Microbial FTases produced by filamentous fungi, its activity, and fermentation temperature of the maximum enzyme activity reached.
\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately thirty scientific publications in the field of statistics, inclusive education, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health. Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6926",title:"Biological Anthropology",subtitle:"Applications and Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbb192dffd37a257febf4acfde73bb8",slug:"biological-anthropology-applications-and-case-studies",bookSignature:"Alessio Vovlas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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For this reason, food industry has developed different alternatives for sweeteners, and among them is the fructooligosaccharides (FOS). Use of these compounds offers multiple health advantages. FOS are fructose oligomers with a terminal glucosyl unit and a general formula of GFn; where typical values of
FOS can be produced by the action of different types of enzymes with transfructosylation activity (i.e., fructosyltransferase—FTase [EC 2.4.1.9] and/or β-fructofuranosidase—FFases [EC 3.2.1.26]). These enzymes are obtained from different plants and microorganisms [4]. The reaction mechanism of FTase depends on enzyme source [5]. Most of these enzymes have been isolated from different fungal strains such as:
FOS can be synthesized in nature by the catalytic action of enzymes with transfructosylating activity. They are classified as 1F-FTases (E.C. 2.4.1.9, E.C. 2.4.1. 99, and E.C. 2.4.1.100), or β -FFases (, E.C. 3.2.1.26). FTase catalyzes the transfer of a fructosyl group to a molecule of sucrose or a FOS when a FOS with a chain longer by one fructosyl unit is formed [8]. This enzyme also mediates polymerization reactions, where degree of polymerization (DP) decreases to the maximum by transferring fructosyl units from higher molecular mass fructans [9]. The reaction mechanism of the FTases depends on the enzyme source. In plants and some microorganisms, a series of enzymes act together, whereas a single enzyme works in most of the microorganisms [10].
\nThe FTase that converts sucrose to the shortest β (2–1) linked fructan 1-kestose is called sucrose: sucrose 1-FTase (1-SST) [11]. It is reported that, FTase differs in molecular weight and properties depending on its origin [12]. Properties of FTases can change according to the microorganism and culture medium composition, especially the carbon source, which can play a role as an inductor [1]. FTase can be produced intra- and/or extracellular by different microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. Despite the large number of microbial FTase producers, only some of them have the potential for industrial application and have been used in several studies about FOS production [1]. The transfructosylating activity is responsible for FOS production from sucrose, although quantitative differences exist because of the microbial strains [13].
\nFTase has been produced using both solid and liquid fermentation, and FOS obtained by these fermentations have been reported. Factors affecting FOS by fermentation were mentioned, such as temperature, pH, and substrate concentration [14, 15]. FTase has a temperature optimum between 50 and 60°C, and the optimal pH is between 4.5 and 6.5 [1, 8].
\nThe reaction mechanism depends on the enzyme source and purity. The accepted mechanism is a type disproportionate reaction where FTase catalyzes the transfer of a fructosyl moiety of a sucrose or fructooligosacharide donor to another sucrose or FOS acceptor to provide a superior FOS [1]. The reaction mechanism has been expressed as follows:
where GF is sucrose or FOS
Several fungal strains, especially those from
Source | \nFTase Activity | \nTemperature | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|
Recombinant Ftase 1020 U/ml | \n55°C | \n[23] | \n|
6120 U/gds | \n30°C | \n[22] | \n|
16.5 U/ml/min | \n30°C | \n[19] | \n|
107.87 U/mL | \n30°C | \n[16] | \n
Microbial FTases produced by filamentous fungi, its activity, and fermentation temperature of the maximum enzyme activity reached.
Bacterial strains have been reported to produce different inulinases, but reports on enzymes able to produce FOS are scarce from bacterial strains. Someone bacteria mentioned to produce these enzymes are the following:
The FTases obtained from plants have other amino acid composition that is different from microbial FTases such as sucrose: sucrose 1-FTase (1-SST) and fructan: fructan 1-FTase (1-FFT). Plants such as
According to the Protein Data Bank (PDB) of Research Collaborators for Structural Bioinformatics (RCSB) data base, the crystal dimensional structure of FTase from
Fructosyltransferase (FTase) participates on FOS/fructan production by catalyzing the transfer of a fructose unit from one sucrose/fructan to another [26]. This enzyme has been included in the glycoside hydrolase family 32 (GH32) and has been isolated from different sources, and the optimal conditions for the enzyme activity have been reported (Table 2). The optimal temperature reported for FTase enzyme activity ranges from 52 to 65°C, while the optimal pH varies widely from 4.5 to 8.0 [27, 28]. There are different reports mentioned about the chemical reagents and amino acids that positively affect FTase activity [29, 30]. On the other hand, there is a controversy in the use of detergents—some authors mention that these compounds enhance FTase activity [29], and in contrast there are others who mention that these compounds negatively affect FTase activity [27].
\nSource | \nTemperature | \npH | \nPositive effect | \nObservation | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
52 °C | \n4.5 | \nFeSO4, Fe2+, Fe2+ Ca2+ | \nIntra- and extracellular | \n[27] | \n|
Marine | \n65°C | \n8.0 | \n\n | Intracellular | \n[28] | \n
60°C | \n5.0–7.0 | \nDithiothreitol, 2-mercaptoethanol, sodium dodecylsulphate, Tween 80 | \n\n | [29] | \n|
55 °C | \n5.5 | \nLeucine induced slightly extracellular production | \nIntra- and extracellular | \n[30, 31] | \n
Optimal conditions for FTase activity from different microbial sources.
Different reports mentioned that the preferred carbon source to produce FTase is sucrose. Patil and Butle [31] indicated that
Biochemical properties of FTase may change depending on its origin. Ghazi
Chuankhayan
Genome sequence of different microorganisms and vegetables has allowed identification of some enzymes, development of new products, improvement of strains, and increase of process efficiency. There are some reports of isolation and cloning of the FTase gene. The genes coding for FTase have been isolated from bacteria, fungi, and plants, with a wide range of percentages of identity but retaining the eight highly conserved motifs of hydrolyses family 32 glycoside [35]. Fungal FTase genes have been isolated mainly from
Source | \nEnzyme | \nBp | \nIntron | \nSize | \nMolecular weight | \nAmino acids | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FTase | \n1620 | \n172–224 | \n\n | 57 kDa | \n525 | \n[35] | \n|
FTase | \n\n | \n | 1.6 kb | \n59.1 kDa | \n537 | \n[34] | \n|
FTase | \n\n | \n | 1.9 kb | \n76 kDa | \n\n | [36] | \n
Characteristics of different FTase genes and its enzyme.
The gene that encodes
FOS is a common name for fructose oligomers and corresponds to complex carbohydrates which are nondigestible oligosaccharide food ingredients and are fermentable by the gut microbiota. For this reason, they can be classified as prebiotics, and its commercial production has increased in response to a growing consumer demand for the so-called “health foods” [16, 39]. FOS are mainly composed of 1-kestose (GF2), 1-nystose (GF3), and 1- β-fructofuranosyl nystose (GF4), in which 1–3 fructosyl units (F) are bound at the β (2–1) status of sucrose molecule (GF) (Figure 1) [4].
\nChemical structures of the most common FOS, where (a) 1-kestose, (b) 1- nystose, and (c) 1-β fructofuranosyl nystose.
FOS can be found in several vegetal sources such as tomato, onion, barley, garlic, Jerusalem artichoke, banana, rye, honey, sugar beet, to name a few; however, FOS concentration in these sources is low, and mass production are limited by seasonal conditions [3, 4]. At the industrial level, FOS are mainly produced from the disaccharide sucrose by action of different microbial enzymes with transfructosylating activity such as FTase (EC 2.4.1.9) and/or β-fructofuranosidase (EC 3.2.1.26), [4]. Moreover, FOS compounds have received a generally recognized as safe status (GRAS) from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has been consumed because of the several benefits of FOS to human health such as calorie-free and noncariogenic sweeteners, stimulate bifidobacteria growth, and activation of the immune system; have been claimed to contribute to the prevention of colon cancer and reduce the levels of serum cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides; also promote calcium and magnesium absorption in animals and the human gut [14, 19, 22, 40, 41].
\nDominguez
Production of FOS has received particular attention in recent years, so there is necessity for the development of new enzymatic systems [42]. FOS represent one of the major classes of bifidogenic oligosaccharides in terms of production volume. Kestose and nystose are the main prebiotic compounds, which can be principally produced by hydrolysis of inulin or by transfructosylation of sucrose [24]. The enzymes that are potentially useful for high production of FOS were reported about three decades ago. Hidaka
FOS have demonstrated important properties for improving human health, thus they have attracted an increased interest mainly as ingredients for food applications. They contribute to 10% of the natural sweeteners, and their demand has risen rapidly (about 15% per year) in the last 15 years [45]. Consequently, establishing sustainable and economically viable industrial process for the production of FOS with high yields and productivities is strongly desirable [46]. These can be manufactured by three methods: (1) extraction from inulin-rich plant materials, (2) by enzymatic synthesis from sucrose, and (3) by enzymatic degradation of inulin [45, 47]. Most of the FOS marketed as food ingredients/nutritional supplements are synthesized either from sucrose by the action of FTases [48, 49] or by enzymatic degradation of inulin [50, 51]. In this section, we will discuss the production of FOS through FTase.
\nCommercial production of FOS was first developed using enzymatic fructosyl transfer on sucrose by Hidaka
Nowadays, to reduce cost, enzyme immobilization techniques have been applied. Fungal β-fructofuranosidase has been covalently immobilized onto inorganic supports such as porous glass or porous silica [54, 60].
However, it has been observed that enzymes immobilized on a porous support decrease apparently its enzymatic activity because of diffusion resistance. Instead, the use of magnetic nanoparticles is proposed, which offers (a) a higher specific surface area that permits binding of a larger amount of enzyme, (b) relatively low mass transfer resistance and (c) selective separation from a reaction mixture by application of a magnetic field [61, 62]. Chen
Another alternative for FOS production is the use of solid-state fermentation (SSF). Most investigations on FOS production are based on submerged fermentation systems, but SSF is attractive because of low capital cost and low demand of water, generating less wastewater as a consequence. Besides, higher productivities and yields could be obtained at industrial scale [14]. Mussatto
General structure of FOS can be depicted as GFn, where “
FOSs contain several qualities that make its usage possible as an alternative sweetener in the food market. They are water soluble and one-third as sweet as sucrose [67]. However, their viscosity and thermal stability is higher than sucrose. They are stable in a pH range from 4.0 to 7.0 and can be refrigerated for a period of one year. Their high moisture-retaining capacity provides prevention of excessive drying besides controlling microbial contamination owing their low water interacting activity [68].
\nThey can be considered as noncariogenic sugar substitutes in confectionary, gums, and drinks since they cannot serve as a substrate of
The most widely used definition for prebiotic is “nondigestible food ingredient that beneficially affects host’s health by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon” [73]. In 2004, the definition was updated, and it was defined as “selectively fermented ingredients that allow specific changes, both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microbiota that confers benefits upon host well-being and health” [74]. According to this, prebiotics are a major part of the functional foods and among them, the FOS are in focus due to their functional properties and economical potential [65, 75].
\nA prebiotic must fulfill three criteria: (1) no hydrolysis or absorption in the upper part of the digestive system, (2) selective substrate for one or more desired bacteria species in the colon and stimulation of that species regarding growth and activation and (3) able to positively influence the numeric proportion of different bacteria species in the colon [76]. FOS selectively stimulates the growth of
Many Bifidobacteria and
Antiinflammatory and antitumorigenic roles of SCFA have been reported [81, 82]. As a result of the prebiotic function, a decrease in inflammatory markers such as phagocytosis and interleukin (IL)-6 production by increasing CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ populations has been observed [83]. In case of antitumorigenic roles, especially in the context of colon cancer, the action mechanism is yet unclear [80]. However, it is known that butyrate has an important role on DNA methylation thus modifying gene expression so it may directly enhance cell proliferation of normal cells, but suppress cell proliferation of transformed cells. Furthermore, in the presence of butyrate, apoptosis may be enhanced in transformed cells but inhibited in normal cells [84]. Thus, the regular intake of FOS as a part of diet could help to improve health and over all well-being by providing resistance against the intestinal/extra intestinal pathogens, enhancing the growth of the colon microbiota which have metabolic activities and biochemical processes with a tremendous influence in human host [85].
\nFOS are components of functional food that are becoming popular in the society because they have a potential for enhancing flavor quality and physicochemical properties of food products, besides FOS offer various benefits for human health and are also of industrial interest [34]. FOS are used in different food applications and other areas because of its positive impact on human health, physical performance, or state of mind [12], and the most relevant uses in food formulations are the following: beverages (fruit drinks, coffee, cocoa, tea, soda, health drinks, and alcoholic beverages), dairy products (fermented milk, instant powders, powdered milk, and ice cream), also in light jam products and confectionary [86].
\nThe growing interest of consumers in the relationship between nutrition and health has increased demand among the population for food products that improve or benefit their health beyond basic nutrition [87, 88]. Because of this demand, both the academic community and the food industry have focused on developing products that meet these characteristics, which are now called functional foods.
\nThe term “functional foods” was first coined in Japan after a group of scientists and nutritionists conducted numerous studies and defined them as “Food for specified health uses” (FoSHU) [89]. Though there is a great number of definitions, Doyon and Labrecque [90] identified four key concepts after reviewing more than 20 definitions: (a) health benefits, (b) the nature of the food, (c) level of function, and (d) consumption pattern. The definition of functional food has evolved, and the latest is that proposed by the European Commission for concerted action Functional Food Science in Europe (FUFOSE) that mentions that “a food can be regarded as ‘functional’ if it is satisfactorily demonstrated to beneficially effect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effects, in a way that is relevant to either an improved state of health and well-being and/or reduction of risk of disease. Functional foods must remain as food and they must demonstrate their effects in amounts that can normally be expected to be consumed in the diet: they are not pills or capsules, but part of a normal food pattern” [91, 92].
\nThe challenges for the food industry are great so that the biological value of the functional ingredient is not disturbed and sensory characteristics of the food are acceptable [93]. According to various investigations, the success and acceptance of these foods is influenced by factors such as clarity and understanding of the information about nutrition and health benefits that are provided to consumers, especially in elderly consumers [87].
\nExperts recognize that there are scientific evidence on the effectiveness of various functional foods, which can be useful to balance a poor diet or assist in avoiding health problems in some cases [94]. In general, the consumers’ attitude towards functional foods is positive and have great potential in the food industry.
\nFOS are ingredients that have been applied in a variety of food matrices, their prebiotic potential has been proven, and its technological properties allow easy incorporation into foods, mainly those that are probiotics [95]. The FOS have comparable glucose syrups and sugar properties and proved approximately a 30–50% sweetness compared with sugar table. Therefore, their application has a dual benefit: (1) as a substitute for sugar and (2) for their prebiotic properties [96].
\nAkalin and Erisir [97] evaluated the effect of supplementation of oligofructose or inulin in symbiotic ice cream, in the rheological properties and probiotics survival. They found that the survival rate of the probiotics during storage at 30, 40, and 90 days was better with oligofructose. The FOS were evaluated in cookies and Quicks bread and found that consumers had preference equal to or greater for products supplemented with FOS [96, 98]. Although the FOS are easy to incorporate into foods such as yogurt, processing conditions such as acidity and temperature should be considered since they have reported low prebiotic activities under acidic conditions and high thermal processing times [95].
\nNew applications in different food matrices are being evaluated. Valencia
There is an innovative trend in the FOS application in different types of food and, undoubtedly, to maximize the benefits that can confer the FOS, factors as type of food matrix, processing conditions, and added amount should be considered.
\nBecause of the importance of this enzyme in the modern industry, it is important to relate a set of FTases from different organisms to allow the identification of features that could be used for the identification and classification of new FTases, and also it is necessary to improve the conditions and costs of FTases production process. Further studies of gene sequencing will allow distinguishing among the set of FTase and β FFase enzymes.
\nThe studies on production and application of FOS are of high interest for food industry because of several health benefits and biofunctional properties that these compounds provide. FOS can be synthesizing from precursors such as sucrose using FTase enzymes. These enzymes can be obtained from different microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) and plants. The main disadvantage of this production is the low yields of enzymatic activity and FOS. Thus, search for new microbial sources of FTase enzymes is a very important research topic as well as studies about the evolution of FTase genes from different sources, and relate their function with the nucleotide sequence using functional genomics studies.
\nThis project was financially supported by the Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila. MRMM would like to thank the financial support received from CONACYT during her master’s degree.
\nFungi are a group of eukaryotic organisms existing in the ecosystem as chemoheterotrophs, as they are dependent mostly upon the secretary exoenzymes to harvest energy from the organic substrates. Based on the heterotrophic nutrition and their dependency for survival, fungi are mainly classified into two major types: (a) saprobes and (b) parasites. Interestingly, there is difficulty to have a clear distinction between the human parasites and saprophytes as the natural habitats of most of these pathogenic fungi that cause systemic mycoses are only the dead and decaying organic matter. These fungi mostly dwell in soils enriched by droppings of birds or other organic wastes. Fungal parasitism is considered to be one of the largest areas in medical mycology that has attracted so many researchers all over the globe over the years. Enormous research work had been carried out in plant-parasitic fungi, but the role of fungi in veterinary and human medicine until recent years remained the most neglected area, the reason being that most of the medically important fungi are opportunistic pathogens and that the person-to-person transmission of fungal diseases is not as common as the bacterial/viral infections.
In recent years, fungal diseases have reached epidemic proportions in causing morbidity and mortality all over the world as it is regarded that it may be just the tip of the iceberg. Increasing immunocompromised status in human beings due to the advent of human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, debilitating illness such as cancer, COVID-19, prolonged steroid treatment, organ transplantation, and chronic diseases perhaps are the conditions that would have promoted these opportunistic pathogenic fungi into “Champion parasites” in causing human diseases [1]. Thus, these so-called low virulent saprophytic fungi are capable of causing diseases given the opportunity and availability of susceptible hosts. It is always of immense interest and curiosity to know why these fungi would have adapted themselves or equipped to develop virulence factors to emerge as human pathogens/parasites. It would always be necessary to understand what early events or environmental factors in their original habitats would have compelled/prompted/facilitated certain groups of soil-inhabiting fungi to emerge as human pathogens [2].
Fungi exhibit three types of parasitism [3] in human beings:
Obligate parasitism as seen in the case of certain anthropophilic dermatophytes and
Parasitism to the extent of true pathogenesis as seen in the case of dimorphic systemic fungi, viz.,
Parasitism is an accidental/opportunistic event, as seen in the case of
Obligate parasitism is seen in the case of anthropophilic dermatophytes, such as
The possible theory [3, 6] by which certain dermatophytes would have evolved as obligate parasites in human beings would have started and progressed in different phases.
Geophilism of these fungi in the burrows of smaller mammals.
Colonization of the hair/fur of these small mammals.
Parasitism in these mammals leads to synanthropophization
Well-established anthropophization as seen in the case of
Although the above theory clearly suggests the means of the development of parasitism in dermatophytes, it drastically fails to explain why it had occurred in certain species of dermatophytes. Furthermore, what was the sequence of events that occurred in their original habitat that would have compelled/promoted these fungi to become obligate pathogens beg an answer. Furthermore, it is also important to understand how these organisms adapt themselves to lead an obligate anthropophilic existence. In
In the case of obligate parasitic fungi, such as
Opportunistic pathogens are fungi that strike and cause infections under certain predisposing host conditions, such as severe immunodeficiency. These fungi are also widely present in soil bird droppings as saprophytes. When a host is available in an immunocompromised state, these fungi cause moderate to life-threatening diseases, as seen in the case of cryptococcal meningitis caused by
Serious uncertainties exist in finding plausible answers to these questions:
Whether the lack of immune barrier in the host is the prime cause to elicit an infection (or)
The gradual development of parasitic adaptations in the course of evolution of
Is there a changing face of this pathogen in the course of evolution? (opportunistic to truly pathogenic)
The adaptations to the parasitic life, which include the production of pigment (melanin), mannitol utilization, urease activity, and encapsulation in
Is the organism exhibiting a growing ecological niche with more and more newer habitats or reservoirs (droppings in different avifauna such as crows, water birds, etc.)
Better elucidation of such uniqueness in
For practical purposes, in the realm of Medical Mycology, the infectious microorganisms have been grouped into three ecological categories based on their natural histories. These entities, in a broad sense, have been traditionally designated as being geophilic, zoophilic, and anthropophilic and are designed as follows:
Interestingly, some geophilic and zoophilic organisms also cause human infections.
It is also curious to find the reasons for what early events could have been responsible for the evolution of the “Saprobes” into human “Parasites”? The line of demarcation between the saprophytes and parasites is neither here nor there.
Organism | Virulence factors | Environmental advantage | Survival in Host/adaptability | Parasitic adaptation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Capsule | Escape phagocytosis of amoebae | Escape phagocytosis by macrophages | Important virulence factors in human infection | |
Melanin | Protection from Sunlight/UV Escape predation from soil macroorganisms | Resistance to antifungals Shield against immunologically active cells. | Able to use DOPA in CNS to cause meningitis | |
Urease | Unknown. May contribute to the nutritional role in nitrogen acquisition. | Promotes nonlytic exocytosis | Survival advantage in a human host | |
Phospholipase | Unknown | Calcineurin activation is essential for a. virulence and b. hyphal elongation during sexual reproduction (mating and monokaryotic fruiting) [9] | ||
Ornamentation Tuberculate macroconidia | May protect against predation by soil macroflora (mites, earthworms) | — | Spores disseminated by wind are inhaled | |
Dimorphism | Survive as a mold at 25°C | Intracellular survival as yeast at 37°C Resistance to microbiocidal products of neutrophils | Mold-to-yeast conversion is an important aspect of pathogenesis (similar phenomenon in other true pathogenic fungi | |
Dermatophytes | Keratinase, collagenases | Nutrition (utilize keratin from dead animal issues) | Degrades scleroproteins in skin, hair, and nail | |
Elastase | Nutrition (utilize keratin from dead animal issues) | Degrades elastin, scleroproteins | Enhances invasion of elastin containing tissue | |
Pigment production | Resistance to antifungals. | Identification tool in diagnostic mycology | ||
Obligate parasitism | Loss of saprophytic survivability and soil association characteristics in certain anthropophilic dermatophytes | Enzyme moderation (protease). Loss of hair perforation ability, enzymes (such as urease), osmotolerance, etc. Exhibit slow growth rate. | Cause mild and chronic infections | |
Cell wall glycoproteins | — | Adherence to epithelial surfaces | ||
Acid protease | — | Cleavage of IgA2 | ||
Morphological variation Ability to switch reversibly into different colony types at high frequencies. | — | Allows organisms to adapt to a different environment in the host. | Colonies of varying nature (smooth, rough, hat, fuzzy wrinkle, star, and stippled) | |
Phospholipases | — | Hydrolyze ester linkages of glycophospholipids | ||
Secretory aspartic proteinases | — | Promote adherence and survival of the pathogen on mucosal surfaces. | Facilitate invasion of host tissues | |
Biofilming | — | Resistance to antifungals | ||
Dimorphism | — | Ability to form hyphae helps in tissue invasion |
It has long been speculated and later had been confirmed using modern phylogenetic studies that the parasitic dermatophytes probably arose from the geophilic (soil-borne) nonpathogenic ancestors. The existence of today’s nonpathogenic dermatophytoids in the same habitat is the exemplification for this hypothesis (e.g.,
The studies by Gokulshankar et al. [13] revealed that the Secretory substances (SS) released by
The Secretory substances of
It is also interesting to note that in the co-inoculation studies, when
Gokulshankar et al. [14] and Gokulshankar et al. [13] performed co-inoculation studies of different individual species of pathogenic dermatophytes along with
Interestingly, the isolation of geophilic
The antibiosis of other soil-inhabiting microbes (bacteria, protozoans, etc.) on dermatophytes also cannot be ruled out or underestimated for their probable role in the evolution of parasitism in anthropophilic dermatophytes. Gokulshankar [16] tested several other soil-inhabiting fungi, such as
It was reported that
Did the inhibition by the soil/environmentally prevalent fungi forced
Can this inhibition be considered as one of the early events in the course of evolution?? (But this hypothesis holds good if only there had been a past survival (existence) of
The study has been done only with
Several studies suggest that saprophytic survivability for parasitic dermatophytes in soil may not be possible due to their well-defined anthropophization. However, the viability of the fungal elements (chlamydospores and arthroconidia) in soil for a shorter period cannot be ruled out. Likewise, the recovery of
The recovery of
Hair baiting was found to be a superior method for isolating all keratinophilic fungi from soil, especially the dermatophytes. The study suggests that saprophytic survival even without the interference of other micro- or macroorganisms may not be possible for the obligate anthropophilic dermatophytes, such as
Test organisms | Number of isolates | Recovery in days/number of isolates | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 90 | 120 | ||
4 | 2+ | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | 2+ | 1+ | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | |
4 | 4+ | 4+ | 3+ | — | — | — | — | — |
Saprophytic survivability of test organisms in unsterile soil by hair baiting technique.
Test organisms | Number of isolates | Recovery in days/number of isolates | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 90 | 120 | ||
4 | 2+ | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | 2+ | 1+ | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | 4+ | |
4 | 4+ | 4+ | 2+ | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
4 | 2+ | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
2 | 2+ | 2+ | 2+ | 2+ | 2+ | 2+ | 2+ | 2+ |
Saprophytic survivability of test organisms in unsterile soil by a soil plating technique.
Results of the feeding studies of earthworms with dermatophytes [17] have revealed that either the anthropophilic (
Four earthworm species were used in the study (
Further recovery of
Saprophytic survival of
Saprophytic survivability for
The roles of protease in the pathogenesis of many microorganisms have been described [19]. Associations of protease in infections caused by
High enzyme activity was seen during the vegetative growth phase of all the species of anthropophilic dermatophytes studied. The enzyme activity of
The medium used to study the enzyme activity during sporulation was Takashio broth (1/10 diluted Sabouraud’s dextrose broth with KH2PO4 and MgSO4). The spores obtained in Takashio broth were asexual conidia, but during parasitism, the organism produces more arthroconidia. The study of the enzyme activity of
Nevertheless, it is really intriguing to know the reason for low protease production during sporulation in all the anthropophilic groups of dermatophytes when the geophilic and zoophilic organisms showed almost statistically comparable levels of protease production during both the phases of growth [26]. Is this moderation of enzyme activity during sporulation an adaptation of well-defined anthropophization?
Enzyme secretion is regarded as one of the prominent virulence factors that are exhibited by many pathogens. Protease is an important virulence factor in several yeasts, including infections caused by
Seborrheic dermatitis is characterized by inflammation and desquamation in areas that are rich in sebaceous glands, such as the scalp, face, and upper trunk. Dandruff is a major cosmetic concern with noninflammatory scaling conditions of the scalp [32, 33]. The importance of
The protease activity of the isolates of
Clinical conditions | Enzyme activity (units) | |
---|---|---|
Mean | SD | |
Seborrheic dermatitis | 188.57 | 91.51 |
Pityriasis versicolor | 42.61 | 15.46 |
Dandruff | 140.36 | 62.60 |
F-value | 37.075 | |
P-value | 0.000 |
Comparative enzyme activity in
It is interesting to note that the low protease activity of
The unique feature, which differentiates
Gokulshankar [16] found that the color and nature of the pigment released by
Gokulshankar [16] also employed the susceptibility pattern of pigment-producing and non-pigment-producing isolates of
One important characteristic of
Melanin-producing isolates have several advantages as they were resistant to damage by an
Wang and Casadevall [49] added to the knowledge by testing the survival of
Furthermore, in the human host, melanin production makes
Gokulshankar [16] demonstrated that melanin-producing clinical variants are more resistant to antifungals, viz., flucytosine and amphotericin B, than the non-pigment-producing environmental isolates. The clinical isolates were basically from AIDS cases, and their ability to produce melanin in defined minimal media containing DOPA and in caffeic acid agar combined with less susceptibility to standard antifungals is of greater significance.
The co-inoculation studies of
The feeding assay of
In summary, melanin production in
Cryptococcus neoformans: Plausible factors that lead to the development and maintenance of virulence in the environment.
It makes sense if the clinical isolates of
Bunting et al. [53] suggested that certain types of amoebae,
Melanin production, capsule synthesis, and phospholipase secretion were, therefore, required to escape the predation by amoebae. Therefore, the soil amoebae influence the survival traits of
Further experiments of Rosas and Casadevall [55] confirmed that
Melanin may also play a role in the protection of
The ability of the fungus to have a morphologic transition from a geophilic (saprobe lifestyle) multicellular mold form to a parasitic (pathogenic/infective form) unicellular yeast form is called dimorphism. This phenomenon is governed by temperature in
This process can be replicated in the microbiology laboratory by just changing the incubation temperatures from room temperature 25°C (saprobic phase) to 37°C (parasitic phase), and the shift is usually reversible.
Gokulshankar [16] wanted to find whether yeast form is more pathogenic than mold form. However, we have demonstrated experimentally that intracellular growth inside macrophages is not only possible for yeast form of
The ecological niche of different groups of dermatophytes varies from species to species. For example, in the genus
In the light of the findings of Gokulshankar et al, it is presumed that the inability of anthropophilic dermatophytes to escape the predation or manage to survive in the earthworm gut might have also contributed to the shrinkage of their prevalence in earthworm-rich soils, and therefore, these dermatophytes would have been forced to select a new line of adaptation. The ubiquitous prevalence of different species of earthworms in the majority of soil types all over the world is known, and this fact makes it possible to hypothesize that these once saprophytic dermatophytes would have the chance to pass through the gut of earthworms during their existence in soil. Probably, their inability to escape the predation (unable to survive successfully in the gut during this passage) could have also contributed to their elimination from the natural habitat. Other contributing factors could be the antidermatophytic activity of the predominant keratinophilic fungi in soil (such as
Similarly, the predation by earthworms (also by other nematodes and amoebae) may help in the maintenance of virulence in saprophytically existing pathogens such as
Proposed probabilities of the evolution of saprophytic fungi into pathogenic fungi.
None to declare.
The major part of this chapter is an extract from the PhD work of the first author.
At the time of conduction of this experiment,
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Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9912.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10506",title:"Liquid Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a1c30d83631953e1c8905554d937bb10",slug:"liquid-metals",bookSignature:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai, S. Gnanasekaran and Suresh Mayilswamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10506.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247421",title:"Dr.",name:"Samson Jerold Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Chelladurai",slug:"samson-jerold-samuel-chelladurai",fullName:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10629",title:"Advances in High-Entropy Alloys",subtitle:"Materials Research, Exotic Properties and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eef8e329dc2559a9dbe5f1522ec690e3",slug:"advances-in-high-entropy-alloys-materials-research-exotic-properties-and-applications",bookSignature:"Jiro Kitagawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210570",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kitagawa",slug:"jiro-kitagawa",fullName:"Jiro Kitagawa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9991",title:"Iron Ores",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1b2c288312233e1be62cd01c7e74fec",slug:"iron-ores",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Shatokha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",middleName:null,surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10412",title:"Transition Metal Compounds",subtitle:"Synthesis, Properties, and Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd7287b801dc0ac77e01f66842dc1d99",slug:"transition-metal-compounds-synthesis-properties-and-application",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider and Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10412.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:126,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"60680",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76082",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16235,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:405,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9282,totalCrossrefCites:166,totalDimensionsCites:399,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13727,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:161,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]},{id:"44359",doi:"10.5772/56197",title:"Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High Strength Two-Phase Titanium Alloys",slug:"microstructure-and-mechanical-properties-of-high-strength-two-phase-titanium-alloys",totalDownloads:10310,totalCrossrefCites:56,totalDimensionsCites:128,abstract:null,book:{id:"3494",slug:"titanium-alloys-advances-in-properties-control",title:"Titanium Alloys",fullTitle:"Titanium Alloys - Advances in Properties Control"},signatures:"J. Sieniawski, W. Ziaja, K. Kubiak and M. Motyka",authors:[{id:"101690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Motyka",slug:"maciej-motyka",fullName:"Maciej Motyka"},{id:"109232",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Sieniawski",slug:"jan-sieniawski",fullName:"Jan Sieniawski"}]},{id:"46882",doi:"10.5772/58534",title:"Additive Manufacturing of Al Alloys and Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs)",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-al-alloys-and-aluminium-matrix-composites-amcs-",totalDownloads:10125,totalCrossrefCites:52,totalDimensionsCites:117,abstract:null,book:{id:"3844",slug:"light-metal-alloys-applications",title:"Light Metal Alloys Applications",fullTitle:"Light Metal Alloys Applications"},signatures:"Diego Manfredi, Flaviana Calignano, Manickavasagam Krishnan,\nRiccardo Canali, Elisa Paola Ambrosio, Sara Biamino, Daniele Ugues,\nMatteo Pavese and Paolo Fino",authors:[{id:"16648",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Manfredi",slug:"diego-manfredi",fullName:"Diego Manfredi"},{id:"18978",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Pavese",slug:"matteo-pavese",fullName:"Matteo Pavese"},{id:"19187",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Biamino",slug:"sara-biamino",fullName:"Sara Biamino"},{id:"19188",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrosio",slug:"elisa-ambrosio",fullName:"Elisa Ambrosio"},{id:"19189",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Fino",slug:"paolo-fino",fullName:"Paolo Fino"},{id:"170227",title:"Dr.",name:"Flaviana",middleName:null,surname:"Calignano",slug:"flaviana-calignano",fullName:"Flaviana Calignano"},{id:"170228",title:"MSc.",name:"Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Canali",slug:"riccardo-canali",fullName:"Riccardo Canali"},{id:"170229",title:"MSc.",name:"Manickavasagam",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"manickavasagam-krishnan",fullName:"Manickavasagam Krishnan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2643,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16234,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:405,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:6881,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Nanoparticles of noble metals, especially the silver nanoparticles, have been widely used in different fields of science. Their unique properties, which can be incorporated into biosensor materials, composite fibers, cosmetic products, antimicrobial applications, conducting materials and electronic components, make them a very important subject to be studied by chemistry, biology, healthcare, electronic and other related branches. These unique properties depend upon size and shape of the silver nanoparticles. Different preparation methods have been reported for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles, such as electron irradiation, laser ablation, chemical reduction, biological artificial methods, photochemical methods and microwave processing. This chapter aims to inform the synthesis methods of the silver nanoparticles.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal"}]},{id:"71326",title:"Stability of Metal Complexes",slug:"stability-of-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:2369,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The stability of coordination complex is an important factor that decides the stability and reactivity of a metal complex. The stability of metal complex is governed by two different aspects such as thermodynamic and kinetic stabilities. The correlation between stability and reactivity of coordination compounds has been described in this chapter. This chapter also enlists the factors influencing the stability of metal complexes such as the nature of metal ions, ligands, bonding between metal ions and ligands, etc. In addition, the methods available for the determination of stability constants are given in detail.",book:{id:"9190",slug:"stability-and-applications-of-coordination-compounds",title:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds",fullTitle:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds"},signatures:"Senthilkumar Muthaiah, Anita Bhatia and Muthukumar Kannan",authors:null},{id:"60518",title:"Synthetic Methods for Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles: A Review",slug:"synthetic-methods-for-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles-a-review",totalDownloads:5259,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) semiconductor nanoparticles are one kind of important and promising photocatalysts in photocatalysis because of their unique optical and electronic properties. Their properties, which are determined by the preparation method, are very crucial in photocatalysis. In this chapter, an overview was carried out on the different methods that are used or have been used to prepare titanium dioxide nanoparticles. There are various methods that can be used to synthesize TiO2 and the most commonly used methods include sol-gel process, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and hydrothermal method among others. This review will focus on selected preparation methods of titanium dioxide photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6426",slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",title:"Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment"},signatures:"Pardon Nyamukamba, Omobola Okoh, Henry Mungondori,\nRaymond Taziwa and Simcelile Zinya",authors:[{id:"196100",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Taziwa",slug:"raymond-taziwa",fullName:"Raymond Taziwa"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"226567",title:"Dr.",name:"Pardon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyamukamba",slug:"pardon-nyamukamba",fullName:"Pardon Nyamukamba"},{id:"239758",title:"Mr.",name:"Simcelile",middleName:null,surname:"Zinya",slug:"simcelile-zinya",fullName:"Simcelile Zinya"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"158",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82118",title:"Surface Hardening of Stainless Steel",slug:"surface-hardening-of-stainless-steel",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105036",abstract:"The addition of nitrogen to stainless steel improves mechanical and corrosion properties. Nitrogen-bearing stainless steel (HNSS) is a new corrosion-resistant alloy class exhibiting better tribological properties. High-pressure and powder metallurgy techniques were developed for the fabrication of HNSS. Solid-state routes allow nitrogen introduction through thermochemical, implantation, or plasma surface treatments. High-temperature gas nitriding (HTGN), carried out in an N2 atmosphere in the 1000°C range, allows N uptake, obtaining thick, ~0.5–1.0 wt.% N austenitic cases. HTGN is different from conventional nitriding, performed in the 500°C range, where intense CrxNy precipitation occurs, impairing the corrosion resistance. Low-temperature plasma nitriding (LTPN) introduces more N in solution, and colossal supersaturated expanded phases (~45 at.%N) are formed. N supersaturation and compressive stresses increase the hardness of the surface layer to 10–14 GPa. Ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and precipitation-hardened stainless steels can be surface-treated by LTPN, obtaining expanded ferrite and martensite. However, single LTPN stainless steel may prematurely fail when submitted to high loading, as the thin and hard expanded layers collapse due to lack of load-bearing capacity. Duplex-nitriding treatment (HTGN + LTPN) results in a thick nitrogen-rich hardened austenite substrate layer, granting mechanical support and adhesion to the expanded austenite layer.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"André Paulo Tschiptschin and Carlos Eduardo Pinedo"},{id:"81579",title:"Welding Based Additive Manufacturing: Fundamentals",slug:"welding-based-additive-manufacturing-fundamentals",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104768",abstract:"Additive Manufacturing (AM) has drawn abundant attention over the past decades in the manufacturing and fabrication industries, especially to make part models and prototypes. This chapter introduces a potential welding based AM process called Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) for the fabrication of near-net shaped metal components including stainless steel components. To start with traditional AM processes, various fundamental traditional AM for the fabrication of components have been presented. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has been explained with its variants, synonyms, different welding processes to suit WAAM particularly to weld stainless steel metal; primary process selections for working with WAAM, important metals, and alloys that could be used in WAAM have been elaborated. A case study for WAAM fabrication of AISI 316 L stainless steel plate is included to introduce the fabrication of metal components using WAAM. Further, the most common defects which possibly play a vital role in WAAM components fabrication and a few of the future challenges regarding WAAM development are discussed. Fundamental information covered in this chapter could be more beneficial to beginners for the understanding of WAAM process generally including stainless steel component fabrication in a lucid tactic.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Maruthasalam Sowrirajan, Selvaraj Vijayan and Munusamy Arulraj"},{id:"80664",title:"Dependence of Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steels on the Magnetic State of Austenite",slug:"dependence-of-corrosion-resistance-of-austenitic-chromium-nickel-steels-on-the-magnetic-state-of-aus",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102388",abstract:"Corrosive behavior of austenitic chromium-nickel steels from the magnetic state (parameter χ0) of austenite, pre-formed to interact with aggressive media are research. Correlation between the rate K of pitting corrosion and the specific magnetic susceptibility χ0 of austenite was experimentally established. It is experimentally established that the corrosion resistance of austenitic steels AISI304, 08Cr18Ni10, AISI 321, 08Cr18Ni10Тi (containing a low amount of δ-ferrite ∼0.005…0.5%) depends on the magnetic state of austenite: the corrosion rate of steel decreases with increases χ0 austenite. The tendency of change in the corrosion rate of austenitic alloy with a high nickel content 06Crh28NiMoCuTi (not contain δ-ferrite) has the opposite character: with increasing χ0, the corrosion rate of the alloy increases is revealed. For austenitic chromium-nickel steels, the corrosion rates of the individual (austenite (A), δ-ferrite (F), strain-induced α′-martensite (M)) and total (A + F, A + M and A + F + M) phases are determined. It is proposed to predict corrosion according to the specific magnetic susceptibility χ0 of austenite and the amount δ-ferrite.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Gennadii Snizhnoi"},{id:"80199",title:"The Evaluation of the Comparative Corrosion Behaviour of Conventional and Low-Nickel Austenitic Stainless Steel: Hercules™ Alloy",slug:"the-evaluation-of-the-comparative-corrosion-behaviour-of-conventional-and-low-nickel-austenitic-stai",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102381",abstract:"Austenitic stainless steels require approximately 8% Ni to maintain austenitic microstructure at room temperature for alloys such as 304 stainless steel (304SS). Ni contributes approximately 60% of the total material cost and its price fluctuates, making the cost of austenitic stainless steel unpredictable. The use of low-nickel austenitic stainless steels as a substitute has been considered in order to remedy costs associated with Ni price fluctuations. Alloying elements such as Mn and N have been considered, however they have been found to reduce corrosion resistance. A new alloy namely Hercules™ has been developed with reduced Ni content (1.8–2% Ni). This chapter presents a comparative study of the corrosion behavior of Hercules™ and 304SS in different solutions. The alloys were evaluated using cyclic polarisation technique and immersion tests. The results demonstrated that the corrosion resistance of Hercules™ is comparable to that of 304SS. This presents the alloys as potential industrial substitutes of each other.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Duduzile Nkomo and Nomsombuluko Masia"},{id:"80346",title:"Nitrogen Supersaturation of AISI316 Base Stainless Steels at 673 K and 623 K for Hardening and Microstructure Control",slug:"nitrogen-supersaturation-of-aisi316-base-stainless-steels-at-673-k-and-623-k-for-hardening-and-micro",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102387",abstract:"The high-density plasma nitriding at 673 K and 623 K was employed to make 10% of nitrogen supersaturation on AISI316 base austenitic stainless steels. The processing parameters and nitrogen-hydrogen gas flow ratio were optimized to increase the yield of N2+ ion and NH-radical for efficient nitriding. The nitrided AISI316 specimens were prepared for multidimensional analysis to describe the fundamental features of low-temperature plasma nitriding. First, macroscopic evaluation revealed that nitrogen supersaturation induced the γ-lattice expansion and the higher nitrogen content than 4% of mass in depth. The mesoscopic analysis describes the holding temperature and initial grain-size effects on the microstructure changes. Plastic straining, grain-size refinement, and nitrogen zone-boundary diffusion processes advance with nitrogen supersaturation to drive the inner nitriding behavior. The microscopic analysis explains the microstructure refinement, the two-phase structuring, and the microstructure modification. Through this multi-dimensional analysis, the essential characteristics of the low-temperature plasma nitriding of 316 austenitic stainless steels were precisely understood to extend the engineering treatise on the bulk nitrogen stainless steels for surface modification and treatment of stainless steels by nitriding. 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In the present book chapter, the basic concepts of stainless steel including its applications, classifications, and corrosion properties will first be discussed. Thereafter, their corrosion behaviour will then be explained. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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