Quantities of animal excrement [9].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"45590",title:"The Treatment of Muscle Hematomas",doi:"10.5772/56903",slug:"the-treatment-of-muscle-hematomas",body:'
Muscle injuries with hematomas are one of the most common events occurring in sport traumatology and require careful clinical and instrumental evaluation and timely treatment in order to restore a good functional outcome. The consequences of a failed treatment can be very serious, postponing an athlete\'s return to sports for weeks or months because of possible recurrences and complications (Gabbett, 2000).
Muscle contusion is one the most common cause of morbidity from sports-related injuries, together with sprains and strains. Muscle trauma mainly results from sporting activities and accounts for 15 to 50% of sports injuries. Muscle injuries are the most common injuries in sports, with hamstring injuries accounting for 29% of all injuries in athletes. The playing style, refereeing, extent and intensity of match play might influence changes in the incidence of injuries in top-level tournaments. Strict application of the Laws of the Games is an important means of injury prevention (Junge and Dvorak, 2013). A good training and a good warming-up are suggested to reduce muscle injuries.
The muscle hematoma can be the consequence of an impact against an external blunt or against a bone (direct trauma) or of a excessive or uncoordinated contraction (indirect trauma ) (Fig 1). In a direct trauma, when the muscle is contracted, the contusion will impact more superficial tissues while, in a relaxed muscle, the structural damage and the consequent hematoma, generally occur in depth, nearest the bone. The severity of the lesion depends on the site of impact, the activation status of the muscles involved, the age of the patient, and the presence of fatigue.
Hamstring subcutaneous hematoma occurred in consequence to a muscle rupture after a sudden eccentric contraction
The size of the effusion can be more or less conspicuous depending on the athlete’s muscle status of contraction and on the athlete’s characteristics of vascularization and coagulation. Very influent in the severity of hematoma are inherited abnormalities of coagulation like Antitrombine III or C protein or S protein deficit, or quantitative abnormalities in Leiden V or VIII or IX factors or anti-coagulants therapies or massive anti-inflammatory drugs use. External condition like a delayed or insufficient compression is important as well.
Many classifications of muscle injuries have been performed in according with anatomical location, pathophysiological characteristics, clinical and radiological features (Tol et al., 2013) (Chan, N. Maffulli et al classification 2012) (The Munich Consensus Statement ). Depending on the muscular structures involved, muscle injuries are distinguished in intramuscular, myofascial, myofascial/perifascial and musculo-tendinous.
From Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: Principles and Practice Delee, Jesse C. M.D.; Drez, David Jr. Saunders Company, 1994
The intramuscular hematoma is characterized by the integrity of epimysium and by blood extravasation into the body of the muscle affected by the trauma. This causes an increasing of the intramuscular pressure with consequent compression of the capillary bed, which contrasts the bleeding; therefore clinical signs and symptoms remain localized. Since the presence of blood flow may cause an increase in the osmotic gradient, the swelling may increase more than 48 hours after the traumatic event. This change of the osmotic gradient causes a passage of the interstitial fluid through the muscle fascia, in order to balance the same osmotic gradient. This fact causes a further increase in the swelling of the injured muscle up to the limits of extensibility of the muscle fascia or the muscle itself. The main symptoms related to the onset of an intramuscular hematoma consists of pain, especially during the first 72 hours after the trauma and, after a few days, involve a decreased contractility and muscle functionality and extensibility. The prognosis for intramuscular hematomas is worse than for intermuscular hematomas, and experts’ opinions suggest treating these with drainage in order to avoid potential post-traumatic myositis ossificans or fibrosis.
Although intermuscular hematomas appear initially more dramatic due to the resultant bruising and swelling, intramuscular hematomas are considered a more serious condition because the intact fascia creates an increasing of muscle pressure.
In intermuscular hematoma the muscle fascia looks damaged thereby allowing the extravasation of blood flow between muscles and fascia. This causes the formation of a more or less wide livid and swelling area. Contrary to the intramuscular hematoma, the intermuscular hematoma causes a painful symptoms limited to the first 24 hours post-trauma.
Finally in case of a mixed hematoma, after a first stage characterized by a temporary pressure increasing due to an extravasation, a rapid decrease in blood pressure can be observed. The swelling due to a blood extravasation appears usually after 24-48 hours, but after a sudden increase in pressure and swelling, the symptoms decrease and functional recovery is fairly rapid with an usually complete healing.
The knowledge of skeletal muscle regeneration principles and healing processes can help in respecting the timing for return to competitions (Klein, 1990).
Muscle repair is a multistep process which includes myofibers degeneration, regeneration and remodeling by acute inflammatory response (Clever JL, Sakai Y, Wang RA, Schneider DB 2010).
The phases of inflammation are, in order: organization of the hematoma, necrosis and finally, degeneration of muscle fibers with diapedesis[1] - of macrophages and phagocytosis of necrotic material Anti-inflammatory drugs which target cyclooxygenase-2 are found able of hindering the skeletal muscle repair process. Muscle regeneration phase can be aided by growth factors, including insulin-like growth factor-1 and nerve growth factor, but these factors are typically short-lived, and thus more effective methods of healing are needed. Skeletal muscle injuries are repaired by muscle cells, myoblasts in condition of oxygenation. The stem cells repair the tissue with paracrine effects, leading to neovascularization of injured site. The Gharaibeh B’Group of University of Pittsburgh has found that factor invoked in paracrine action is Angiotensin II, the hormone of blood pressure control.The “LOSARTAN”, a drug receptor blocker, in fact reduces fibrotic tissue formation and improves repair of murine injured muscle( Gharaibeh et al. 2012)Other authors hypothesized that a combination of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injection and oral administration of LOSARTAN, as antifibrotic agent, could enhance muscle healing by stimulating muscle regeneration and angiogenesis and by preventing fibrosis in contusion-injured skeletal muscle Terada et al., 2013.
The stage of regeneration includes all final phases of the healing process: the production of connective tissue scar and neoangiogenesis, phases very important for the restoration of the muscle visco-elastic properties. The low neovascularization would cause fibrosis, due to local ischemia and low O2 tension. So, in this phase, it’s important the utilization of physical therapies which cause vasodilatation and neovascularization.
The regeneration process requires the activation of a myogenic stem cells population,, which give rise to proliferating myoblasts. Today we know that repair of muscle takes place with the increase of protein synthesis and activation of satellite cells (stem cells) The satellite cells are quiescent myogenic precursor cells located between the basal membrane and the sarcolemma of myofiber. The adaptation of skeletal muscles to altered use is governed by three major processes: satellite (stem) cell activity, gene transcription, and protein translation. A defect in any of these processes could interfere with muscle maintenance and regeneration. (Shefer G 2012).
In the remodeling phase we can observe the “restitutio funtio lesa”.
Myoblasts differentiate and unite together into regenerated myofibers. During the final stages of muscle repair, myofibers remodel to produce mature muscle fibers and recover the contractile capacity of the injured muscle (Mayssa et al 2012)
In response to stimuli such as injury or exercise, satellite cells become activated and express myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs, transcription factors of the myogenic lineage including Myf5, MyoD, myogenin, and Mrf4) that proliferate and differentiate into myofibers. The MRF family of proteins controls the transcription of important muscle-specific proteins such as myosin heavy chain and muscle creatine kinase.
The MGF mechano-growth factor isoform appears to work by activating satellite cells MGF expresses the level of mechanical stress in muscles and other tissues and could have a important role in muscle growth and repair.
We extend these new findings to clinical practice to propose an evidence-based approach for the diagnosis and optimal treatment of skeletal muscle hematomas. Optimal treatment of skeletal muscle injuries start with the right diagnosis (Jarvinen et al., 2005). The clinical diagnosis of a surface hematoma is rather easy thanks to the detection of a bruised area of variable extension depending on the extent of the trauma, contextual to swelling and loss of muscle function. On the other hand, the clinical diagnosis of a deep hematoma may be much more complicated. In this case, the clinical diagnosis must necessarily be supported by the imaging consisting of ultrasonography and / or MR. However, the formulation of a precise and definitive diagnosis in case of an intramuscular hematoma, becomes possible only after 12-72 hours from the detrimental event, since the formation of the hematoma may also appear over three days after the trauma, thereby preventing a possible early diagnosis. A more detailed characterization of the injury can be made using imaging (ultrasound or MRI) repeated at second, seventh and fifteenth day, and certainly at the time of going back to aerobic and anaerobic work (Nanni and Roi, 2013).
A decrease in swelling, a reduction in pain, in the appearance of an area in the first 24 hours post-traumatic and a recovery of muscle function, are indicators of a favorable prognosis. On the contrary, an increase or a persistent swelling after 48-72 hours, an increase in pain, a decrease of peripheral pulses, a prolonged or progressive limitation of joint caused by pain or muscle weakness, a numbness and a sense of / or paresthesia below the area of injury, are all negative prognostic factors.
In any case, there is a better prognosis in the case of intermuscular compared intramuscular hematoma In case of intermuscular hematoma is possible an early mobilization and the patient returns to the sport activity between 1 and 10 weeks. On the contrary, the intramuscular hematoma, especially if is extended, requires greater caution in order to avoid the worrying complications, the myositis ossificans or the fibrosis. For this reason, in the case of intramuscular hematoma, return to sport activity is generally not possible before a period of 10-20 weeks (Ryan, 1999).
The evaluation of the longitudinal size (measured in mm) is a more important severity predictor than the cross section of the lesion and the entity of the hematoma. Ultrasonography, with panoramic vision, performed after 24-48 hour is useful in localizing the hematoma and in characterizing its different types. Findings can include the following: circumscribed lesion, anechoic lesion compatible with a liquefied hematoma, circumscribed lesion of mixed echogenicity compatible with areas of liquefied hematoma, coagulated blood, and edema. Considerations could also be made on investigation methods: Ultrasound (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4) is considered an operator-dependent method while MRI (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6) appears to be more sensitive to follow the evolution and to well evaluate extensive lesions.
Transversal section: 4,6 x 2 cm lesion in Rectus femoris at day 6, before drainage
After drainage at day 6
Axial and Coronal MR of hematoma in the hamstring muscle group at day 10.
Axial and Coronal MR of hematoma in the hamstring muscle group at day 10.
Aside from the different degrees of seriousness in muscle damages, it is necessary to consider the anatomical location where the damage occurred in order to plan the most proper rehabilitation treatment.
The first aid for any kind of muscle injury is the RICE (Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation) principle or PRICE (Protection, Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation) principle. The aim of RICE is to stop the injury-induced bleeding into the muscle tissue and thereby to reduce the extent of the injury (Thorsson et al., 1997).
Rest is recommended during the first 24-72 hours following the traumatic event (Reström and Peterson, 2001), in order to prevent further bleeding and exacerbation of fibrillar necrosis at the site of the lesion, thus allowing a better scar (Reström, 2003). Some authors recommend, in case of important hematoma in the lower limb, the total abstention from the load for 48 hours (Lachmann and Jenner, 1994; Reström, 2003). The duration of the rest period depends on the extent of the trauma and the pain symptoms of the patient.
The elevation of the injured limb may contribute to the resolution of the hematoma reducing blood pressure and increasing venous return (Gray, 1977; Williams, 1980; Peterson and Reström, 2001; Reström, 2003;).
The aim for applying a compression bandage on the injured area is to limit a further haemorrhage (O\'Donoghe, 1984; Klein, 1990; Peterson and Reström, 2001). The compression bandage should be maintained for a period of 2 -7 days, but not neglected until a substantial decrease in the swelling and a fluctuation reduction of the palpable mass is obtained (Thorsson et al., 1987; Thorsson et al., 1997). The amount of compression due to the different types of bandage causes different responses at the site of the lesion: high compression, approximately 85 mmHg, obtain an immediate stop of intramuscular blood flow, while a low compression, in the order of 40-45 mmHg, reduces blood flow about 50%. In the bibliography there are not studies on the optimal compression intensity in the case of intra-or intermuscular hematoma. Certainly the patient should not feel pain or have ischemia symptoms.
The cooling of a body area involves a complex of physiological responses that Fu et al. (2007) summarized in: Vasoconstriction-Analgesia-Reduction of edema - Muscle contracture. This initial response induces respectively:
- A decrease in capillary blood flow
- An improvement of lymphatic drainage.
- A reduction in the local metabolism
- A reduction in the enzymatic liberation
- A decrease in histamine liberation
- A decrease in nerve conduction velocity and a change in sympathetic activity
The lowering of the temperature causes an increase in blood viscosity with a reduction of blood flow and a reduction of vascular permeability in the cooling area. This physiological effect induced by cold is the key mechanisms in the reduction of edema due to the increasing of venous diameter and of the inflammatory reaction (Smith et al., 1993; Low and Reed, 2000).
A crucial point in cryotherapy application is the duration of cooling. The cooling of a healthy body area initially causes a reflex vasoconstriction, for a period between 9 to16 minutes, followed by a vasodilatation phase between 4 and 6 minutes, after which vasoconstriction reappears. For this reason the application of cold pack on a hematoma should have a duration between 12 and 15 minutes, with interruption of about 10 minutes. The total duration of treatment cryotherapy, however, must be appropriate to the level of the lesion (Lindsey, 1990), because unfortunately is based on empiricism (Bleakeley et al., 2004). We recommend ice bag for 20 minutes (Meaney et al., 1979) or airjet cryotherapy at -3°C for 5 minutes applied several times in a day. The muscle becomes tenser, stiffer, and less elastic as a result of cooling, and the mechanical properties are not fully recovered even after 15 min. So, in results of muscle injuries, warming-up is suggested after cooling to enable normalization of mechanical properties of the muscle.In any case cryotherapy appears particularly indicated in the first 24 hours post-trauma (Gray, 1977; Williams, 1980; Klein, 1990; Lachmann and Jenner, 1994; Renström and Peterson, 2001; Prentice, 2004).
Cryotherapy is used to prevent muscle damage, ( Bailey et al 2007) either separate or associated to stretching in the stretching -spray technique (Taylor et al., 1995). Cryoultrasound (cryotherapy with ultrasound) therapy has more scientific evidence in treatment of tendonitis thank in muscle injury (Costantino et al., 2005).
In the treatment of injured skeletal muscle, an immobilization should immediately be carried out or, at least, an avoidance of muscle contractions should be encouraged. The key to a right therapy consists in the appropriate timing between immobilization and mobilization. However, the duration of immobilization should be limited to a short period, sufficient to produce a scar able to bear the forces induced by re-mobilization, thus avoiding to mobilize a lesion healed with type I collagen fibers that would facilitate re-injury. The muscle activity (mobilization) should be started gradually respecting the physiological phases of wound healing and with the limits of not pain. On the other hand, early return to activity is desirable to optimize the regeneration of healing muscle and recovery of the flexibility, elasticity and strength of the injured skeletal muscle to pre-injury levels.
The interval to muscle repair might be shortened by certain adjuvant therapies which induce higher metabolic turnover.
In case of a not yet organized blood mass, it may be appropriate, from the seventh to twelfth day, to drain the hematoma, under ultrasound guidance. This is possible when blood is melted (Sofka et al., 2001; Del Cura et al., 2010; Zabale and Corta 2010 ).
Ultrasound is the most appropriate tool for interventional procedures on the hematoma when the lesion is visible with this methodology. The target area is easily identified with ultrasound and needle or catheter position is easily and efficacy documented (fig 7). Advantages of US-guided procedures include the absence of ionizing radiation, real-time monitoring during needle placement, decreased risk of injury to vessels and nerves, real time confirmation of procedure success of complete fluid aspiration. Complications are rare and can be avoided by using proper sterile technique and evaluate for potential contra-indications to the procedure.
Kinesiotaping (KTT) is no more clinically effective than the usual care tape/elastic bandage. There was limited evidence that KTT in conjunction with physiotherapy was clinically beneficial for plantar fasciitis related pain in the short term; however, there are serious questions around the internal validity of this treatment. (Fig. 8 and 9) It currently exists insufficient evidence to support the use of KTT over other modalities in clinical practice but, in reality, it is largely used in practice by physiotherapists and masseurs (Morris et al., 2012).
Kinesiotaping in medialis gastrocnemious in “tennis leg” injury
Evolution of the lesion after 3days
The diathermy is based on application of electromagnetic waves; those oscillations induce a transfer of kinetic energy which is readily converted into heat. This effect of heat production in the tissues is called ”Joule effect”. The diathermy and every other exogenous form of application of heat is indicated only in the resolution phase of the hematoma and never in the immediate post-traumatic period. The rational application of various forms of diathermy is based on accelerating the rate of absorption of the residual hematoma, due to increased blood circulation induced by the temperature (Costantino et al., 2005).
Notoriously, heat in depth may be very helpful instrumental in hematomas re-absorption.
Also microwave diathermy (the old Marconi therapy) induced hyperthermia into the tissues and can stimulate the repair processes, allowing more efficient relief from pain, helping in the removal of toxic metabolites, reducing the muscles and joints stiffness. Moreover, hyperthermia induces hyperemia, which improves local tissue drainage, increases metabolic rate and induces alterations in the cell membrane. The biological mechanism that regulates the relationship between the thermal dose and the healing process of soft tissues with low or high water content or with low or high blood perfusion is still under study. Microwave diathermy treatment at 434 and 915 MHz can be effective in the short-term management of musculo-skeletal injuries (Lehmann et al., 1993) also combined with massage therapy.
Massage therapy and intense eccentric exercise, practical and non-invasive forms of therapy, also seem to have certain usefulness in preventing fibrosis.
Several studies have also shown that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) can increase the efficiency of skeletal muscle repair by increasing angiogenesis and, at the same time, reducing the accumulation of fibrosis. The biological mechanism(s) behind the beneficial effect of massage are still unclear and require further more investigations and randomized human clinical studies (Best et al., 2012).
For a correct use of high power laser therapies, a practical classification is based on the precise localization in depth and on presence-absence of hematoma in muscular injuries.
On the basis of this, the following classification can be purposed:
A) Injury to a depth of 0.5 to 2.5 cm, without hematoma
B) Lesion to a depth of 0.5 to 2.5 cm, with hematoma
C) Injury to a depth of more than 2.5 cm, without hematoma
D) Injury to a depth of more than 2.5 cm, with hematoma (Conforti et.al. 2004)
High energy laser therapy had developed in the last twenty years and offers today an effective help by acting in all phases of inflammation and regeneration. At the basis of biological reparative processes is a photochemical reaction able to speed up the reabsorption of intramuscular or intermuscular hematoma and repair processes like capillarization and neoangiogenesis (Algeri et al., 2011).
It was demonstrated that laser promotes an increase in collagen IV immunolabeling in skeletal muscle in the first 7 days after acute trauma caused by cryoinjury, but does not modify the duration of the tissue-repair process. Even with LLLT (low-level laser therapy), the injured muscle tissue needs ∼21 days to achieve the same state of organization as that in the non-injured muscle (Baptista et al., 2011).
The laser therapy, in the first 48 h, reduces the intensity of inflammation, in a second phase, about two weeks, it accelerates the healing process and in the third stage, about third and fourth week, of proliferative and restorative healing, it helps to avoid fibrosis, scarring or inelastic metaplasia. Distinction in soft, mid and laser power is no longer accepted, it is preferable to classify laser depending on the wavelength, the power density and the density of energy transferred for unity of surface. The choice of treatment is not empirical but based on the study of Laser radiation interaction -tissue.
The Nd-YAG laser, with 1064 nm, continuous emission is, since fifteen years, the most accredited and used method for treatment of muscle injuries due to its penetration ability, not absorption in Hb and low coefficient of water and melanin absorption (Castellacci et al., 2003)
It is known for effective possibility of transferring the right amount of energy to the injured tissue until 4 or 5 cm in depth in a short time (8-50 sec.).
Validated therapeutic protocols for the treatment of injuries with laser = 1064 nm according to the criteria of Evidence Based Medicine are defined in number of sessions, power density, time of application for spot in function to the depth.
Medical Nd Yag laser devices, without thermal control, can’t be used early in presence of intense hematoma, but only after needle drainage and not before third / fifth day from the trauma due to danger of blood clotting.
Today there is a new innovative therapeutic method: laser FP3 SYSTEM. In presence of hematoma and surrounding edema, it is necessary to drain with circular manual scanning with continuous emission at a distance of 10 cm from the skin, draining with high power and low density and many times in a day with breaks of about 30 minutes, divided into mini-sessions (500Joule for session).
The patient should not perceive “heat“. The Fp3 System,with Temperature Control System ® detecting T in the first mm deep, respects the absence of heating (T max = 42 ° C).
If the hematoma is over 2,5 cm deep from the skin, laser is set at 4 watt x150-200 joules at mini-session, if it is below 2,5 cm depth from the skin, it is set at 6.5 watt x 150/200 joules at mini-session, giving about a total of 800/1000 joules.
The amount of energy will be a function also of the size of the lesion, but with FP3 it is possible to immediately begin a biostimulating treatment in the first day without fear to clot the hematoma.
Physical therapies must act in the depth of the lesion, neither above nor below, and on that tissue in that precise phase.(M Conforti, 2003).
TPU (Therapeutic Pulsed Ultrasound) presents beneficial effects on the muscular healing process, inducing a reduction in the production of ROS and also the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules (Victor et al., 212). Other authors conclude that, although treatment with pulsed ultrasound can promote the satellite cell proliferation phase of the myoregeneration, it does not seem to have significant effects on the overall morphological manifestations of muscle regeneration (Rantanen et al., 1999).
Extracorporeal Shockwave Therapy (ESWT) is an alternative to surgery in calcific shoulder tendinitis when conservative treatments such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, steroidal injections, and physiotherapy fail to relieve symptoms. It has been hypothesized that ESWT is effective in the midterm for reducing pain and improving function for patients with chronic calcific myositis or fibrosis and that a dose-response relationship exists in the treatment parameters for effectiveness (Galasso et al., 2110).
The rehabilitation programme should be built around progressive agility and trunk stabilization exercises, as these exercises seem to yield better outcome for injured skeletal muscle than programs based exclusively on stretching and strengthening of the injured muscle. (Järvinen et al., 2007),
In order to assess joint ROM and muscle strength, we used isokinetic dynamometer with concentric contractions (CIBEX Norm) at proposal speeds of each joint, following International accredited protocols. Very important is the dramatic effect of eccentric strength training on muscle strength, both isotonic and isokinetic. It is known that eccentric training reduces the severity of a possible indirectly occurred muscle damage.
The prognosis, returning to the initial concept, is better if the diagnosis is accurate and protocols adequate
Early active exercise in the rehabilitative process is essential for
Decreased healing time,
Increased structural strength and stiffness of ligaments,
Increased collagen synthesis in tendons,
Increased proteoglycan content in articular cartilage and periosteal expansion of bone tissue.
Decrease muscle fibrosis.
Arthrogenic muscle inhibition not only slows strength gains during rehabilitation, it also slows gains in proprioception and increases susceptibility to further injury. Receptors involved in proprioception are located in skin, muscles, and joints. Information about limb position and movement is not generated by individual receptors, but by populations of afferents. Afferent signals generated during a movement are processed to code for endpoint position of a limb. The afferent input is referred to a central body map to determine the location of the limbs in space. A contribution from central feedback mechanisms to the sense of effort is relevant to muscle rehabilitation and prevention re-injuries. Positive feedback is often associated with instability and oscillation, none of which occurs in normal locomotion (Riva, 2013).
A possible complication is chronic organized hematoma, well circumscribed, with mass-related symptoms. It is showed by Computed tomography (CT) like a homogeneous mass with capsule formation with a soft cystic center and a fibrous pseudo-capsule, whereas ultrasound shows it to resemble a multi-locular cyst. CT is unable to discriminate the chronic expanding hematoma from other soft tissue masses.
The mass is surrounded by a rim of hyalinized fibrous tissue with a chronic inflammatory infiltrate and granulation tissue (Nakano et al., 2010). Histologically, the mass is composed of necrotic debris, fibrin and blood clots. The lesion can be treated by hyperthermia, ultrasound therapy or shock waves or, finally, by excision (Silveira et al., 2010)
Sport can be resumed when the extensibility, isotonic and isometric and isokinetic stretch tests are balanced and when the contraction is painless.
The recovery of competitiveness is possible when were recovered in field skills specific sport. We think that prevention is the best thing, but it is often difficult to eliminate the risk of intrinsic and extrinsic damage. We recommend an appropriate warm-up, an appropriate training, balancing agonist-antagonist, to recognize stages pre-lesion as contracture or fatigue and do not underestimate the lesion or his scar, do not administer medications inappropriately, do not perform incomplete or too aggressive rehabilitation and especially to properly use the means at our possession like physical therapy.
Muscle hematomas can have a significant impact on an athlete\'s performance, ranging from short-term performance impairment, muscle deconditioning and compartmental syndromes, to long-term problems, such as myositis ossificans and possibly muscle re-injuries. We recommend the use of protectors, well tolerated by all people, except in hot conditions, when they were uncomfortable (Mitchell,. 2000).
We conclude by suggesting to the physician to better delineate the depth of the lesion on ultrasound imaging, because all high energy treatments require precise localization in depth in order to provide the right energy level.
Composting is a very old art, and some of its basic principles have been appreciated and used in practice for centuries. In recent years, however, rapid progress has been made in scientific studies of the underlying biological and chemical processes involved in composting. These studies have served to clarify several factors which can act to produce finished compost which is both valuable to agriculture and relatively safe from the viewpoint of public health [1].
There is an important relationship between sanitation and agriculture in all parts of the world. In agricultural areas, the utilization of human and animal wastes is of great importance from both the public health and the agricultural points of view. This is because of (a) the ever-increasing difficulties in disposing of great accumulations of wastes, (b) the ever-increasing threat to soil fertility, and (c) the intensive ever-increasing waste demand for agricultural lands to produce more food.
Sir Albert Howard and his associates [1] first suggested modern composting through his book An Agricultural Testament (1940) [2]. They studied in India, which was which was carried forward by Acharya and Subrahmanyan [3], further has been investigated extensively by Scott [4] and van Vuren by Gotaas [5] and his associates—McGauhey, Golueke, and Card—at the University of California [6], and by many others in different parts of the world.
Decomposition or stabilization of organic matter by biological action is the most valuable portion of life cycle on our planet. In recent times, man has attempted to control and directly utilize the process for sanitary disposal and reclamation of organic waste material, and this process has been termed “composting,” and the final product of composting has been called “compost” [1].
Generally speaking there are two processes: (a) aerobic decomposition and stabilization and (b) anaerobic fermentation. In these processes, microbial community feed upon organic materials such as vegetable matter, animal manure, night soil, and other organic refuse and convert the wastes to a more stable form.
When organic material is decomposed in the presence of oxygen, the process is called aerobic. In aerobic stabilization, living organisms, which utilize oxygen, feed upon the organic matter and develop cell protoplasm from the nitrogen. From the nitrogen, phosphorus carbon and other required nutrients. Much of the carbon serves as a source of energy for the organisms and is burned up and respired as carbon dioxide. Since carbon serves both as a source of energy and as an element in the cell protoplasm, much more carbon than nitrogen is needed. Generally about two-thirds of the carbon is required as carbon dioxide (CO2), while the other third is combined with nitrogen in the living cells. If the excess of carbon over nitrogen in organic materials being decomposed is too great, biological activity diminishes, and several cycles of organisms may be required to burn up most of the carbon. When some of the organisms die, their stored nitrogen and carbon become available to other organisms. The utilization of nitrogen from the dead cells by other organisms to form new cell material requires the burning of excess carbon to CO2. Thus, the amount of carbon is required, and the limited amount of nitrogen is recycled. Finally, when the ratio of available carbon to available nitrogen is sufficiently low, nitrogen is released as ammonia. Under favorable conditions, some ammonia may be oxidized to nitrate. Phosphorus, potash, and various micronutrients are also essential for biological growth. These are normally present in more than adequate amounts in compostable materials and present no problem; hence, a discussion of their metabolism by the biological cells will not be included [1]. The cycle of nitrogen and carbon in aerobic decomposition is structured in Figure 1.
Cycle of nitrogen and carbon in aerobic decomposition [7].
Putrefactive breakdown of organic material takes place anaerobically. Anaerobic living organisms in metabolizing nutrients break down the organic compounds by a process of reduction. As in aerobic process, the organisms use nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients in developing cell protoplasm but reduce organic nitrogen to organic acids and ammonia. Carbon from organic compounds which is not utilized in the cell protein is liberated mainly in the reduced form of methane (CH4). A small portion of carbon may be respired as CO2 [1].
This process takes place in nature as in the decomposition of organic muds at the bottom of marshes and in buried organic material to which oxygen does not have access. The marsh gas which rises is largely CH4. Intensive reduction of organic matter by putrefaction is usually accompanied by disagreeable odors of hydrogen sulfide and of reduced organic compounds which contain sulfur, such as mercaptans [1].
Since anaerobic destruction of organic matter is a reduction process, the final product, humus, is a subject to some aerobic oxidation when put on the soil. This oxidation is minor, takes place rapidly, and is of no consequences in the utilization of the material on the soil [1]. The cycle of nitrogen and carbon in anaerobic decomposition is structured in Figure 2.
Cycle of nitrogen and carbon in anaerobic decomposition [7].
The quantity, characteristics, and composition of wastes available for composting vary widely with season and different localities. The multiplicity and complexity of the factors affecting the quality and quantity of compostable refuse prohibit the use of any formula or rule-of-thumb method for determining the amount of waste material to be expected at any given place [1]. Either a study of specific place or the use of information obtained from studies of places with very similar characteristics is necessary for estimating the quality and quantity of refuse for a given population. These are basic information, useful in supplementing local data in analyzing a particular composting operation.
In a particular agricultural village, following basic quantity and quality data will be useful for studying a compost operation.
Approximate quantity: 135–270 g per capita per day moist weight and 35–70 g per capita per day dry weight
Approximate composition: Moisture, 66–80%; organic matter (dry basis), 88–97%; nitrogen, 5.0–7.0%; phosphate (P2O5), 3.0–5.4%; potash (K2O), 1.0–2.5%; carbon, 40–55%; calcium oxide, 4–5%; C/N ratio, 5–10 [8]
Approximate quantity: 1.0–1.3 liters per capita per day and 50–70 g per capita per day
Approximate composition: Moisture, 93–96%; organic matter (dry basis), 65–85%; nitrogen, 15–19%; phosphate (P2O5), 2.5–5.0%; potash (K2O), 3.0–4.5%; carbon, 11–17%; calcium oxide, 4.5–6% [8]
The quantity of animal manure varies widely with different conditions of feeding and stabling. Van Slyke [9] gave the information shown in Table 1 on animal excrement production.
Animal | Tonnes per year per 454 kg live weight | Nitrogen (kg per year per 454 kg live weight) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Liquid | Solid | Total | ||
Horse | 9.00 | 2.5 | 3.8 | 6.3 |
Cow | 13.5 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 4.4 |
Pig | 15.3 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 3.4 |
Sheep | 6.3 | 4.5 | 4.9 | 9.4 |
Poultry | 4.3 | — | 9.1 | 9.1 |
Quantities of animal excrement [9].
The stable manure is approximately composed with three main components: (a) bedding or vegetable matter litter, (b) solid excreta, and (c) urine. The characteristics and relative concentration of these components vary widely, depending on the type of animal, the stable feeding and handling, and the use to which the animal is put. Straw and plant residues used for bedding usually contain large amounts of carbon, particularly in the form of cellulose and small amounts of nitrogen and minerals. Considerable amount of protein is present in the solid excreta and provide balance nutrient material for the growth of microorganisms [1]. Table 2 [10] reflects the chemical constituents in fresh manure from different animals, and Table 3 [11] shows the chemical nature of different types of manure.
Chemical constituents | Sheep manure | Horse manure | Cow manure |
---|---|---|---|
Ether-soluble substances | 2.8 | 1.9 | 2.8 |
Cold-water-soluble organic matter | 19.2 | 3.2 | 5.0 |
Hot-water-soluble organic matter | 5.7 | 2.4 | 5.3 |
Hemicelluloses | 18.5 | 23.5 | 18.6 |
Cellulose | 18.7 | 27.5 | 25.2 |
Lignin | 20.7 | 14.2 | 20.2 |
Total protein | 25.5 | 6.8 | 14.9 |
Ash | 17.2 | 9.1 | 13.0 |
Chemical composition of fresh manure from various animals (on the basis of dry, litter-free material) (in %) [10].
Manure | Moisture (%) | Composition of dry matter | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Nitrogen (%) | Phosphate (%) | Potash (%) | ||
Cattle | 80 | 1.67 | 1.11 | 0.56 |
Horse | 75 | 2.29 | 1.25 | 1.38 |
Sheep | 68 | 3.75 | 1.87 | 1.25 |
Pig | 82 | 3.75 | 3.13 | 2.50 |
Hen | 56 | 6.27 | 5.92 | 3.27 |
Pigeon | 52 | 5.68 | 5.74 | 3.23 |
Chemical nature of different types of manure [11].
The most available quantities of garbage, organic rubbish, and dead vegetables are used for animal feed. There is also little waste paper, rags, etc. in the refuse. Ash, particularly in cold climate, street sweeping, and trash constitute a major portion of waste. In warm areas with high rainfall, much waste vegetation finds its way into the refuse. However, in many villages the amount of such refuse is sufficient in quantity to provide a satisfactory compostable mass when mixed with night soil and animal manure. The approximate quantity of garbage in village is usually 220–340 g per capita per day with the following composition: moisture content, 10–60%; organic content (dry basis), 25–35%; nitrogen, 0.4–0.8%; phosphate, 0.2–0.5%; potash, 0.8–1.5%; carbon, 12–17%; and calcium oxide, 4.0–7.5% [1].
The amount of these wastes is extremely variable, depending upon the extent of processing. In small house with no by-product processing, the compostable wastes will be as much as 22–36 kg (dry basis) per ton of meat processed, while in large plant with by-product processing, the compostable wastes will be 11–18 kg (dry basis) per ton. The composition of slaughterhouse waste varies with the extent of utilization of wastes for the manufacture of by-products. Most rural slaughterhouses have primitive recovery processes, and the wastes consist of blood, unsalable meat, intestines, offal, paunch manure, hoofs, etc. and have the following average composition: moisture content, 75–80%; organic matter (dry basis), 80–95%; nitrogen, 8–11%; phosphate, 3.0–3.5%; potash, 2.0–2.5%; carbon, 14–17%, and calcium oxide, 3.0–3.5% [1].
Compostable urban wastes probably vary as to quantity and composition almost as much as do rural wastes. Some basic data pertaining to cities with water-carried sewage collection and regularly operated garbage and refuse collection systems that can supplement local information in analyzing municipal composting operations will be shown. Sewage sludge, either fresh or digested, can be composted with garbage and other refuse with sufficient moisture so that the mass will compost aerobically. The quantities and composition of sewage solids and of the sludge are shown in Table 4.
Quantity of solid (dry basis) g/head/day | Liquid sludge (% solid) | Drying bed cake (% solid) | Vacuum filter cake (% solid) | Composition on dry basis (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organic | Mineral | Nitrogen | Phosphate | Potash | |||||
| 81.6–99.7 | 0.04–0.15 | — | — | 60–85 | 15–40 | 5.0–10.0 | 2.5–4.5 | 3.0–4.5 |
| 22.7–36.3 | 8.0–12.0 | 35–50 | — | 30–45 | 55–70 | 2.0–3.0 | 1.2–3.5 | 0.1–0.5 |
| 45.4–63.5 | 2.5–5.0 | 28–45 | 22–34 | 60–80 | 20–35 | 1.5–4.0 | 0.8–4.0 | 0.1–0.5 |
| 27.2–40.8 | 5.0–12.0 | 35–50 | 26–34 | 35–60 | 40–65 | 1.0–3.5 | 1.2–4.0 | 0.1–0.5 |
| 59.0–77.1 | 3.5–6.5 | 26–40 | 23–34 | 50–75 | 25–50 | 2.0–4.5 | 0.8–3.6 | 0.1–0.5 |
| 36.3–50.0 | 5.0–12.0 | 35–50 | 25–35 | 35–60 | 40–65 | 1.0–3.5 | 1.0–3.8 | 0.1–0.5 |
| 72.6–90.7 | 3.0–6.0 | 26–40 | 20–24 | 50–80 | 20–50 | 2.3–5.2 | 1.2–4.0 | 0.2–0.6 |
| 45.4–59.0 | 45.8.5 | 28–50 | 22–26 | 35–55 | 45–65 | 2.0–4.8 | 1.3–4.0 | 0.2–0.6 |
| 54.4–72.6 | 2.5–4.5 | 28–45 | 20–24 | 40–60 | 40–60 | 2.2–3.0 | 1.3–4.0 | 0.3–0.8 |
Approximate quantity and composition of sewage and sewage sludge [5].
In industrial areas, the waste composition and quantity vary with the type of industry. Domestic and food establishment waste garbage quantity depends on climate, food-preservation facilities, type of food used, and utilization of garbage for stock food and the economic status of the community. Domestic wastes vary from 90 to 400 g per day per capita with 60–85% moisture and 65–85% organic matter on dry weight basis. On the other hand, quantities of nonconsumable and non-compostable rubbish such as cans, bottles, china, and metal vary from 45 to 500 g per capita per day [5].
During the early days of organic gardening/farming, this method was the only systematic way to mature compost. This method developed at the Institute of Plant Industry, Indore, India, between 1924 and 1931, was designed and described by Sir Albert Howard, known as the father of modern organic farming, in his dissertation on organic agriculture An Agricultural Testament (1940). In this method, animal dung is used as the catalytic agent along with different types of organic wastes available on the farm.
The steps followed for preparation of compost by Indore method are given below:
A compost heap of suitable size say 3 m × 1.5 m × 1 m (length × width × depth) is prepared. The selected site should be near the cattle shed and water source and at an elevated site so that no rainwater floods into the pit during rainy season.
Organic wastes of different sources available on a farm are accumulated near the trench and mixed thoroughly. Hard woody materials (not exceeding 10% of the total plant residues) are crushed before being piled. Green materials, which are soft and succulent, are allowed to wilt for 2 to 3 days in order to remove excess moisture before stacking; these tend to pack closely when stacked in the fresh state. The mixture of different kinds of organic materials/residues ensures a more efficient decomposition [12].
The compost heap is built in layers. First a layer of refuse/organic wastes like weeds, crop residue, grass clippings, or leaves of about 15–20 cm (6–8 inch) thick is spread at the base of the heap. Next a 5 cm (2 inch) layer of cattle dung slurry and water is added onto the refuse. A third layer of the same size of the first is then spread followed by a layer of slurry of cattle dung and water. This layering sequence is continued till the heap is raised to a height of 50–100 cm above the ground level. The top is then covered with a thin layer of soil, and the heap is kept moist.
The filling of heap is completed within 6–7 days to fill the three-fourth length of the trench, leaving 1/4th length empty to facilitate subsequent turnings.
Water is sprayed on regular basis so as to keep the moisture content to about 60–80%.
Turning is done three times, at 15, 30, and 60 days after compost filling in order to allow air to penetrate so that the heap will heat up properly. At each turning the whole mass is mixed thoroughly. This can be done manually or mechanically.
The main advantage of this method is that the finished compost is ready within 4–5 months for application to the soil. The composed prepared by this method contains, on an average, 0.8% N, 0.3–0.5% P2O5, and 1.0–1.5% K2O. Periodic turning of composting mass helps the process to remain aerobic throughout the decomposition and facilitate faster decomposition by bringing the substrates which are undecomposed or partially decomposed with the microorganisms and air. As it requires extra labor, the cost of preparation of compost is more. Heat is generated during the decomposition process inside the compost pit which helps in destroying most of the pathogens and weed seeds. When sufficient nitrogenous material is not available, a green manure or leguminous crop like sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea) may be grown on the fermenting heap after the first turning. The green matter is then turned in at the second mixing [12].
This method is an anaerobic process, developed at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, by the late Dr. C.N. Acharyain in 1939. It is recommended where night soil and refuse are used for preparing the compost. This method overcomes many of the disadvantages of the Indore method, such as the problem of heap protection from adverse weather, nutrient losses from intensive rains and strong sun, frequent turning requirements, and fly nuisance [12]. The method is suitable for areas with scanty rainfall. The compost is done in the trenches of 9.1 m × 1.8 m × 0.9 m (=302′ × 62′ × 32′) or in the pits of 6.1 m × 1.8 m × 0.9 m (= 202′ × 62′ × 32′). This method saves on labor cost because there is no need of turning and regular sprinkling of water but takes much longer time to finish [12].
This method includes the following steps:
As like Indore method, the mixed farm residues are spread at the bottom of a trench or pit of a convenient size, similar to that of Indore method. Generally, trenches or pits about 1 m deep are dug 1 m in breadth, and the length of the trenches can vary according to the availability of land and the type of material to be composted. The trenches should preferably have slopping walls and floor to prevent water logging.
Organic residues and night soil are put in alternate layers. The trench or pit is filled layer-wise till the raw material reaches about 50 cm above the surface. Here 100% space of pit is used.
The pit is covered with 15–20-cm thick layer of refuse and then plastered with a 2–5 cm layer of a mixture of mud and cattle dung. Plastering of pit prevents the loss of moisture and fly nuisance. This method effectively controls foul smell and kills pathogenic organisms.
The materials are allowed to remain in the pit without turning and watering. During this period the material settles down due to reduction in the volume of biomass. Under such conditions, decomposition is largely anaerobic and high temperatures do not develop. The C/N ratio of the finished product drops to a value below 20:1 with no odor, indicating that the compost is ready to use.
The material undergoes anaerobic decomposition at a very slow rate, and it takes about 6–8 months to obtain the finished product.
The recovery of the finished product is greater than aerobic composting.
Labor requirements are less than for the Indore method as turning of material is not done; labor is needed only for digging and filling the pits.
Organic nitrogenous compounds gradually become soluble, and the carbonaceous matter breaks down into CO2 and H2O. The loss of ammonia is negligible because in high concentrations of CO2, forming ammonium carbonate is stable. The anaerobic process is particularly suited for use by gardeners in or near cities and towns. The well-decomposed compost contains 0.8–1.0% N. A uniform high temperature is not assured in the biomass. Problems of odor and fly breeding need to be taken care of. After 8–9 months, all the material decomposes, and the compost becomes ready for application.
This method of composting was developed by Sri Narayan Deorao Pandharipande. He was an old Gandhian worker, popularly known as “Nadep Kaka” from Maharashtra. He worked for 25 years at the Dr. Kumarappa Gowardhan Kendra at Pusa to perfect his composting technique [2]. This process facilitates aerobic decomposition of organic matter. This method takes care of all the disadvantages of heaping of farm residues and cattle shed wastes in the open condition. This method envisages a lot of composting through minimum use of cattle dung. It requires composting materials like dung, farm residues, soil, waste products of agriculture, etc. Decomposition process follows the “aerobic” route and requires about 3–4 months for obtaining the finished product.
This method includes the following steps:
A brick structure measuring 9′ × 6′ × 3′ with perforated holes in all the side walls is prepared to ensure adequate supply of air during composting. It is carried out in specially constructed tanks with walls built like “honeycombs” through which water is sprayed to prevent the compost from becoming dry. This aboveground-perforated structure facilitates passage of air for aerobic decomposition. The floor of the tank is laid with bricks and covered above with a thatched roof. This prevents loss of nutrients by seepage or evaporation, and the contents are not exposed to sunshine and rain [12].
The brick tank is plastered with cattle dung slurry to facilitate bacterial culture for decomposition of biodegradable wastes. The brick tank is then filled layer-wise first with a thick layer (10–15 cm) of chopped fine stick of semihard wood which helps in providing aeration, followed by a same layer of farm wastes or dry and green biomass or any other biodegradable material to be composted.
Prepared slurry of mixing cattle dung (5–10 kg) with water (100 liters) is then sprinkled thoroughly on the biodegradable mass in order to facilitate bacterial culture for faster decomposition. On it a layer of soil is maintained in order to compress the volume of the wastes. Addition of soil also facilities retention of moisture, provides microorganisms, acts as buffer, and controls pH of the compost during decomposition. The nutrients produced in the manure are absorbed by the soil layers, thus preventing nutrient loss.
The whole tank is thus filled completely with about 10–12 layers in the same sequence having 1–3 sub-layers in each layer. After 2–4 weeks, the volume of the composting mass is reduced to almost two-third of the original. At this stage, additional layers of composting mass are formed over it keeping the same sequential set up, already said. Finally, the whole biomass is plastered and sealed with slurry of cattle dung and mud. In this condition, the tank is allowed to decompose the biodegradable wastes for further 3 months. Water is added on regular basis to maintain the moisture content between 60 and 75% throughout the composting period.
It is advisable to sprinkle microbial cultures like Trichoderma, Azotobacter, and Rhizobium and phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms in each layer to enhance the equivalent speed of composting process at each corner of the compost.
Compost becomes ready for use within 110–120 days after composting. So one tank can be used three times annually.
The prepared compost can be stored for future use, preferably in a thatched shed after air-drying and maintaining it at about 20% moisture level by sprinkling water whenever needed. Also storage at gunny bag in shade areas is also preferable. By following this procedure, the composed could be preserved for about 6–8 months.
Requirement of higher labor and inconvenience faced in filling during rainy season are the two difficulties experienced by the farmers in adopting NADEP method of composting.
MSW composting or mechanical composting is followed in big cities, where huge quantities of garbage are generated. The metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and Chennai generate about 2000–6000 tonnes garbage per day, posing gigantic disposal problems. Mechanical composting plants with capacity of 500–1000 t day-1 of city garbage could be conveniently installed in big cities and 200 t day-1 plants in the small towns in India. The adoption of accelerated fermentation treatment enables 70% of the refuge to be available as refined compost in the form of a dry, black free-following material, easy to transport and handle. Such refined mechanical compost contains generally equivalent amount of mineral matter and organic matter with half of organic carbon. The composition of the compost is variable and at par with the raw materials used. On an average, it may contain 0.7% N, 0.5% P2O5, and 0.4% K2O and a C/N ratio of 15–17. Mechanical composting has several advantages such as (i) environmental sanitation to minimize pollution, (ii) recycling of discarded wastes into a value-added product, and (iii) production of compost within a short period [12].
In general, the bulky organic manures like FYM contains around 0.5–1.0% N, 0.2–0.5% P2O5, and 0.5–1.0% K2O. The cost of preparation, storage, transport, and application of FYM or compost to soils is high. The demerits of bulky manures can be overcome through the preparation of enriched compost by adding nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients either alone or in combination [13].
Enriched composts have the following advantages:
Enriched compost is more concentrated than compost; it reduces the bulk to be handled per unit of nutrient.
It may increase nutrient use efficiency of added fertilizer and maintain soil organic carbon.
It prevents nutrient losses due to microbial immobilization of nutrients during decomposition of organic residues and due to adsorption of cations on account of high exchange capacity of organic matter.
Lesser problems in handling, storage, and transportation.
Offers a potential avenue for the efficient utilization of low-grade materials such as rock phosphate and waste mica (a K-bearing mineral)
Enrichment of compost can be done in two ways, namely, (i) physical addition of fertilizer materials during composting and (ii) addition of fertilizer materials with ready compost by mixing. Incorporation of fertilizers during composting leads to immobilization of fertilizers into microbial body and insertion into molecules of humic substances formed during decomposition. A substantial part of added inorganic nutrients may also be adsorbed on to exchange sites or chelated by humic substances. On the other hand, physical mixing of fertilizers with finished product of compost reflects adsorption and chelation of fertilizer elements by humic substances, which are already present in the decomposed product [13].
Microbial mineralization and immobilization depend on the C/N ratio of the compost. The wide C/N ratio (>30:1) plant materials require addition of mineral N to narrow down the C/N ratio for rapid decomposition including mineralization during composting. During the preparation of compost from wide C/N ratio substrates, such as straws/stubbles, incorporation of fertilizer N like ammonium sulfate or urea at 0.5–1.0% of raw materials hastens the decomposition process. Addition of nitrogenous fertilizer serves as starter. Enrichment of N during composting with inorganic N can be done up to 1.8–2.5% but cannot be improved beyond 2.5% N, because of the associated losses of N includes the production of free NH3.
In case of ready compost, it is recommended that compost with a C/N ratio of about 20:1 should be treated with fertilizer nitrogen so as to bring the C/N ratio to <10:1 and N content >2.5%. Thus, by spraying a solution of urea on finished product of compost followed by physical blending, the N content can be increased up to 5–7%. As most of the added inorganic N remains in the fertilizer from without much of chemical or biological reaction with the manure, it is tough to understand the utility of using fertilizers to raise N content of the finished product above 5–7%.
Phosphorus-enriched compost can be prepared by adding 5% superphosphate, dicalcium phosphate (DCP), and rock phosphate at the time of filling of the compost pits. Due to enrichment with soluble phosphate in compost, a small amount of immobilized soluble P into microbial body may be expected. But with most plant material containing sufficient P to satisfy microbial demands during decomposition, assimilation of P from external sources is seldom needed. Addition of insoluble sources of P like low-grade rock phosphate to enrich compost is a more rational and practical approach, since solubilization of sparingly soluble P occurs during composting. Besides phosphorus, it is a source of calcium and micronutrients. Early work showed that by adding rock phosphate to farm composting materials to a thickness of about 5 mm per layer, nearly 50–70% of sparingly soluble P could be converted to soluble from which is readily available to plants. Addition of soluble fertilizer-P to finished compost provides a better scope for increasing the efficiency of fertilizer-P as well as organic-P. Thorough mixing of fertilizers with compost may reduce P-fixation. The mineralization of organic-P may also be accelerated due to increased solubility of organic-P in the presence of fertilizers. Amalgamation of compost with single superphosphate (SSP) could raise phosphorus content of the enriched compost up to 5% P2O5 [13].
To enrich the compost, potassium-bearing minerals like feldspars and mica can be added during composting. The availability of potassium can be improved due to the production of organic acids such as citric, tartaric, acetic acid, etc. Potassium can also be added to compost by incorporating plant materials, which contain appreciable amounts of potassium, viz., water hyacinth and banana skin, are rich source of potassium. Dry potato vines also contain about 1% potassium which can be incorporated to improve the K content in the compost [13].
Addition of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and/or phosphate- and potassium-solubilizing microorganisms is one of the possible means of improving nutrient content of the final product of compost. Inoculation of Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Clostridium, etc. to the compost heap enhances N content by fixing atmospheric N2. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria such as Bacillus polymyxa, Pseudomonas striata, and fungi such as Aspergillus awamori can be introduced into the composting mass along with rock phosphate. These microorganisms help in solubilizing sparingly soluble inorganic phosphates due to the production of organic acids such as citric, tartaric, gluconic acid, etc. and thereby increasing the available P, both water-soluble and citrate soluble P, content of compost. Some cellulolytic and lignolytic microorganisms such as Trichoderma viride, Trichurus spiralis, Paecilomyces fusisporus, and Phanerochaete chrysosporium are used as compost accelerator to hasten the process of composting [13].
This process was introduced in England in 1921. Hutchinson and Richards [14] developed an ADCO powder, used as a starter at 7.0 kg per 100 kg dry waste product. Fowler assured that this powder is prepared with various substances like ammonium phosphate, cyanamide, and urea. On the other hand, Collision and Conn prepared another powder of 27 kg ammonium sulfate, 13.5 kg superphosphate, 11.250 kg murate of potash, and 22.5 kg ground limestone and added to 1 ton dry matter for producing manure. This produced manure has characteristic resemblance with manure produced using ADCO powder. For ADCO process a plane place measuring 450 cm long and 180 cm breadth is required. First, a layer of refuse about 30 cm thick is spread at the bottom of the pit, and over this a calculated amount of ADCO powder, i.e., 7 kg per 100 kg refuse, is sprayed. Six-time addition of refuse in that pit means 1 ton refuse, and every time ADCO powder is added. The heap height should be within 180 cm, i.e., 6 feet. After completion of heap, time to time watering is done. Through aerobic composting, the manure becomes ready within 4–5 month.
Advantages: Very suitable method for making compost. Within 4–5 months proper decomposition makes good organic manure.
Disadvantages: Regular turning is required for aeration and watering for proper decomposition. It increases labor charges and cost of production.
Compost prepared using earthworms is called vermicompost. Earthworms consume all type of organic matter especially green matter, retain 5–10% for their growth, and excrete the mucus-coated undigested matter called vermicast. This undigested matter undergone physical and chemical breakdown by the activity of muscular gizzard present in the worms’ intestine. It is a cost-effective, time saving, and efficient process of recycling nontoxic animal and agricultural and industrial wastes. Vermicast is rich in nutrients—N, P, K, Ca, Mg, vitamins, enzymes, and growth-promoting substances. In addition, the warms do the turning and no additional turning of the compost heap is required. The efficient species of earthworms are Eisenia foetida, Pheretima elongata, Eudrilus eugeniae, and Perionyx excavatus [13].
For preparation of a good quality of vermicompost, a number of steps are followed as mentioned below:
Selection of earthworm: The locally available earthworm native to a particular soil and efficient for fast composting may be used for vermicomposting.
Size of pit: Any convenient dimension such as 2 m × 1 m × 1 m may be prepared. This can hold 20,000–40,000 worms giving one ton manure per cycle. The pit should be base concreted as termite proof and ant proof through water drain around it. A shade of 6–8 ft height is also required for cool and ambient climate for the worms.
Preparation of vermibed: A thick layer of 15–20 cm of good loamy soil above a thin layer (5 cm) of broken bricks and sand should be made. This layer is prepared on concreted floor and made to inhabit the earthworms.
Inoculation of earthworms: About 100 earthworms are introduced as an optimum inoculating density into a composite pit of about 2 m × 1 m × 1 m, provided with a vermibed.
Organic layering: It is done on the vermibed with fresh cattle dung of 5–10 cm. The compost pit is then layered to about 5 cm with dry crop residues. Carbon-rich solid and dead substrates like sawdust, paper, and straw are mixed with N-rich natural components such as sewage, sludge, and biogas slurry to obtain a near optimum C/N ratio. Mixing variety of substances produces good-quality compost which is rich in macro, micro, and even trace nutrients. Decomposition can be accelerated by chopping raw materials into small pieces. Moisture content of the pit is maintained at 50–60% of water holding capacity. Aeration can be maintained by mixing with fibrous N-rich materials. The temperature of the piles should be around 28–30°C. Wide gap between higher or lower temperatures reduces the activity of microflora and earthworms. The normal pH of the raw materials is preferable.
Wet organic layering: It is done after 1 month with moist/green organic waste, which can be spread over it. This practice can be repeated every 3–4 days as per requirement. Mixing of wastes periodically without disturbing the vermibed ensures proper vermicomposting. Wet layering with organic waste can be repeated till the compost pit is nearly full.
Harvesting of vermicompost: In order to facilitate the separation of worms from vermicompost, the moisture content in the compost is brought down by stopping the addition of water around 7–10 days before maturation that ensures drying of compost and migration of worms into the vermibed. This forces about 80% of the worms to the bottom of the bed. The remaining worms can be removed by hand. The mature compost, a black, fine loose, granular humus rich material, looks like CTC tea, is removed out from the pit, dried, and packed. The pleasant earthen smell is one of the good indications of mature compost. The vermicompost is then ready for application.
The nutrient content of vermicompost varies depending on the raw materials as well as different species of earthworms used. Thus, the final product is not a single standard product. The average nutrient content of vermicompost is 0.6–1.2% N, 0.13–0.22% P2O5, 0.4–0.7% K2O, 0.4% CaO, and 0.15% MgO. On an average, it contains comparable N, P, and wide C/N ratio as in FYM but less K and micronutrients than FYM. On the whole, vermicompost cannot be described as being nutritionally superior to other organic manures. Yet the unique way in which it is produced, even in the field condition, time saving, and at low cost, makes it very attractive for practical application. Unique feature of vermicompost is its rapid process of composting which takes about 60–90 days depending on the environmental conditions. The excess worms that have been harvested from the pit can be used in the other pits, sold to other farmers for compost inoculation, and may be used as animal and poultry feed or fish food [13].
Green manuring is the practice of enriching soil nutrient status by growing a crop and plowing in situ or turning it into the soil as undecomposed green plant materials for the purpose of improving soil health. These crops are known as green manure crops. They improve soil physical properties and supplies nutrients particularly N, if it is a legume crop. Green manuring can be of two types.
When the green manure crop is grown and buried in the same field, it is called in situ green manuring. Most important in situ green manuring crops are sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea), dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), cowpea (Vigna sinensis), berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum), and Lucerne (Medicago sativa) [15].
These are the plants grown elsewhere, and green leaves and tender twigs are brought to the field for incorporation. This is labor consuming. Popular green leaf manuring plants are Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), Cassia tora, Sesbania speciosa, Pongamia pinnata (Karanj), Pongamia glabra, and Gliricidia maculata [15].
In general, green manure crops should be a legume with good nodulation, i.e., N2-fixing capacity, fast growing, having low water requirement, and short duration, i.e., 4–6 weeks with tender leafy habit permitting rapid decomposition. Incorporation of green manure crop should be done before or at flowering stage because these are easily decomposed at this stage after which these become fibrous and take more time for decomposition.
These manures contain higher percentages of major essential plant nutrients (N, P, and K) compared to bulky organic manures (FYM and compost). They are derived from raw materials of plant or animal origin, such as oilcakes, fish manure, dried blood, bone meal, etc. Oilcakes are the residues, left after oil is extracted from oil-bearing seeds. Generally, edible oilcakes are used for animal feed, while nonedible oilcakes are used as manures. Oilcakes contain higher amounts of N than P2O5 and K2O; thus, these are commonly referred to as the organic nitrogenous fertilizers. Bone meal consists of calcium phosphate together with fats and proteins. These are good sources of lime, phosphate, and N. Bone meal is a slow-acting organic-P-fertilizer resembled with rock phosphate and suitable for acid soils. Fish manure is a quick-acting manure and suitable for all soils and crops. It is available as either dried fish or fish meal or powdered fish. However, its use is restricted mainly to coastal areas where it is available easily. Guano (dried excreta of sea birds) is another concentrated organic manure, containing substantial amount of nutrients, particularly N and P2O5, but it is not produced in India [13]. Average nutrient contents in various concentrated organic manures are placed in Table 5.
Product | N (%) | P2O5 (%) | K2O (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Plant origin | |||
Edible oil cakes | |||
Safflower (decorticated) | 7.9 | 2.2 | 1.9 |
Groundnut | 7.3 | 1.5 | 1.3 |
Sesame | 6.2 | 2.0 | 1.2 |
Rapeseed/mustard | 5.2 | 1.8 | 1.2 |
Linseed | 4.9 | 1.4 | 1.3 |
Nonedible oil cakes | |||
Neem | 5.2 | 1.0 | 1.4 |
Castor | 4.3 | 1.8 | 1.3 |
Karanj | 3.9 | 0.9 | 1.2 |
Cottonseed (undecorticated) | 3.9 | 1.8 | 1.6 |
Mahua | 2.5 | 0.8 | 1.8 |
Animal origin | |||
Blood meal | 10–12 | 1.0–2.0 | 0.6–0.8 |
Meat meal | 10–11 | 2.0–2.5 | 0.7–1.0 |
Fish meal | 5–8 | 3.0–6.0 | 0.3–1.5 |
Guano | 7–8 | 11–14 | 2.0–3.0 |
Slaughterhouse waste | 8–10 | 3.0 | — |
Bone meal (raw) | 3.0 | 20.0 (8% citrate soluble P2O5) | — |
Bone meal (steamed) | — | 22.0 (16% citrate soluble P2O5) | — |
Wool waste | 4–7 | — | 1.0–5.0 |
Miscellaneous | |||
Press mud | 1.0–1.5 | 4.0–5.0 | 2.0–7.0 |
Average nutrient content in concentrated organic manures [6].
Sewage refers to the liquid portion, and sludge refers to the solid portion of the waste which originates from the city sewerage system. Raw sewage consists mainly of water carrying suspended and dissolved black colored solid organic matter which may pollute water bodies (rivers). For that reason, it is treated by some means to reduce the organic matter load before it could be disposed off safely. During siphoning at sewage treatment plant, the sludge portion settles down and is separated from the liquid portion (sewage). The sewage can be used for irrigation purposes, while sludge can be used as manure as it contains large amount of plant nutrients. It has been estimated that available sewage of big cities in India could annually contribute around 1.2 Mt of N, 1.0 Mt of P2O5 and 0.8 Mt of K2O. However, it contains excessive organic and N loading, and repeated application of untreated sewage water can result in soil sickness due to anaerobiosis and imbalance in C/N and C/P ratio and clogging of soil pores by colloidal matter and bacterial contamination of vegetables grown using them. Treated sewage water, after dilution (1:1) with good-quality water, can increase yield of crops. The main disadvantage of using sewage and sludge in agriculture is its heavy metals content, particularly Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni depending on the source of industry from where the sewage and sludge originates. Thus, repeated application of sewage tends to increase the concentration of metals in soils and their availability to plants, which in turn could get into our food chain [16].
It is the by-product of manufacturing of ethyl alcohol from molasses. It contains considerable amounts of organic matter and plant nutrients especially K and S and appreciable amounts of N and P. This can be applied as irrigation water and as an amendment (for alkali soils). However, because of its high organic load, it may results biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) in water. For that reason, they are unsafe for direct application on to agricultural lands. Spent wash can, however, be safely applied to different crops after suitable dilution and has been reported to increase yield of several crops. Treatment of this effluent through biomethanation digesters reduces the organic matter load but still carries considerable organic and salt load, making its disposal a problem [15].
Composting is a natural phenomenon and pervasively relates with organic farming. Accelerating the quality and speed of compost is a scientific phenomenon and irrevocable for sustainable growth and development of agriculture without any toxic effect on environment and livelihood.
It is established that any single method or technique of composting cannot be recommended for all areas and conditions. Also area-wise economic, climatic, social, and other factors will dictate the best method for that area. The efficiency of composting technique also depends on the type and amount of substrate(s) and the rearing techniques. However, it is hoped that the described methods will aid economic improvement in many areas and help establishing sustainable agriculture for the betterment of future. In consideration of time and quality, vermicomposting seems to be the best technique for composting and much more economically viable for the sustainable growth and development of modern agriculture. Vermicomposting technique is also worm and site specific. After long-term scientific experiments, Eisenia fetida is considered as the world’s most efficient species having the capacity to acquaint with wide environmental condition. The compost production capacity of this worm is higher than other species, and so this species is widely accepted for vermicomposting.
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