\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8844",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",title:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) concept originated in Japan in 1984 during the spaceplane project, in the form of a proposed thermal barrier material capable of withstanding a surface temperature of 2000 K and a temperature gradient of 1000 K across a cross section <10 mm. The materials can be designed for specific function and applications. FGMs offer great promise in applications where the operating conditions are extreme. For example, wear-resistant linings for handling large, heavy, abrasive ore particles; rocket heat shields; heat exchanger tubes; thermoelectric generators; heat-engine components; plasma facings for fusion reactors; and electrically insulating metal/ceramic joints. They are also ideal for minimizing thermomechanical mismatch in metal-ceramic bonding. This book is a result of contributions of experts from the international scientific community working in different aspects of functionally graded materials and structures and reports on the latest research and development findings on this topic through original and innovative research studies. Through its six chapters, the reader will have access to works related to processing, characteristics, modeling, and applications of functionally graded materials and structures.The book contains up-to-date publications from leading experts and the edition is intended to provide valuable recent information to the professionals involved in functionally graded materials and structure analysis and applications. The text is addressed not only to researchers, but also to professional engineers, students, and other experts in a variety of disciplines, both academic and industrial, seeking to gain a better understanding of what has been done in the field recently, and what open problems are in this area.",isbn:"978-1-78984-555-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-554-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-404-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81347",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mechanics-of-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",numberOfPages:126,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dcaee033a035bfe8daa8ffa06b37b25f",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8844.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4851,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 30th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",middleName:null,surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20062/images/system/20062.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzad Ebrahimi is an Associte Professor since 2010 in Mechanical Engineering at Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran. He has several years of teaching and industrial experience. Since 2002, he has been working at the \\\\\\Smart Materials and Structures Lab\\\\\\ Research Center of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Tehran, where he is a researcher of smart functionally graded materials and structures. He is involved in several international journals as editor and reviewer. He serves on the editorial board for \\\\\\Advances in mechanical engineering\\\\\\. He is the author of the books 'Smart functionally graded plates” and 'Progress in analysis of functionally graded structures”, Nova Science Publishers, NY. He has authored several referred international journals and conferences. His research interests focus on areas of smart materials and structures, Mechanics of Nanostructures; functionally graded materials and structures, finite element analysis; Mechanics of composite materials and structures and modeling and mechanical analysis of smart and multifunctional nanostructures and he has published several researches in these fields. His research in these areas has been presented at international conferences and has appeared in academic journals such as Composite structures; Applied physics A; Journal of Intelligent materials and Structures; Smart Materials and Structures; European Journal of Mechanics; Archive of Applied Mechanics and journal of vibration and control.",institutionString:"Imam Khomeini International University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Imam Khomeini International University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"817",title:"Material Engineering",slug:"material-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"66810",title:"Free Vibration of Axially Functionally Graded Beam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85835",slug:"free-vibration-of-axially-functionally-graded-beam",totalDownloads:1191,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Axially functionally graded (AFG) beam is a special kind of nonhomogeneous functionally gradient material structure, whose material properties vary continuously along the axial direction of the beam by a given distribution form. There are several numerical methods that have been used to analyze the vibration characteristics of AFG beams, but it is difficult to obtain precise solutions for AFG beams because of the variable coefficients of the governing equation. In this topic, the free vibration of AFG beam using analytical method based on the perturbation theory and Meijer G-Function are studied, respectively. First, a detailed review of the existing literatures is summarized. Then, based on the governing equation of the AFG Euler-Bernoulli beam, the detailed analytic equations are derived on basis of the perturbation theory and Meijer G-function, where the nature frequencies are demonstrated. Subsequently, the numerical results are calculated and compared, meanwhile, the analytical results are also confirmed by finite element method and the published references. The results show that the proposed two analytical methods are simple and efficient and can be used to conveniently analyze free vibration of AFG beam.",signatures:"Dongxing Cao, Bin Wang, Wenhua Hu and Yanhui Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66810",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66810",authors:[{id:"283678",title:"Prof.",name:"Dongxing",surname:"Cao",slug:"dongxing-cao",fullName:"Dongxing Cao"},{id:"295692",title:"Mr.",name:"Bin",surname:"Wang",slug:"bin-wang",fullName:"Bin Wang"},{id:"295693",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenhua",surname:"Hu",slug:"wenhua-hu",fullName:"Wenhua Hu"},{id:"295694",title:"Mr.",name:"Yanhui",surname:"Gao",slug:"yanhui-gao",fullName:"Yanhui Gao"}],corrections:null},{id:"68846",title:"Boundary Element Model for Nonlinear Fractional-Order Heat Transfer in Magneto-Thermoelastic FGA Structures Involving Three Temperatures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88255",slug:"boundary-element-model-for-nonlinear-fractional-order-heat-transfer-in-magneto-thermoelastic-fga-str",totalDownloads:795,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The principal objective of this chapter is to introduce a new fractional-order theory for functionally graded anisotropic (FGA) structures. This theory called nonlinear uncoupled magneto-thermoelasticity theory involving three temperatures. Because of strong nonlinearity, it is very difficult to solve the problems related to this theory analytically. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new numerical methods for solving such problems. So, we propose a new boundary element model for the solution of general and complex problems associated with this theory. The numerical results are presented graphically in order to display the effect of the graded parameter on the temperatures and displacements. The numerical results also confirm the validity and accuracy of our proposed model.",signatures:"Mohamed Abdelsabour Fahmy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68846",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68846",authors:[{id:"283892",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Fahmy",slug:"mohamed-fahmy",fullName:"Mohamed Fahmy"}],corrections:null},{id:"66230",title:"DC Conductivity of Activated Carbon Filled Epoxy Gradient Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85233",slug:"dc-conductivity-of-activated-carbon-filled-epoxy-gradient-composites",totalDownloads:734,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reports the DC conductivity behavior of activated carbon powder filled epoxy gradient composites. Gradient composites are the composite materials in which the there is gradually variation in some direction to achieve gradient in properties. Graded materials are generally defined as the materials, which exhibit variable functional performance with location and show continuous variations in morphology and composition. Functionally graded metal matrix composites have been of great practical importance. Graded metal matrix composite have gradual compositional variations from ceramic at one surface to metal at the other, leading to special advantages of smooth transition in thermal stresses across the thickness and minimized stress concentration at the interface of two dissimilar materials. Therefore graded metal matrix composites are finding applications in aggressive environments with steep temperature gradients such as turbine components and rocket nozzles. Since the properties of material in FGMs are variable across the entire material, and depends on the spatial position of the material. Functionally graded materials are designed with varying properties such as changing their chemical properties, changing mechanical, magnetic, thermal, and electrical properties. Now a days there are FGMs designed as stepwise-graded materials, while others are fabricated to have continuous-graded materials depending on their areas of application.",signatures:"Archana Nigrawal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66230",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66230",authors:[{id:"257011",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",surname:"Nigrawal",slug:"archana-nigrawal",fullName:"Archana Nigrawal"}],corrections:null},{id:"66961",title:"The Stochastic Finite Element in the Natural Frequency of Functionally Graded Material Beams",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86013",slug:"the-stochastic-finite-element-in-the-natural-frequency-of-functionally-graded-material-beams",totalDownloads:754,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, the stochastic finite element solution is given to obtain the variability in the natural frequency of functionally graded material (FGM) beam. The elastic modulus is assumed to vary in the thickness direction and the width of the beam to vary as well in the longitudinal direction following the exponential law. The random material properties of elastic modulus and mass density of the FGM beam are assumed to be one-dimensional homogeneous stochastic processes. The stochastic finite element analysis of FGM beam is performed in conjunction with Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) employing the spectral representation method for 16, the description of random processes of the random material properties under consideration. The response variability of the natural frequency due to random elastic modulus is evaluated for various states of randomness. Furthermore, the investigation on the effect of the correlation between random elastic modulus and random mass density on the response variability is addressed in detail as well.",signatures:"Nguyen Van Thuan and Noh Hyuk Chun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66961",authors:[{id:"287934",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Van Thuan",slug:"nguyen-van-thuan",fullName:"Nguyen Van Thuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"67159",title:"Development of Functionally Gradient Cu-Sn-Ni Alloy Using GTA Heat Source",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86315",slug:"development-of-functionally-gradient-cu-sn-ni-alloy-using-gta-heat-source",totalDownloads:710,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The impact of nickel content on surface hardness, microstructure and wear properties of surface alloyed Cu-10Sn bronze composite was examined in this chapter. Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) was utilized as the heat source for the surface alloying/modification process. The surface modification process was carried out on bronze samples coated with various Nickel coating thicknesses. Vickers hardness tester was used to measure the surface hardness as well as the hardness along the depth of the modified layer and wear rate was measured using a pin-on-disc tribometer. The Ni concentration profiling was carried out using EDAX. Surface modification process resulted in the formation of a layered functionally graded bronze alloy. The average grain size was found to reduce upon surface modification process. Ni addition was observed to increase the hardness and reduce wear rate for the modified samples.",signatures:"Cherian Paul and Ramasamy Sellamuthu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67159",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67159",authors:[{id:"295062",title:"Dr.",name:"Cherian",surname:"Paul",slug:"cherian-paul",fullName:"Cherian Paul"},{id:"298259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramasamy",surname:"Sellamuthu",slug:"ramasamy-sellamuthu",fullName:"Ramasamy Sellamuthu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69315",title:"Axisymmetric Indentation Response of Functionally Graded Material Coating",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89312",slug:"axisymmetric-indentation-response-of-functionally-graded-material-coating",totalDownloads:670,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the indentation response of the functionally graded material (FGM) coating is considered due to the contact between the coating and axisymmetric indenter. The mechanical properties of FGM coating is assumed to vary along the thickness direction. Three kinds of models are applied to simulate the variation of elastic parameter in the FGM coating based on the cylindrical coordinate system. The axisymmetric frictionless and partial slip contact problems are reduced to a set of Cauchy singular integral equations that can be numerically calculated by using the Hankel integral transform technique and the transfer matrix method. The effect of gradient of coating on the distribution of contact stress is presented. The present investigation will provide the guidance for the indentation experiment of coating.",signatures:"Tie-Jun Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69315",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69315",authors:[{id:"305673",title:"Prof.",name:"Tiejun",surname:"Liu",slug:"tiejun-liu",fullName:"Tiejun Liu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"111",title:"Advances in Vibration Analysis Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"37f0b30e647599448abb4a02ca595dde",slug:"advances-in-vibration-analysis-research",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5097",title:"Advances in Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3132c367d705b55e9a912527efef76ab",slug:"advances-in-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5097.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4753",title:"Graphene",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7a2a89285055016ae39942309f30c4b5",slug:"graphene-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4753.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6244",title:"Surface Waves",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48a2c4d0d993b62e4fe46a77a7a6cc4c",slug:"surface-waves-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6244.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3272",title:"Piezoelectric Materials and Devices",subtitle:"Practice and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a41c5bb092cc30980df760d6bec44c20",slug:"piezoelectric-materials-and-devices-practice-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3272.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6020",title:"Shape Memory Alloys",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89ba319783170fefc256fcfa0613a6c0",slug:"shape-memory-alloys-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5271",title:"Advances in Tribology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cef4274b28d575de81e692b8d88b750d",slug:"advances-in-tribology",bookSignature:"Pranav H. 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\r\n\tThe applications of isotopes sciences and technology in supporting the sustainability of human life are receiving considerable attention. Both stable and radioactive isotopes have been widely used to study, monitor, and predict the changes that occur in different environmental compartments. The results of these efforts have been used to improve water management planning and clarify our understanding of the changes that occur due to climatic actions. In addition, these isotopes have been used to enhance the capabilities of the agricultural sector toward zero hunger, support the medical sector to improve the diagnostic and treatment techniques towards affordable health care, and support industrial innovation and infrastructure.
\r\n\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide a wide scope of topics related to the principles and recent advances in the applications of stable and radioactive isotopes in supporting sustainable development with a special focus on the applications in environmental sciences. All fields of research covering the theoretical background of radioactivity phenomenon, including radioactive decay, natural abundance of stable isotopes, and isotope fractionation processes are welcomed. Principals and recent advances in sampling techniques in different environmental compartments and the analytical measuring techniques are intended to be included. The application of natural and anthropogenic isotopes to understand changes in different environmental compartments to support water management planning, climate change evaluations, study life underwater, and changes in the lithosphere are of interest.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-711-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-710-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-712-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d751173a15d5437ee71c7352bf93b1f7",bookSignature:"Prof. Rehab O. 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Abdel Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92718/images/system/92718.jpeg",biography:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman is Professor of Chemical Nuclear Engineering at the Radioactive Waste Management Department, Hot Laboratories and Waste Management Center, Atomic Energy Authority of Egypt. She has a PhD in Nuclear Engineering from Alexandria University, Egypt. She has contributed to the publication of more than thirty peer-reviewed scientific papers, twenty-five book chapters and ten books. Dr. Rahman has contributed in teaching and supervising postgraduate research in chemistry, physics, petrochemicals and environmental–chemical engineering. She serves as a verified reviewer for several journals and is managing editor for two International Journals. Dr Rahman is an honored scientist of Academy of Scientific Research and Technology and a Publons top reviewer (2016–2019).",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1397",title:"Radioactive Waste",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"679841bbda6b01db01df56cd28cf1666",slug:"radioactive-waste",bookSignature:"Rehab Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab O.",surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-o.-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab O. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"47605",title:"Neurotransmitter Systems in Autism Spectrum Disorder",doi:"10.5772/59122",slug:"neurotransmitter-systems-in-autism-spectrum-disorder",body:'Neurotransmitters, which connect neurons with each other, have key roles in normal development of brain, memory, motor activity and behavior regulation [1]. Based on these knowledge, neurotransmitter system dysfunction thought to be the cause of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), by affecting neuronal cell migration, differentiation and synaptogenesis and eventually developmental processes of the brain [2, 3]. In pathophysiology of ASD many neurotransmitter systems has been investigated and dysfunction of these systems has been shown to be responsible. In the literature, neurotransmitters that are most commonly associated with the pathogenesis of ASD are, GABAergic, glutamatergic and serotonergic systems [4].
In order to maintain function and homeostasis of Central Nervous System (CNS) the balance between excitation and inhibition of neurons is very important. Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain is gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) [5]. GABA is synthesized from glutamate by the enzyme glutamic acid decarbosilase (GAD) [6]. This enzyme has two isoforms known as GAD67 and GAD65, these are encoded by GAD1 and GAD2 gene. These enzymes different from each other in terms of the intracellular localization, expression, and enzymatic activity [7]. After GABA sythesized, it is taken to the vesicle by vesicular GABA transporter (VGATs) [8]. GABA is released to synaptic space under influence of Action Potential (AP) and binds to the GABAA and GABAC iyonotrophic receptors or metabotropic GABAB receptors [9]. The activity of GABA that is released to the synaptic space is ended by GABA transporters which are located at cell membrane (GAT) [10]. Finally GABA that is taken to the inside cell furtherly degrades by the transaminase or succinate semialdehide dehidrogenase enzymes [9].
GABA has a key role in the regulation of early developmental stages of cell migration, neuronal differentiation and stages of maturation [11]. Besides, formation of GABAergic system has a critical role in migration of GABAergic neurons and formation of glutamergic system mediated excitatory processes that regulate cortical inhibitory system [12]. Therefore, it is not suprising that especially in ASD and in many neurodevelopmental disorders GABAergic system is the main responsible [13, 14]. In addition, the high prevalence of epilepsy in patients with autism have made it worth to investigate GABA neurotransmitter system in individuals who has ASD [15].
Neurochemical abnormality that postulated to be associated with pathophysiology of ASD is the reduction in the expression of GAD65 and GAD67 which cause suppression of GABAergic inhibition [16]. Fatemi and his colleagues [17], in the cerebellum and parietal cortex of patients has shown significantly decrease in two isoforms of the rate-limiting enzyme which are responsible for the conversion of glutamate to GABA. Detection of low platelet GABA levels in children with ASD [18] and postmortem studies that illustrtaed significant reduction in GABAA and GABAB receptor subunit in various brain regions [19, 20] support the widespread dysfunction of GABAergic system in patients with ASD. Reduced production or signaling of GABA cause hyperexcitability state and leads to cognitive dysfunction [21]. Deletional mutations of genes encoded by chromosome 15q11-q13 which is some of the GABAA receptor subtype unites (GABRB3, GABRA5 and GABRG3) might be cause of reduction in GABAergic transmission, and these mutations have been suggested to be a risk factor ASD [14]. Also, many of the candidate genes associated with ASD are expressed in interneurons [22]. Antiepileptic agents, especially benzodiazepines has been used in ASD and epilepsy coexisted patients and they have shown to improve socialization and communication skills, though, in some cases, they lead to increased anxiety and aggression, because of this, the information mentioned above is not clear yet [23,24]. Lemonier and Ben-Ari [25] sugeested that the inhibition of Na / K / Cl transporter (NKCC1) lead intracellular increased Cl levels, so the GABAergic transmission will change depolarization to the hyperpolarization and in five ASD cases they get positive results after the treatment with NKCC1 inihbitor bumetanide. Then they carried out double blind randomized controlled clinical trial of bumetanide for treatment of ASD for 3 months of period in 54 patients, the results has shown to provide a significant improvement of ASD symptoms [26]. In utero exposure to valproate in mice model, has caused dissappearance of swicth between GABA excitation / inhibition and this problem has shown to lead the development of chronic chlorine deficits and autistic-like behavior [27]. Ion channels mutated mouse model which led to the reduced GABAergic transmission, and the corelation between ASD symptoms and reduced GABAergic transmission level and with benzodiazepine treatment autistic-like behavior to has shown to decrease [28].
As a result of animal model publications and studies conducted in patients with ASD has confirmed the hypothesis of "decreased GABAergic transmission in ASD patients". In future studies, to develop a new therapeutic agents, and to even prevent the disease focus should be directed on the GABA neurotransmitter system.
Glutamate is essential excitatory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system. It is synthesized from glutamine via glutaminase enzyme. There are two types which are iyontropic and metabotropic receptors. Metabotropic receptors (mGluR) are coupled with G protein and within the cell according to signaling pathways they divided 3 into subtypes: Group I (mGluR1 and mGluR5), group II (mGluR2 and mGluR3), Group III (mGluR4 and mGluR6-8). Group I works through activation of phospholipase C whereas Group II and Group III works through decreasing cyclic AMP level [29]. Ionotropic receptors which are coupled with ion-channel, have 3 sub-types: N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) and kainate receptors. Kainat receptors located presynaptically at the hippocampus, stimulation of them reduce glutamatergic transmission [30]. Induction of AMPA receptors, these are associated with learning and memory, lead to the long-term potentiatio (LTP) and long-term depressio of (LTD) [31]. High levels of glutamate leading to overstimulation of NMDA receptors and cause a high amount of calcium influx, which is main responsible for excitotoxicity lead to the neuronal damage. Therefore, optimization of the level of glutamate in the synaptic cleft is critical. To protect post-synaptic neurons from excitotoxic effect the neuronal glutamate transporters which reside at the presynaptic membrane take back glutamate into cell from synaptic cleft. In final stage, glutamate is destroyed with GAD [1]. Balance between excitation / inhibition is crucial for synaptogenesis and plasticity, especially in first 3 years of life [32]. Blockade of NMDA receptors in the prenatal period initiates apoptosis in neurons [1].
From this point, glutamate plays a central role in shaping the architecture of the brain. Cell migration, maturation and developmental stages, such as synaptogenesis and neuroplastisicity is accomplished with the optimum glutamat transmission level [33, 34]. At the same time it is directly associated with cognitive processes such as memory and learning [35].
Glutamate receptors associated with ASD are highly expressed in the hippocampus and cerebellum [36]. For these reasons, the role of glutamatergic system in patiets with ASD has been substantially investigated, two opposite hypotheses regarding the role of this system have been proposed [37]. First hypotheses of ASD has been proposed hypoglutamatergic state [38, 39, 40], the second postulated the depletion of GABAergic inhibition excitation / inhibition rate which eventually lead to the hyperglutamatergic state [41, 42, 43]. Consistent with the hypothesis suggested that ASD is hypoglutamatergic disorder, in 1998 Carlsson has postulated decrease in glutamate signaling lead to activation of receptors at the cortical GABA interneurons and this state cause significant depression in excitator glutamate circuit [38, 44].
Other supportive evidence is hypoglutamatergic state in mouse models caused similiar presentation to ASD including inability to change behavior paradigm, limitation in habits and behavior [45] In a postmortem study patients with ASD has shown significant decrease in AMPA type 2 and 3 in cerebellum tissue [40].
Another hypothesis that might be surrogate to explain ASD is hypoglutamatergic state and associated cortical tissue hyperexcitability in spesific cortical areas. Some studies has demonstrated higher serum glutamate levels in individuals with autism [46]. Increased glutamate level probably connected with diminished GAD enzyme level [47, 48, 49]. This diminish also explain reduction in GABA transmission [50]. First study was done by Shimmura has illustrated higher serum glutamate levels and lower glutamine levels [51]. Secondly Shimmura et al. [52] has done another study they researched brain tissue from 7 postmortem ASD patients, they found higher levels of glutamate and glutamine levels at anterior cingulate cortex, interstingly levlels of glutaminase, glutamine synthase, and GAD were normal. As mentioned above ASD patients have high incidence of epilepsy, this is due to increase in glutamatergic activity [53, 54].
Animal models and conducted clinical studies in ASD subjects support hyperglutamatergic hypothesis. Silverman et al. [55] is conducted a study on ASD core symptoms observed mice model and found that GRN-529 (allosteric modulators of mGluR5 receptor) ameliorated all core symptoms of ASD. Another study conducted with AMPA receptor agonist (Ampakin) relieved symptoms of respiratory system on mice model with Rett syndrome [56]. Lamotrigine, which reduce glutamate transmission, has improved communication skills, socialization and behavior problems in 28 children diagnosed with ASD [57]. Ketamine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, has been shown to have a positive impact on focused attention in ASD cases [58].
Another NMDA receptor antagonist, memantine, significant improvement was observed on learning, language skills and in the areas of socialization in patients with ASD [59]. Recently, a randomized controlled study carried out, the memantine and risperidone receiving group were compared to placebo and risperidone receiving group, at the 10th week of treatment, memantine and risperidone received group better recovered compared to only risperidone received group in terms of the irritability, stereotypies and hyperactivity symptoms [60]. Recently, non-invasive brain imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance spectroscopy has enabled measurment of glutamate levels in brain tissue. Since first study was published in 2006 to date there were 15 studies done and conflicting results have been obtained [37]. In some studies, the anterior cingulate cortex [61] and auditory cortex [62] areas glutamate levels was increased compared to healthy controls, while in others there was no difference, and in the rest lower glutamate levels was observed [63, 64].
Some researchers thought these two hypotheses related to glutamatergic system are not completely opposite, some spesific cortical areas has increased excitatory / inhibitory ratio whereas in other regions, this ratio could turn opposite [44].
As a result, it is not clear yet whether the ASD individuals hyper or hypoglutamatergic, but it is clear that there is dysfunction in the glutamatergic system. New investigations has focused more in hyper-glutamatergic state and efforts are directed at glutamate receptor antagonismin order to develop new therapeutic agents. A better understanding of the glutamatergic system agents in the future will contribute to enlight ASD pathogenesis.
Serotonin is a neuromodulator which acts as a developmental signal [65]. Serotonin is synthesized by the enzyme triptophanhidroksilase which convert triptpohan to 5-hydroxy-tryptophan, and decarboksilation at the end [66]. Serotonin neurotransmitter system has critical role in the regulation of crucial steps of neuronal development such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, apoptosis synaptogenesis, neuronal and glial development [67, 68]. Serotonin system in the prefrontal cortex and temporal cortex regulates GABAergic inhibition, therefore it has played a role in the regulation of many aspects of cognitive functions [69].
Serotonin plays an important role in the development of social skills during gestational period and early childhood. Inadequate stimulation of serotonin in the early stages of life, can lead to the unpreventable abnormalities in serotonin metabolism in subsequent period of life. These defect may cause permanent problems in serotonin metabolism in people who have been deprived serotonin effects necessary for the brains especially early developmental stages of life. This is why, adequate levels of serotonin are necessary for the development of close relationships and social skills in the early stages of life [70]. Social skills and behavior have been shown to be associated with hippocampal neurogenesis in ASD individuals and because of that hippocampal abnormalities are found frequently [71]. Serotonin play a central regulating role in serotonin dependent neurogenesis activity in the hippocampus [72].
Pathophysiology of ASD has two main hypothesis for serotonin neurotransmitter systems, just like glutamate hypothesis. One widely accepted for a long time and confirmed for many times is hyperserotonin state and while the other one is hyposerotonin hypothesis which became prominent in recent years [66]. Two main findings of hyperserotonin hypothesis in patients with ASD are increased blood serotonin levels (my hiperserotone) and decreased brain serotonin levels [66]. The presence of hyperserotonemia in 25 to 50% of individuals with ASD is important to showing they may have abnormalities in the serotonergic pathway [73, 74,75].
Furthermore, first-degree relatives of individuals with ASD found to have hyperserotonemia, as well as parents of these kids more often showed the presence of serotonin associated psychiatric disorders, such as depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder [74, 76]. Other supportive evidence, brain serotonin level decreased and exacerbation of many repetitive behavior was observed (such as spinning, stepping, self-hit and shoot) with tryptophan poor diet (low-tryptophan diet) [77]. Serum levels of tryptophan to large neutral amino acid ratio was shown to be decreased in children with ASD. This rate is an indicative of presence of tryptophan for serotonin synthesis in the brain and this lower ratio demonstrate low tryptophan usability which might suggest one of the mechanisms associated with serotonergic dysfunction in ASD [78]. Another study demonstrated, after L-5-hydroxytryptophan administration young people with ASD, their blood serotonin levels increased, whereas in control group no difference was seen [79].
Severity of at least one specific behavioral problem in ASD is reported to be associated with 5HT1D receptor sensitivity [80]. Various studies have reported controversial results regarding association of serotonin transporter gene in ASD. In contrast, in accordance with the data regarding the transfer of serotonin transporter gene polymorphic alleles associated with the findings of the degree of the social and communicative deficits, these alleles instead of being risk factor for ASD they might change the severity of clinical presentation in autistic children [75].
Shown correlation between ASD and serotonin transporter gene and found mutations in genes encode rate-limiting enzyme in the catabolism of L-tryptophan such as 2,3 dioxygenase gene is thought to be responsible for increased serotonin levels [81]. There might be defect in the development of the serotonergic system in patients with ASD. Normally, the serotonin neurotransmitter system follows a pattern of age-related development, for example, developmental studies of serotonin receptor binding in monkeys showed that increment during infancy and throughout childhood, a prepubertal peak, and eventually slowly reduction during adolescence and early adulthood [82]. In humans at 6 year of age serotonin receptor binding is higher than neonatal period or 13-14 year of age [83]. This dynamic changes are impaired in ASD, at the beginning of childhood low serotonin levels are observed compared to normal baseline, but steadily increased from 2 to 15 years of age and reaches higher than adult levels [84, 85]. In various animal models when effect of higher levels of serotonin investigated particılarly in the development of somatosensory system, the deterioration in the formation of thalamo-cortical sensory circuits were observed [86]. Recently "ASD is a hyposerotonergic condition" hypothesis is worth to discuss. In a study of volunteer postmortem brain tissue of ASD patients examined, and the increase in number of serotonergic axons were observed [87].
This situation cannot be explained by the hypothesis of compensatory mechanisms which expected to result reduction of serotonergic axons in hyperserotonergic state [88]. In men with ASD, in one side of the brain of frontal region and thalamus, typically synthesis of serotonin was reduced, in opposite side of the brain of cerebellum, and dentate nucleus serotonin has been shown to be increased [70].
Several PET and SPECT studies in individuals with ASD has shown serotonin transporter binding amount decreased significantly in various brain regions (frontal cortex, cingulate, thalamus, etc..) [89, 90]. Other study was exhibited that low levels of blood serotonin in mothers of children with ASD compared to normal developing children\'s mother [91]. In another study, individuals with ASD were shown to have low levels of gene responsible for synthesis of serotonin [92]. Serotonergic drugs, the main symptoms of ASD respond less to treatment, but some are partially effective in the symptomatic treatment of patients with autism. These drugs include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitör=SSRI), 5-HT 2A receptor antagonists, tricyclic antidepressants and receptor antagonists (dopamin/5-HT) mix.
Mechanism of action of these treatments are unknown, but they are thought to act on the developmental defects in serotonergic pathways such as serotonin synthesis, catabolism, and transport-related dynamic abnormalities [93, 94].
As a result, the highest level of evidence for ASD relationship with monoamines is the serotonergic system. Hyperserotonemia in peripheral blood in individuals with ASD, despite the presence of opposite results, has been shown to be present in many studies. Low levels of serotonin in the brain tissue is the common finding of hyposerotonergic and hyperserotonergic hypothesis. Future studies will enlight reson for lower serotonin levels in the brain tissue and will open new horizons both for diagnosis and treatment.
Evidence for the relationship of dopamine and norepinephrine with ASD was gathered from the studies reported decrease in DBH (Dopamine B Hydroxilase) activity and increased serum norepinephrine levels in children with autism and in their parents [95]. Findings increased catecholamine levels of the blood, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid in children with ASD [96, 97] as well as evidences sugested abnormal dopaminergic activity in the medial prefrontal cortex proposed abnormal cathecolaminergic activity [98]. Another supportive study has shown that, patients with ASD have increased urinary homovalinic acid level which is a degradation product of dopamine [99].
Robinson et al [100] demonstrated, mothers of children with ASD has low serum DBH levels and this interpreted to cause possible risk factor for ASD by creating a non-ideal intrauterine environment (leading to reduced norepinephrine and increased levels of dopamine). Study was done by using positron emission tomography (PET) in high-functioning ASD individuals has enligthened that increased activity of dopamine transporter (DAT) at the orbitofontal cortex region [89]. In a more detail study, Neale BM and his colleagues have found a de novo mutation of DAT gene (SLC6A3] in individuals with ASD [101].
Chemical and histochemical studies in the brains of individuals with ASD has shown loss of nicotinic receptors, in addition to that basal forebrain cholinergic neurons have been reported to be abnormally large and surplus [102]. A postmortem investigation of parietal neocortex showed reduced number of neuronal α-4 and β-2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit [103]. A while decreased cerebellar α-3/α-4 / β-2 nAChR ligand binding was detected, α-7 receptor subunit was exhibited compensatory increase [104].
Another study showed reduction in the expression of α-4 nAChR subunit in the frontal cortex whereas expression of α-4 nAChR subunit was found to increase in the cerebellum [105]. In another study, the α-7 nAChR subunit was determined to decreas especially in paraventricular nucleus and nucleus reuniens [106]. Postmortem samples taken from ASD individuals demonstrated significantly decreased α-7 receptor mRNA levels in frontal cortex [107]
Brain samples of cerebral cortex and basal forebrain choline acetyltransferase and acetylcholinesterase enzyme activity was measured, but no significant relationship was found with ASD. However, increased BDNF levels were detected which has affect on development and functions of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain [103]. Evidence of relationship between ASD and cholinergic circuits is still weak. Therefore extensive research in this area are needed.
It is assumed that the birth year of the Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) field was 1984, 37 years ago, when two pioneering books were published: Strategic Human Resource Management by Tichy and colleagues in 1984 (see [1]) and Managing Human Assets by Beer and colleagues in 1984 (see [2]). These authors were motivated by the industrial situation at that time in the USA: (i) USA companies were losing competitiveness compared to their Japanese and German rivals, and (ii) the utilization of human resources was conceived as an area of inefficiency and missed opportunity in USA companies [3]. In this context, a need for a strategic approach to HRM appeared.
SHRM was conceptualized like “the pattern of planned HR deployments and activities intended to enable an organisation to achieve its goals” [4]. Conceptually, SHRM is one of the subdomains of the broader Human Resource Management (HRM) field. SHRM addresses how different HRM systems (i.e. set of HR practices) are shaped and how they affect Organisational Performance (OP). An HRM system can be defined as a combination of HR practices that are advocated to be internally consistent and reinforced to achieve some overall results. Research focuses on the effects of HRM systems rather than the effect of individual HR practices. The logic is that employees are exposed to a system rather than to a single practice on at a time. These practices are supposed to be complementary or synergistic generating a coherent and consistent message within the organisation.
There can be found different conceptualizations of HRM systems within the literature. The most known are the High Performance Work System (HPWS) (see for example Huselid’s proposal in [5]), the High Commitment Work System (HCWS) (see Arthur’s work in [6]) and the High Involvement Work System (HIWS) (see Lawler’s proposal in [7]). Among these, there are certain differences in the orientation of the practices. For example, the HCWS may include more practices fostering commitment and the HIWS employs more involvement practices. However, the abovementioned three working systems include high-commitment and high-involvement employment models and they reside in the same logic: work autonomy is regarded as one of the central parts of these systems [8]. We understand these systems as “advanced” HRM systems that employ a strategic approach to the contribution that empowered employees might make to organisations.
According to the literature the five key practices that compose (advanced) HRM systems are [9, 10]: (i) selective recruitment and selection, (ii) appraisal and performance management, (iii) compensation, (iv) training and development, and (v) employee participation or involvement. To date, there is no consensus about which is the most appropriate conceptualization of HRM systems (see for example an extensive review in [10]) and for the sake of simplicity, the general term of (advanced) HRM system covering all the variations will be employed along this chapter.
Continuing with the history of USA companies introduced at the beginning of the chapter, one decade later the birth of SHRM, in the nineties, USA researchers focused on carrying out empirical studies, which would demonstrate the role of HR generating value for organisations [11]. Researchers wanted to empirically demonstrate the performance effect of HRM systems to develop the field as a true discipline. A turning point occurred when Huselid published a paper in 1995 demonstrating a positive correlation between the degree of sophistication of HR practices and market value per employee.
Building on this study, different authors started conducting empirical research focusing mostly on HR practices bundles (i.e. HRM systems) and performance relationships (e.g. [6, 12]). Paauwe and Richardson in 1997 (see [13]) summarized the findings of the empirical studies conducted until that point and they concluded that these could be classified into two types. The first type of study analysed the association between HR practices and employee related outcomes such as satisfaction, engagement, motivation, turnover and commitment. The second type of study analysed the association between the employee related outcomes and organisational outcomes such as productivity, quality, sales, and market value. They concluded that HRM activities give rise to HRM outcomes, which in turn influence OP. This contributed to a call for more theoretical insights that could explain (i) what was understood by HRM activities (ii) what was understood by performance and (iii) what the linking variables between them were [14]. The linking variables (i.e. HRM outcomes) turned to be known as the big unknown: The Black Box.
To date, a great effort has been made to theoretically argue the paths through which HRM systems influence both employee and organisational outcomes. The most widely applied theories for explaining the Black Box have been the human capital theory [see more information in references [15, 16] and the behavioural perspective [see more information in references 17, 18].
Human capital theory concentrates on the impact of HRM systems on employee Knowledge, Skills and Abilities (KSA) gained through training and work experience (see Figure 1). It assumes that these attributes of the workforce will have a positive impact on OP. Organisational investments in advanced HR practices such as strategic personnel selection, training and development contribute to the human capital of the workforce which in turn influences organisational performance. Human capital is essential for employee performance. HR systems can enhance employee KSA that are specific to the company and allow the generated human capital pool (i.e. aggregated KSA) exploit it for the benefit of the company. There are empirical studies that demonstrate that human capital pays off. For example in the study conducted by Crook and colleagues (see [19]) they showed that one standard deviation increase in human capital, measured as work experience of the managerial board, translates into an improvement of 80% in Return On Assets (ROA).
Human capital framework.
The behavioural perspective, on the other hand, assumes that the purpose of the practices are to elicit and control employee attitudes and behaviours such as engagement and proactive work behaviour [4]. What is important is not how much knowledge we have in the company, but how much our employees are willing to apply this knowledge and how much effort they put into it (see Figure 2).
Behavioural perspective.
The behavioural perspective lies under Social Exchange Theory (SET). SET explains human behaviour in relations. The relations are understood as an exchange relationship where a person feels the obligation to reply to the input of the other in the relationship. This is understood as the norm of reciprocity defined by Gouldner [20]. Following this, the sociologist Blau stated that employees can feel this need of reciprocity with the organisations. When organisations offer employees social exchange relations such as attention, growth or trust that exceeds the expectations of employees, employees feel the obligation to return to the company with extra effort [21].
HR practices usually employed under advanced HRM systems such as autonomous or self-managed teams, employee participation and cross-functional collaboration projects are motivational drivers for the desired work attitudes and behaviours. Investment in HRM systems demonstrates to employees that the company values them as a source of competitive advantage and this in turn might generate a greater sense of organisational attachment and engagement [20, 22].
Employee engagement can be defined as a positive and fulfilling emotional state of work-related wellbeing characterized by vigour, dedication and absorption [23]. A meta-analytical study conducted by Harter and colleagues (see reference [24]) demonstrated that engagement had a significant impact on employee performance which is a predictor of productivity. In addition, other studies conducted across industries have found that higher engagement levels of employees are related to positive financial outcomes such as profitability or Return on Assets [25] and lower absenteeism levels [26].
The first empirical evidence that demonstrated the value of implementing HR practices from a strategic perspective is considered to be that published by Huselid in 1995 (see [27]). Nowadays, almost 40 years after this publication there is no doubt that investment in HRM systems pays off. The field has been fed with evidence of positive relationships (see Figure 3 for a summary). Meta-analysing the research in SHRM supports the idea that HRM systems have a significant effect on performance (see for examples the studies in references [28, 29, 30]).
Summary of three decades of trajectory of the field of SHRM.
Not only scientific papers support the positive effect of employees on OP. The internationally recognized consulting company Gallup, in their report of State of the global workplace [31] concluded that those companies that make a strategic investment in employee development (for example, implementing advanced HRM systems) report 11% greater profitability and are twice as likely to retain employees.
It is clear what research says, but, (i) are the companies nowadays implementing these HRM systems, and, (ii) are the companies consequently benefiting from them? The following section focuses on what studies reveal about these issues.
Starting with the focus on the employees, according to the last global report of Gallup [31] only 15% of the global workforce is engaged. The global aggregate from Gallup was calculated based on data collected in 2014, 2015 and 2016 across 155 countries. This data also showed that 18% of global employees were actively disengaged.
We have seen what engaged employees mean for an organisation in the previous section. The antagonistic, not engaged employees, can be seen as unattached people to their work that lack passion and energy and that are not likely to go the extra mile. So, considering these definitions we can say that numbers are worrying, how is it possible to have a higher number of disengaged employees rather than engaged ones? Is the problem in the employees? Does these mean that nowadays employees do not want to work? That they are not motivated?
We suspect the answer is NO. Based on the logic of SHRM, we should change the perspective and see employee engagement because of the working system implemented. The challenge usually resides in the way employees are being managed in our organisations. When achieving greater engagement from employees, Peter Senge [32] suggests thinking in more biological terms rather than mechanical; i.e., to act more like gardeners and less like mechanics. The nature of the seed is to grow and give fruits if it has the right conditions to do so. Therefore, the gardener needs to ensure the appropriate environmental conditions that make possible the growth of the plant. It is in the hands of the gardener to ensure proper light, water and work the soil. If these aspects are correctly worked the plant grows and gives its fruits.
Following this metaphor, it is in people’s nature to get involved and engage themselves at work. However, the work environment needs to make this possible. In certain organisational contexts people choose to engage and unleash their energy for the benefit of the organisation. Engagement is a voluntary act and an employee will be engaged if the organisations give them reasons to do so. This means that the key to achieving employee engagement lies in the way people are managed at the organisations. As an example, HRM systems increase employee’s task-related resources [30, 33] and this leads to an enhancement in employee engagement [34]. Moreover, these systems empower employees and empowered employees tend to be more engaged [35].
On the other hand, the numbers of employee engagement are even worse if we look at Europe. On average, only 12,5% of the workforce reported to be engaged (10% in western Europe and 15% in Eastern Europe) [31]. We can relate these figures to the results of another report published by Eurofound, the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. This report revealed that only one fifth of European companies (EU27) offer comprehensive training and learning opportunities to their employees, offer comprehensive or selective variable pay, provide direct involvement opportunities and have direct employee representation structures [36]. These practices are part of the advanced HRM systems so we can conclude that the lack of correct implementation of these systems may be behind the low numbers of European employee engagement percentages reported by Gallup. Inconsistencies between intended (e.g. employees’ needs centred) and implemented (e.g. employers concerns driven) set of practices may also pay.
The figures presented along this section evidence the existing divorce between academia and practitioners. It looks like European organisations are not consistently deploying HRM systems and that therefore they are not fully benefiting from them as research shows they would.
This research-practice gap is not new, and it has been widely criticised (for example, see [37, 38]). Several reasons have been explained as sources for this divorce such as: the theoretical and academic approach followed by researchers when writing journal articles, the lack of understanding of the real problems of managers from scholars, and the scarcity of collaborative situations between academicians and practitioners [37, 39]. The strict requirements of scientific journals make academics focus on highly elaborated theoretical justifications and very complex statistical analysis making the results very complex and difficult to understand. In addition, sometimes it seems that there are two parallel worlds and that academics research more based on what the literature is investigating than on the needs of companies.
On the other hand, long-established ways of working are a powerful force for inertia. Although some managers may be working under ineffective working systems, they might feel threatened by the idea of empowering employees to exercise discretion in their daily routine and take a leading role in decision-making. Some organisations assume that employees at the frontline cannot be trusted to make decisions or manage their work. As a shield against this fear, one typical sentence that we can heard from managers when explaining these ideas about the positive effect of HRM systems on both employee wellbeing and OP is that “everything holds up on paper but that is not valid for my organisation”. Managers may say that these systems are not valid for their workforce, that these ways of managing people and organizing work are useful for start-ups or small companies but not for big corporations. This thought is risky because big corporations can make these systems legitimate and fashionable. Managers are usually more interested in benchmarking “best practices” of legitimate and big companies than in finding out what science says [39]. Therefore, considering this, it is interesting to zoom in on how HRM systems are being implemented in large companies.
The problem of employee wellbeing and engagement becomes more pressing in large companies. How many of you have ever heard the expression “they treat us as numbers and not as people”? This sentence is more usual from people that work in large companies than those working in small and medium enterprises. Studies reveal that employee commitment and engagement is usually lower in big companies (for example, see [40]).
However, it should be noted that the problem does not lie in the company size itself. Large companies do not have to bear the social cost and expect lower levels of engagement necessarily. Theoretically, large companies, due to economies of scale, have more capital to invest in HRM systems, they are more trained and have the possibility of having expert advice in this field. In fact, there are studies that demonstrate that the implemented levels of HRM systems are more sophisticated in large companies than in small companies [41].
However, the counterintuitive results of lower employee commitment and engagement levels in big companies may be explained basing on the way organisations are organizing and structuring their growth. This way might be incompatible with the logic of autonomy that resides in the HRM systems.
When we are talking about structure, we refer to the way employees within the organisation are coordinated. Implementing HRM systems is not sending employees to training courses, giving informative talks and involving them in interdisciplinary improvement teams. It goes beyond that. Probably, when asking managers about the implementation of these advanced HR practices, managers of big companies say they invest more than managers of small companies. There can be several reasons for this, such as familiarization with terminology (i.e. small companies normally employ more informal employment arrangements), slack resources, pressure from unions, etc.
However, as it has been explained in the first section of this chapter, the relation between employers and employees and the implementation of HRM systems is based in the norm of reciprocity [20]. The employee needs to believe that the company is trusting them, that they are part of the totality and that they are empowered and that they can decide. However, there are aspects in the structuring of big companies thar can be incompatible with this message. As much as individual and group level factors influence employee work attitudes and behaviours, it is important to highlight that organisational structure can be an even more powerful influence over them.
We can highlight 3 parts of organisational structure that directly influence how employees feel about the company and therefore their perception of HRM systems: centralization, hierarchical levels and formalization [42]. As you might suspect, the bigger organisations are, the more their structure becomes centralized and formalized [40].
Starting with centralization it is reflected in the level where decision making is concentrated. The higher level the decision making takes place, the higher the centralization is. This is a typical practice in big corporations because it makes sense from the point of view of standardization and efficiency. However, as you can imagine, this issue disempowers employees and therefore, employees perceive lower levels of procedural fairness. This generates inconsistency in combination with HRM systems that foster employee commitment and involvement. If you want employees to be involved, you must give them the power and autonomy to decide. Every employee prefers doing what they have decided to do than what they have been imposed to. Engagement towards our own decisions is always bigger.
Continuing with hierarchical levels, a deep-rooted idea has been that of “the more people to be managed, the more hierarchical levels”. A basic assumption in companies is that hierarchies are common sense since you need somebody in charge. This is the logic that has been applied in traditional management and it is the principal reason of the inherited organisational structures. Simplifying, organisations can be structured in a tall way or in a flat way. In tall organisations, the more hierarchical level an organisation has, the one at the lowest level does not feel as someone important for the organisation. The mere fact that there is a pyramid in the organisational structure gives a certain status to the one at the top and a very different one to the one at the bottom. These status issues and ego problems directly affect the person. Management layers put distance between the people who think (the ones at the top) and the people who do (the people at the frontline) disempowering those at the lower levels and generating an implementation gap. In addition, the communication process becomes more difficult and slower meaning that employees are more often informed by rumours than by official announcements. The information is in the hands of those at the top of the pyramid making them powerful, important, and indispensable. That is why in a big company with a tall structure, it is very difficult that the employee believes in practices that are encompassed within HRM because the system under which they are structured is not reflecting that they are important to the company. The way of structuring organisational growth is in the hands of big companies, it does not have to be hierarchical in an imposed manner. Flat organisations are more in line with the philosophy of HRM systems since they rely on a decentralized approach. People are structured under a mutual coordination approach based on self-management and employees take responsibility for outcomes.
The third aspect of structure is the formalization. This reflects the extent to which rules, regulations, policies, procedures, etc. are explicitly articulated. This kind of system controls employee attitudes and behaviours making them somehow predictable. This can make sense from the perspective of standardizing way of doing things. Big companies may be interested in standardizing processes across different businesses for being more efficient or for ensuring the brand image in front of the customer for example. When implementing HRM system an organisation must break this paradigm of standardizing rules and procedures because these systems seek to empower people and formalization just makes the contrary: it restrain people in a way that all are supposed to act in the same way, going this against human nature. Lower-level employees are constrained by severe rules that offer a limited number of acceptable responses.
When an organisation reaches a considerable size, centralization, formalization and hierarchical levels appear in a natural way. Therefore, employees do not perceive they have the opportunity to do what they do best or to learn and grow (limited by the formalization), to decide about how to reach a specific customer (limited by the centralized decision making) or to have the information about how the company is operating compared to its competitors (limited by the hierarchical levels, those at the top have the information). The three aspects of organisational structure that are related to the growth of the company hinder a good implementation of HRM systems and therefore has a negative influence in people well-being and engagement levels.
These issues point out to another strand of literature in which the implementation of HRM systems and their results need to be understood dependent on not only managerial work but also on organisational forms and structures.
Companies are facing unprecedented times of change. The challenges are more global and more technological and the ability to reinvent themselves has become imperative for survival and success.
However, managers cannot deal with these challenges alone in an attempt at heroism, they need the potential and involvement of all people of the organisation. We live in a society of knowledge, and economic development depends increasingly on the acquisition of new knowledge. Within this context, employees contribute to organisational success through knowledge development, dissemination, and innovation. Today, human intelligence has become essential in business. More precisely, we are referring to intelligence understood in its broadest sense, including, beyond cognitive abilities, emotions, and motivation. The challenge is to create working environments where people who owns knowledge and skills are willing to use them for the benefit of the organisation.
Looking at the evidences presented along this chapter, one might say that there is little reason to argue why organisations would not invest in HRM systems. Those organisations that invest in these systems benefit both socially (i.e. increased engagement and well-being levels) and economically (i.e. better organisational results). However, it is typical to find managers searching urgently for solutions to pressing problems of competitiveness of their organisations and applying methods that are minimally effective and have unintended (social) consequences.
This is partly due to the existing bridge between research and practice. This gap and possible solutions need to be echoed now more than ever due to the importance of human resources for the current society.
The HRM overall effectiveness depends on both, the HRM systems quality (e.g. ‘best fit practices’) and its implementation [43]. HRM implementation is a dynamic process in nature which involves different individuals pursuing certain practices normalization [44]. Related to this, scholars need to make research in order to address the real organisational problems managers are facing and disseminate results in an understandable and applicable way so that they have the needed tools and knowledge. For researchers, translating knowledge intro practical implications requires constant engagement to understand what research questions hold practical relevance at the same time of having theoretical value for academia [45]. Therefore, from the academic side, more collaborative situations, more applied research and less statistical perfection (without losing scientific rigor) would help on the way to reduce the gap between research and practice.
On the other hand, managers should change their mentality and if employees are truly the key asset of a company, caring for them and fostering their development should be a managerial priority. This issue should place a focus on the next generation of managers so that they can create the best working conditions needed for this to happen.
The message is clear, to ensure the competitiveness of future companies, management systems must harness the potential of the entire workforce by involving and empowering them. Managers should become the champions of employee empowerment working systems (i.e. advanced HRM systems). They are responsible for aligning people towards organisational goals and deal with inherited structures and traditions that may get in the way of this imperative transition.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
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\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
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\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
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\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
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LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
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\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The overexploitation of this endangered plant has led to the search for alternative sources. Metabolic engineering aimed at constructing the pathway in another host cell is very appealing, but for that approach, an in-depth knowledge of the pathway toward podophyllotoxin is necessary. In this chapter, we give an overview of the lignan pathway leading to podophyllotoxin. Subsequently, we will discuss the engineering possibilities to produce podophyllotoxin in a heterologous host. This will require detailed knowledge on the cellular localization of the enzymes of the lignan biosynthesis pathway. Due to the high number of enzymes involved and the scarce information on compartmentalization, the heterologous production of podophyllotoxin still remains a tremendous challenge. At the moment, research is focusing on the last step(s) in the conversion of deoxypodophyllotoxin to (epi)podophyllotoxin and 4′-demethyldesoxypodophyllotoxin by plant cytochromes.",book:{id:"5767",slug:"natural-products-and-cancer-drug-discovery",title:"Natural Products and Cancer Drug Discovery",fullTitle:"Natural Products and Cancer Drug Discovery"},signatures:"Christel L. C. Seegers, Rita Setroikromo and Wim J. Quax",authors:[{id:"196901",title:"Prof.",name:"Wim",middleName:null,surname:"Quax",slug:"wim-quax",fullName:"Wim Quax"},{id:"197867",title:"MSc.",name:"Christel L.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Seegers",slug:"christel-l.c.-seegers",fullName:"Christel L.C. 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A number of new agents are currently in clinical development with promising selective activity against cancer cell lines and cancer-related molecular targets. This book chapter discusses 14 of such compounds isolated from African plants from 15 plant families. Also contained in this book chapter are compounds from African plants that hold prospect as potential anticancer agents as informed by their in vitro and in vivo preclinical studies. It is, therefore, worthwhile that researchers in the African continent and the world over should keep on working on identifying biomolecules with potential in cancer management.",book:{id:"5767",slug:"natural-products-and-cancer-drug-discovery",title:"Natural Products and Cancer Drug Discovery",fullTitle:"Natural Products and Cancer Drug Discovery"},signatures:"Newman Osafo, Yaw Duah Boakye, Christian Agyare, Samuel\nObeng, Judith Edem Foli and Prince Amankwaah Baffour Minkah",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"186987",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaw Duah",middleName:null,surname:"Boakye",slug:"yaw-duah-boakye",fullName:"Yaw Duah Boakye"},{id:"196452",title:"Dr.",name:"Newman",middleName:null,surname:"Osafo",slug:"newman-osafo",fullName:"Newman Osafo"},{id:"201381",title:"Ms.",name:"Judith",middleName:null,surname:"Edem Foli",slug:"judith-edem-foli",fullName:"Judith Edem Foli"},{id:"201382",title:"Mr.",name:"Prince",middleName:"Amankwah Baffour",surname:"Minkah",slug:"prince-minkah",fullName:"Prince Minkah"},{id:"204731",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Obeng",slug:"samuel-obeng",fullName:"Samuel Obeng"}]},{id:"53856",title:"Early-Stage Progression of Breast Cancer",slug:"early-stage-progression-of-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1711,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Breast cancer can be defined as a group of diseases with heterogeneous origins, molecular profiles and behaviors characterized by uncontrolled proliferation of cells within the mammary tissue. Around one in eight women in the US will develop breast cancer in their lifetime, making it the second most frequently diagnosed cancer behind skin cancer [1]. In 2015, an estimated 231,840 cases of invasive carcinoma were diagnosed, and over 40,000 deaths were caused by breast cancer which accounts for almost 7% of all cancer mortality each year. In 2015, 60,290 cases of in situ breast cancer were diagnosed, representing over 14% of all new cancer cases among women and men. The steep increase in diagnosis of early‐stage breast cancer over the past 10 years is believed to be a result of more frequent mammography. However, since over half of these in situ lesions will not progress to invasive breast cancer, controversies have arisen about approaches to treatment and prevention of progression of early‐stage in situ breast cancer. Understanding the mechanisms of transition of normal breast to in situ pre‐neoplastic lesions and invasive breast cancer is currently a major focus of breast cancer research with implications for preventive and clinical management of breast cancer. In this review, we give an overview of current knowledge on the molecular and pathological changes that occur during early‐stage progression of breast cancer and describe some of the current models that are used to study this process.",book:{id:"5431",slug:"breast-cancer-from-biology-to-medicine",title:"Breast Cancer",fullTitle:"Breast Cancer - From Biology to Medicine"},signatures:"William Kietzman, Anna T. Riegel and Virginie Ory",authors:[{id:"190578",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Riegel",slug:"anna-riegel",fullName:"Anna Riegel"},{id:"190580",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Ory",slug:"virginie-ory",fullName:"Virginie Ory"},{id:"190583",title:"MSc.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Kietzman",slug:"william-kietzman",fullName:"William Kietzman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"190",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81836",title:"Perspective Chapter: Cervical Cancer Elimination by 2030—The W.H.O Goal: Neo Challenges and Next Gen Solutions “TIT for TAT”—The Community Competency Model of Raj ©",slug:"perspective-chapter-cervical-cancer-elimination-by-2030-the-w-h-o-goal-neo-challenges-and-next-gen-s",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104660",abstract:"Cervical Cancer is the fourth most common cancer among women, worldwide. It accounts for 600,000 new cases per year, and 340,000 deaths globally (WHO 2020 data). It causes a lot of maladies and suffering for women, in the age group of 30–60 years, especially in the poor community of developing countries. Cervical cancer is a great public health problem and is a cause of grave concern for the health system in Low-Middle-Income Countries—LMIC. But cervical cancer is amenable for early detection and successful treatment of precancer stages. Human Papilloma Virus—HPV vaccines offer a high level of primordial prevention, against cervical cancer. Therefore, the World Health Organization, in 2018, has called for “Elimination of Cervical Cancer by 2030.” The objective is to reduce the incidence rate of cervical cancer to below 4/100,000, by the year 2030. This leads to many “Neo Challenges” and also opens the door for “Next Gen Solutions”. The author, with vast experiences in his Cervical Cancer Screening Projects of IARC/ WHO, at Tamil Nadu, India, during 2000–2007, advocates a strategy called “TIT for TAT—The Community Competency model of Raj©.”",book:{id:"10793",title:"Molecular Mechanisms in Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10793.jpg"},signatures:"Rajamanickam Rajkumar"},{id:"81872",title:"Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Manifestations",slug:"benign-prostatic-hyperplasia-epidemiology-pathophysiology-and-clinical-manifestations",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104823",abstract:"The prostate secretes 20% of the seminal fluid. One of its main pathologies is benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), the most common benign disease in older men. It has an 8–10% prevalence in men 40 years of age and older, increasing to more than 90% in men over 90 years, with lower urinary tract symptoms being one of its main complications. Although the etiology of BPH is not still fully known, testosterone and estradiol have shown a permissive role. Likewise, other factors have emerged, such as inflammation, growth factors, and prolactin, which influence the development of BPH. These factors act through binding to specific receptors, intervening in BPH and prostate cancer development. Existing treatments significantly reduce clinical symptoms, including lower urinary tract symptoms. However, it is a nonpreventable disease; some factors can reduce its incidence: diet, physical activity, and moderate consumption of alcohol and tobacco, some of which have been proposed to have a protective role. Therefore, this chapter aims to update the preclinical and clinical evidence on the etiology of this disease, briefly describing the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and therapeutic and preventive modalities in managing BPH.",book:{id:"10793",title:"Molecular Mechanisms in Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10793.jpg"},signatures:"Luz Irene Pascual Mathey"},{id:"81779",title:"Cancer Genes and Breast Cancers",slug:"cancer-genes-and-breast-cancers",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104801",abstract:"Cancer is the name given to all malignant tumors, the main reason for which is uncontrolled growth, and the tumor, which has become a mass as a result of uncontrolled cell proliferation, also attacks the surrounding cells and envelops the whole body (metastasis) in the later stages of the disease. Although cancer is an important health problem, it is not a common disease in childhood. On the other hand, statistics show that cancer affects one in three adults, causes up to 20% of all deaths, and covers about 10% of treatment costs in developed countries. Although it is known that cancer develops under the influence of genetic and environmental factors, environmental factors are more prominent in the formation of some types of cancer. Breast cancer is one of the cancer types known to have tumor suppressor genes in its etiology. These tumor suppressor genes are BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Studies have shown that these two genes are particularly effective in the development of familial breast cancers. These types of cancers occur much earlier than non-familial cancers. The research, two genes; It has shown that it is especially effective in the development of familial breast cancers.",book:{id:"10793",title:"Molecular Mechanisms in Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10793.jpg"},signatures:"Metin Budak and Hatice Segmen"},{id:"81028",title:"Molecular Genetic Mechanisms in Cancers of Keratinocytic Origin",slug:"molecular-genetic-mechanisms-in-cancers-of-keratinocytic-origin",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103134",abstract:"Keratinocytic cancers (KC) comprise a group of diseases that have a broad spectrum clinically and pathologically. At one end of the spectrum are benign proliferations (acanthomas), and at the other end are malignant tumors with aggressive growth and metastatic potential. Traditionally, about 80% of KC cases have basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and 20% have cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC). Both tumors have different phenotypic features due to different oncogenic pathways. cSCC is biologically different and requires a different approach due to the higher risk of local recurrence, metastasis and death. Genetic factors play an important role in the development of KC. Family and family history studies, the presence of KC as a feature of rare hereditary syndromes, and genetic association studies give us clues in this regard. More than 20 genetic syndromes associated with KC have been described. Some syndromes are associated with multiple BCC, some with multiple cSCC, and some with both BCC and cSCC. Environmental risk factors include exposure to ultraviolet light radiation and immunosuppression in both tumors. Exposure to ionizing radiation is most common in BCC, while smoking and photosensitive drug use are among the environmental risk factors for cSCC. Molecular, epidemiological, and clinical studies will help better understand the cellular processes involved in tumorigenesis, and develop new strategies for treating and preventing KCs.",book:{id:"10793",title:"Molecular Mechanisms in Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10793.jpg"},signatures:"Yildiz Gürsel Ürün"},{id:"80850",title:"Splicing in Cancer",slug:"splicing-in-cancer",totalDownloads:35,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102707",abstract:"Defects in splicing, especially alternative splicing have been frequently found in cancers. Mutations in the splicing regulatory elements of important genes involved in cancers or the genes encoding regulatory splicing machinery could play a key role in carcinogenesis. Alterations in regulator factors in splicing have emerged as a new class of oncoproteins and tumor suppressor genes. Understanding the molecular mechanism of how defects in splicing and in particular alternative splicing are involved in carcinogenesis, could lead to new strategies to cancer therapy. Here, we review the molecular mechanism of splicing and regulatory factors involved in alternative splicing, as well as the aberrant splicing that affects cancer hallmarks. Finally, we summarize new approaches in cancer therapy based on splicing.",book:{id:"10793",title:"Molecular Mechanisms in Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10793.jpg"},signatures:"Mehdi Moghanibashi and Parisa Mohamadynejad"},{id:"80759",title:"Molecular Epidemiology of High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Infection in Burkina Faso",slug:"molecular-epidemiology-of-high-risk-human-papillomavirus-infection-in-burkina-faso",totalDownloads:56,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102327",abstract:"The aim of the present study was to determine the distribution of high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) genotypes in childbearing age women, teenage girls, HIV-infected women, women with high-grade precancerous lesions and cervical cancer, sex workers, men, and otolaryngology tumor cases in Burkina Faso. This descriptive cross-sectional study with several target groups, consisted of 2386 samples from Burkina Faso. HR-HPV genotypes were characterized using real-time multiplex PCR. The prevalence of HR-HPV ranged from 15.63 to 72.31% depending on the target population and the nature of the samples. The most predominant genotypes in descending order were HPV-56, HPV-52, HPV-39, HPV-59, HPV-51, HPV-35, HPV-31, HPV-18, HPV-68, HPV-16, HPV-66, HPV-58, HPV-45, and HPV-33. The results of the present study show a wide variation in the distribution of HR-HPV genotypes in Burkina Faso. Genotypes 16 and 18 covered by HPV vaccines only accounted for 32.23% of HR-HPV cases.",book:{id:"10793",title:"Molecular Mechanisms in Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10793.jpg"},signatures:"Théodora Mahoukèdè Zohoncon, Rogomenoma Alice Ouedraogo, Florencia Wendkuuni Djigma, Lassina Traore, Teega-Wendé Clarisse Ouedraogo, Maimouna Ilboudo, Regine Ilboudo, Catherine Salambanga, Sindimalgdé Patricia Guigma, Sessi Frida Tovo, Mah Alima Esther Traore, Prosper Bado, Ali Kande, Cyrille Bisseye, Abdoul Karim Ouattara, Ina Marie Angèle Traore, Djeneba Ouermi, Tani Sagna, Albert Théophane Yonli, Wendyam Marie Christelle Nadembega, Dorcas Obiri-Yeboah, Yvette Marie Chantal Gyebre, Olga Mélanie Lompo, Charlemagne Marie Ragnag-Newende Ouedraogo and Jacques Simpore"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218",scope:"\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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