizational Conflict"},signatures:"John R. 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SMEs provide for acceleration and economic growth of the country and its regions. Investment in human capital in SMEs, (meaning investment into intangible assets of the company), it is one of the ways to support this sector. In the same manner as SMEs are considered to be a driving force of the economy, human resources can be seen as its driving force, the source of success, competitiveness and added value of businesses. Human capital is one of the most valuable components of any business and that is why investment in human resources becomes a necessary step ensuring that a business prospers in a changing market environment. Current trends also point to the growing importance of investment in human capital. The future will certainly belong to those companies which pay most attention to effective management of human resources, which, in terms of time factor is an important prerequisite for growth and competitiveness of a company.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Josef Drábek, Silvia Lorincová and Jana Javorčíková",authors:[{id:"199928",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lorincová",slug:"silvia-lorincova",fullName:"Silvia Lorincová"},{id:"199933",title:"Mr.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Drábek",slug:"josef-drabek",fullName:"Josef Drábek"},{id:"199934",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Javorčíková",slug:"jana-javorcikova",fullName:"Jana Javorčíková"}]},{id:"54880",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68433",title:"Innovative Work Behavior: To What Extent and How Can HRM Practices Contribute to Higher Levels of Innovation Within SMEs?",slug:"innovative-work-behavior-to-what-extent-and-how-can-hrm-practices-contribute-to-higher-levels-of-inn",totalDownloads:2152,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, the influence of HR practices and more specifically the Ned Herrmanns development tool HBDI on the development of innovative work behavior (IWB) is described. Innovative work behavior today is important for organizations to stay in a competitive position. Also for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), like the case study in this chapter, innovation is essential to keep the SME’s competitive advantage. As people are the most important resource in service companies, and they can contribute to innovation via their motivation and skills, the role of human resource management is important. In this book chapter, we analyze the positive influence of various HR practices on IWB. One of these HR practices is the HBDI tool, a specifically designed questionnaire which gives people insight into their problem-solving styles. The outcomes of the study in this chapter show that both HR practices and also the HBDI tool have a positive influence on developing innovative work behavior and on innovation performance.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Joost Bücker and Eveline van der Horst",authors:[{id:"199058",title:"Dr.",name:"Joost",middleName:null,surname:"Bücker",slug:"joost-bucker",fullName:"Joost Bücker"},{id:"202237",title:"MSc.",name:"Eveline",middleName:null,surname:"Van Der Horst",slug:"eveline-van-der-horst",fullName:"Eveline Van Der Horst"}]},{id:"60513",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75496",title:"Conflict in Organization: Indicator for Organizational Values",slug:"conflict-in-organization-indicator-for-organizational-values",totalDownloads:1575,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Through the last decades, values have been one of the hot topics for researchers. Hundreds of researches and articles describe and analyze values of different level based on different theories. At the same time, construct of values has still remained a little bit mysterious, because we still do not fully understand and agree how the values shape and develop. Fortunately, most of the researchers agree on that organizational values and success (no matter how we define the success) are connected and dependent on each other. Often in organizations, the values are described and an effort made to propagate them to the employees and integrate into everyday actions. A more complex question remains how to evaluate if the desired values have imprinted themselves in the organization. The main aim of the chapter is to show how the conflicts in the organization might be used as the indicators of organizational real values. The chapter is based on the former researches of the authors and others. Results show that conflicts describe organizational real values and therefore organizational conflicts can be used as a tool to assess the implementation of organizational values.",book:{id:"6305",slug:"organizational-conflict",title:"Organizational Conflict",fullTitle:"Organizational Conflict"},signatures:"Eneken Titov, Anu Virovere and Karin Kuimet",authors:[{id:"198190",title:"Prof.",name:"Eneken",middleName:null,surname:"Titov",slug:"eneken-titov",fullName:"Eneken Titov"},{id:"212580",title:"Prof.",name:"Anu",middleName:null,surname:"Virovere",slug:"anu-virovere",fullName:"Anu Virovere"},{id:"212581",title:"MSc.",name:"Karin",middleName:null,surname:"Kuimet",slug:"karin-kuimet",fullName:"Karin Kuimet"}]},{id:"54634",doi:"10.5772/67868",title:"Use of Psychological Examinations of Employees and Job Applicants in Personnel Management",slug:"use-of-psychological-examinations-of-employees-and-job-applicants-in-personnel-management",totalDownloads:1704,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This paper deals with psychological and diagnostic examination of the personality of employees and candidates for work, an unexplored subject in the field of labour law and human resource (HR) management in Slovakia. Based on legal analysis of national and international laws and regulations as well as medical knowledge in clinical and occupational psychology, the authors surveyed employers in various industry sectors to test several hypotheses. 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The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"55186",title:"Labor Relations: Contemporary Issues in Human Resource Management",slug:"labor-relations-contemporary-issues-in-human-resource-management",totalDownloads:3112,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this chapter, we examine the labor relations through the role of trade unions, collective bargaining, wages and benefits across the European Union. We conclude that labor relations have a direct influence on the labor market, designing the lines for taking decisions in organizations, but also, by governments. Our argumentation explains the relationship between employers and employees through legal rights (established by the law), negotiation process, collective bargaining, ‘actors’ in this process, wage and benefits, social and security protection.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Ana‐Maria Bercu and Ana Iolanda Vodă",authors:[{id:"198390",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana-Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Bercu",slug:"ana-maria-bercu",fullName:"Ana-Maria Bercu"},{id:"206016",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Iolanda",middleName:null,surname:"Voda",slug:"ana-iolanda-voda",fullName:"Ana Iolanda Voda"}]},{id:"54634",title:"Use of Psychological Examinations of Employees and Job Applicants in Personnel Management",slug:"use-of-psychological-examinations-of-employees-and-job-applicants-in-personnel-management",totalDownloads:1704,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This paper deals with psychological and diagnostic examination of the personality of employees and candidates for work, an unexplored subject in the field of labour law and human resource (HR) management in Slovakia. Based on legal analysis of national and international laws and regulations as well as medical knowledge in clinical and occupational psychology, the authors surveyed employers in various industry sectors to test several hypotheses. 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The object of this chapter is the corporate culture in Slovak enterprises and the possibilities of its change towards the raising level of human resources development. Based on the analysis of corporate culture in selected enterprises, the aim of the chapter is to propose methodology for management of change of corporate culture supporting the development of human resources in enterprises. The sociological interview identifies the predominant type of corporate culture in Slovak medium and large enterprises in years 2014 – 2016. The examination is based on the assumption that there are significant differences between preferred values of corporate culture in local and global enterprises. It also identifies the need to change the corporate culture in enterprises and their awareness of corporate culture change management towards human resources development. The results of the survey verify Slovak managers’ interest on human resources development and the formation of strong corporate culture. The results are the basis for the formulation of proposals and recommendations resulting in the methodology for management of change of corporate culture supporting the development of human resources in enterprises.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Lukáš Smerek",authors:[{id:"197295",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lukáš",middleName:null,surname:"Smerek",slug:"lukas-smerek",fullName:"Lukáš Smerek"}]},{id:"54434",title:"Investing in Human Capital as a Key Factor for the Development of Enterprises",slug:"investing-in-human-capital-as-a-key-factor-for-the-development-of-enterprises",totalDownloads:2857,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are considered to be a driving force of the economy in the world. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/315460",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"315460"},fullPath:"/profiles/315460",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()