Chemical composition of agri-industrial wastes [7].
\r\n\tPrevalence of reading disability among school-age children depends upon the criteria used for definition; however, the prevalence of written expression disorders in estimated to be between 5 and 12 percent, the prevalence of written expression disorders is estimated to be between 7 and 15 percent, while the prevalence of dyscalculia is estimated to be between 3 and 6 percent.
\r\n\r\n\tRisk factors for learning disorders are family history, socio-economic conditions, prematurity, presence of other developmental, mental and health conditions (e.g. behavioral disorders, autism, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders), prenatal exposition to neurotoxic agents, genetic disorders, particular medical conditions, history of traumatic brain injury or other neurological conditions.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-588-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-587-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-589-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0999e5f759c2380ae5a4a2ee0835c98d",bookSignature:" Sandro Misciagna",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10910.jpg",keywords:"Learning Disability Definition, Brain Plasticity, Learning Disability Evaluation, Learning Disabilities Resources, Psychoeducation Evaluation, Clinical Features, Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, Dyscalculia, Intellectual Disabilities, Autism Spectrum Disorders, ADHD",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 16th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 13th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 30th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"22 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sandro Misciagna received his degree in medicine at the Catholic University in Rome. As a clinician, he has worked in different neurological departments in Italian hospitals, Alzheimer’s clinics, neuropsychiatric clinics, and neurological rehabilitative departments as the Neurological Department and Stroke Unit of Belcolle Hospital in Viterbo, Italy.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103586",title:null,name:"Sandro",middleName:null,surname:"Misciagna",slug:"sandro-misciagna",fullName:"Sandro Misciagna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103586/images/system/103586.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sandro Misciagna was born in Italy in 1969. He received a degree in medicine in 1995 and another in neurology in 1999 from The Catholic University, Rome. From 1993 to 1995, he was involved in research of cerebellar functions. From 1994 to 2003, he attended the Neuropsychological department involved in research in cognitive and behavioural disorders. From 2001 to 2003, he taught neuropsychology, neurology, and cognitive rehabilitation. In 2003, he obtained a Ph.D. in Neuroscience with a thesis on the behavioural and cognitive profile of frontotemporal dementia. Dr. Misciagna has worked in various neurology departments, Alzheimer’s clinics, neuropsychiatric clinics, and neuro-rehabilitative departments. In November 2016, he began working as a neurologist at Belcolle Hospital, Viterbo, where he has run the epilepsy centre since February 2019.",institutionString:"Ospedale di Belcolle",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Ospedale di Belcolle",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Furthermore the brain growth and myelination correlates with the stages of brain development, including motor, speech, vision, acquisition of social skills, attachment, learning math and logic. All aspects of infant’s growth and development are contingent on his genetic code “nature”. However gene expression is influenced by epigenetic factors “nurture”. The positive environmental factors result in neurobiological changes and improved neuroplasticity. The neurobiological effects of environmental enrichment was first reported by landmark work of Volkmar and Greenough which clearly demonstrated the superior problem solving abilities of rats raised as pets compared with rats raised without such human interactions [1]. Anatomically the environmental enrichment resulted in greater cerebral volumes, larger number of synapses and increased complexity of dendritic branches [1]. Extensive animal research demonstrate that maternal grooming and nurturing can lead to changes in DNA methylation, resulting in gene suppression or histone acetylation, up-regulation of the gene expression, which increase grooming in the offspring when it matures and the cycle repeats itself [2].
\nNeuropeptide hormones and their receptors have properties that identify them as candidates for the induction of early life experiences into both short and long-term behavioral changes [3].
\nAnimal research has provided a vast knowledge on the significance of the role of mother-baby interaction in child development. The elegant experiments on prairie voles, small monogamous mammals, point to the significant role of oxytocin on our behavior. Injection of oxytocin receptor blockers resulted in changes in pair-bonding behavior in these mammals [3]. Additionally oxytocin is implicated in all aspects of romantic and maternal love, including courtship, mating, pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding [3].
\nAnthropological studies demonstrate significant differences between the breast milk of large primates such as humans, monkeys and apes, referred to as “carrying mammals” vs. “nested mammals”. Carrying mammals’ breast milk contains lower amount of fat and sugar, while the nested mammals’ breast milk contains much higher sugar and fat. Therefore carrying mammals require to breastfeed their infants more frequently than nested mammals.
\nThe human infant’s central nervous system depends on a micro-environment that is similar to the maternal uterine environment which is full of sensory exchanges involving heat, sound, movements, transportation, feelings, touch, smell and access to nutrients in the mother’s breast milk. For species such as primates, the mother is the environment (Sarah Blaffer Hrdy).
\nThe first 1000 days is the most significant period of an infant’s life. During the first 3 years there is great potential for the infant and toddler to acquire immense cognitive, visual, speech, motor and emotional development.
\nNewborn infant’s brain is quite immature, however it has great potentials to grow and most of the growth occurs in the first 1000 days of his life. Normal brain function requires rapid messaging which is mediated by the myelinated nerve fibers. However myelination depends on a number of factors including the genetic makeup of the infant “nature” and the infant’s social environment “nurture”. The trajectory of infant’s brain growth and myelination is more robust in breastfed than in formula-fed infants. Therefore developmental milestone, speech, social skills, emotional and motor development are achieved at an earlier age in breastfed than in formula-fed infants. Furthermore we postulate that the infants who were fed breast-milk via a bottle, without sensory interactions with the mother may not reach their fullest potentials. Therefore we make a distinction between breastfeeding as the infant being on the mother’s breast and not receiving breast-milk via a bottle, a cup or any other gadgets. Many maternal hormones including estrogens are present in the mother’s milk and estrogens are transcriptional promoters for oxytocin and its receptor’s genes [4, 5]. Oxytocin is released from supra-optic (SON) and peri-ventricular nuclei (PVN), only upon infant’s sensory stimulations, auditory, tactile, visual and vestibular. The rise of oxytocin level in the infant’s brain is associated with improved neuroplasticity. The magnitude of environmental influence on the infant’s brain development may be ascertained by comparing the white matter growth using magnetic imaging of breastfed infants and infants given breast-milk via a bottle. Alternatively salivary cortisol level measurements may be an index of blood oxytocin because of their inverse relationship [3].
\nMother’s breast milk is an extension of her placenta which provides nutrients, hormones and epigenetic factors that carry messages to the infant to regulate his metabolic pathways.
\nWorld Health Organization (WHO) recommends breastfeeding for 2 years. Extended breastfeeding up to 3 and 4 years of age is highly recommended for additional calories, proteins, lipids, vitamins and factors that regulate the child’s metabolic processes. The myelination of the nerve fibers continues, although at a slower pace until early adolescence.
\nThe global breastfeeding rate in the past 10 years has improved only marginally from 33% in 1995 to 37% in 2014 [4]. Suboptimal breastfeeding results in higher health care expenditure for pediatrics and maternal care, and global productivity-related economic losses of $302 billion or 0.49% of world gross income annually [4].
\nMaternity and pediatric care providers in many parts of the world do not follow the recommendations of WHO on breastfeeding for 2 years or longer. The policies of several governments do not support breastfeeding including the Chinese government which subsidizes domestically manufactured formulas and US government that provides free formulas to low income families on WIC, Women, Infants and Children’s program. WIC program was originally only intended for low income mothers who were breastfeeding their infants, however the program was extended to formula feeding mothers 2 years later [5].
\nInternational efforts to promote and protect breastfeeding on a global scale began in 1981 by WHO and World Alliance of Breastfeeding, WABA, in Geneva, Switzerland. The conference resulted in a significant document, International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes. This was followed in 1990 by Innocenti Declaration and the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative which promotes breastfeeding and rooming in for every newborn resulting in an increase in breastfeeding initiations. Many college educated mothers are cognizant of numerous benefits of breastfeeding and choose to breastfeed their infants.
\nMajority of nations have ratified the International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes, however there are serious violations of marketing by formula industry and court challenges to overturn the marketing code. It is not unusual to hear that some unscrupulous providers in 3rd world countries will give samples of formula to the mothers upon delivery to feed their newborn and deprive the newborn from the benefits of colostrum feeding and later breastfeeding.
\nThere are many obstacles to exclusive breastfeeding of a newborn in US hospitals, some of which are due to flawed hospital policies for newborn jaundice and neonatal hypoglycemia. Some physicians wrongly believe that exclusive breastfeeding will place the newborn at risk of developing hypoglycemia as well as severe jaundice which may lead to kernicterus. Other obstacles to exclusive breastfeeding include the use of pacifiers, nipple shields and providing the mothers with a breast pump to give the breast milk via a bottle to feed the newborn infants.
\nThe high rate of cesarean section in some countries is an obstacle to breastfeeding, because of reduced oxytocin and delayed lactation [6]. Additionally epidural block may result in lower oxytocin release due to the inhibitory effect on Ferguson reflex [6]. Pitocin infusion may result in reduced release of oxytocin via a feed-back inhibitory effect [6]. Therefore it is clear that natural child-birth without epidural block and pain medications result in better outcomes immediately after birth with the newborn latching on and suckling at the mother’ breast. Infants born vaginally have higher oxytocin level than infants born by cesarean section, 69 pg/ml vs. 33 pg/ml [6].
\nNewborns placed on the mother’s chest latch on to the mother’s breast, attracted to the Montgomery glands around the nipples, which secrete a lubricating liquid. Newborns latch on to both nipples, however when one nipple is washed with soap and water the newborn would latch on only to the unwashed nipple. When the mother’s amniotic fluid was applied to the washed nipple, the newborn latched to that nipple. It is generally believed that the liquid discharge from the Montgomery glands have the scent of the mother’s amniotic fluid [7]. We have also encountered the statement from the breastfeeding mothers that for the first 2–3 weeks their infants refuse to breastfeed immediately after a shower.
\nThere is strong and convincing evidence that attachment and bonding between the mother and infant is associated with the release of oxytocin from hypothalamic nuclei, peri-ventricular and supra-optic and its binding to peri-aqueductal gray (PAG), insula, inferior and posterior temporal nuclei [8].
\nOxytocin and many of the maternal hormones are present in the mother’s breast milk. However the concentration of breast milk oxytocin is very low and decreases quickly. Oxytocin is probably digested in the infant’s stomach and is not absorbed from the intestinal tract into the circulation. However oxytocin activates cholecystokinin which then activates sensory vagal nerves which release oxytocin from the infant’s hypothalamic nuclei [6]. Sucking in the newborn is associated with infant’s oxytocin release. Furthermore sensory interactions between mother-infant dyad result in the rise in oxytocin in infant’s brain. All the sensory stimuli are transmitted via nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) to release oxytocin from the hypothalamic nuclei, SON and PVN [6]. The act of suckling in calves at the udder result in oxytocin release, however drinking from a bucket is not associated with a rise in oxytocin [6].
\nDuring the early and mid twentieth century there was a gradual decline in breastfeeding rate in industrialized nations. This decline is attributed to the global conflicts when bread-winners went to war and the women went to work. The infants and young children were left with a relative to care for them and the majority were given breast milk substitute (formula) or cow’s milk. In England, majority of infants and young children were placed in large nurseries in the countryside away from London during World War II. The mothers were allowed to visit their children occasionally. Many children were noted to develop behavior problems and maladjustment as they grew older. The emotional and behavioral problems were attributed to maternal deprivation. Several prominent psychologists and psychiatrists promoted the concept of maternal separation as the root cause of delinquent and maladaptive behavior. Sir John Bowlby who was a member of an aristocratic family was the most prominent of these researchers who was personally affected by maternal deprivation. It was customary in the aristocratic families in England to employ a nanny to take care of the infants and young children. They believed that close contact between the mother and their infants and young children would spoil them. Sir John Bowlby writes that he was only allowed to see his mother for an hour after her evening tea. Naturally he developed attachment to his nanny and when she suddenly left the household when he was only 4 years old, he was quite devastated like losing a mother. Bowlby states that his early life experiences provided the idea of what he later called the theory of attachment parenting. When he was 10 years old he was sent to a boarding school, which was common in aristocratic families in England. After completion of high school he studied psychology, medicine and psychiatry. John Bowlby wrote his first paper in 1958, titled, the nature of the child’s tie to his mother, which was followed by a number of papers and books on attachment parenting. However his writings do not include the benefits of breastfeeding, primarily because of the lack of knowledge regarding young infants’ nutrition at the time. Subsequently there have been a great number of articles and books which have been published on the subject of attachment parenting which still lack the prominent role of breastfeeding and its role in mother-baby bonding. A number of researchers including Marshall Klaus and later John Kennel have published articles and books regarding the benefit of breastfeeding in bonding and attachment between mother and her newborns [9, 10]. They recommended that the newborns should stay with their mothers and breastfeed as soon as possible after they are born. They also stated that early breastfeeding enhance the mother-infant bonding, increase the likelihood of breastfeeding, improves child development and prevent child abuse and neglect. Furthermore Klaus stated that early mother-baby bonding is the result of the rise in oxytocin in both mother and infant’s brain [10]. Critics had made comments regarding the feeling of guilt by the parents who were not able to bond with their newborns in the hospital and to breastfeed their babies [11].
\nThe theory of attachment parenting is based on psychological principles and lack of solid scientific foundation. The massive data in the past 2 decades have provided strong and convincing evidence that long term breastfeeding and providing an enriched environment result in every child achieving his fullest potential.
\nThere is clear and convincing evidence that breastfeeding for 1 year or longer contributes significantly to the higher IQ during adulthood [12]. The relation between length of breastfeeding and adult intelligence may be difficult to substantiate because of the confounding factors including the maternal IQ, which has been substituted with maternal education [13, 14]. Recent studies on the association of breastfeeding and higher IQ demonstrate that higher IQ is associated with larger brain size and higher degree of myelination of the white matter [15, 16]. It is further believed that one or more ingredients of breast milk are implicated in brain growth and optimal brain function. In the past 2 decades comprehensive studies on a number of breast milk ingredients have been carried out to evaluate the causal association of these ingredients with brain growth and IQ of the child. Two major ingredients of breast milk which have generated major interest in scientific circles as well the food industry are docosahexaenoic (DHA) and arachidonic (ARA) acids, which are the components of myelin. A number of published reports have claimed that additional intake of DHA during pregnancy and lactation may improve the IQ of the infants. Furthermore there were claims of supplementation of DHA and ARA of the infant formula result in improved IQ, compared to formulas without supplementation. This resulted in DHA and ARA supplementation of all infant formulas, marketed by the major formula companies, beginning in 2002. More recent studies have demonstrated that these studies are flawed and DHA and ARA supplementation of pregnant and nursing mothers do not increase the IQ of the child [17]. Furthermore supplementation of infant formulas with DHA and ARA did not increase the IQ of the children who were given the supplemented formulas [18].
\nBreast milk has significantly higher concentration of cholesterol than infant formula and breasted infants at 6 months have higher cholesterol levels than formula-fed infants [19, 20]. Cholesterol is a significant component of myelin and availability of cholesterol is a rate limiting factor in brain maturation in mice [21]. Therefore it could be argued that higher cholesterol in breast milk result in enhanced synaptic connection, higher degree of myelination of the white matter and higher IQ.
\nHuman milk contains significant numbers of maternal hormones and growth factors, oxytocin, thyroxin, estrogens, nerve growth and epidermal growth factors, which could influence myelin production and white matter development. Breast milk estrogens are transcriptional promoters for oxytocin and its receptors in the infant’s central nervous system [22]. Oxytocin has a central role in milk ejection and oxytocin knockout (OTKO) mice are unable to nurse their pups [22]. Oxytocin binds to a large number of oxytocin receptors and is implicated in regulating homeostatic functions, social recognition and fear conditioning [22]. Additionally oxytocin reduces neuroendocrine stress signaling and anxiety and depression symptoms [22]. Activation of beta estrogen receptors increases oxytocin gene transcription and reduces anxiety-related behavior [22]. Endogenous oxytocin can suppress corticotrophin releasing factor, CRF, and therefore reduce the activation of HPA axis and reduce the ACTH and cortisol levels [22].
\nOxytocin is a neurotransmitter for oxytocinergic system and therefore involved in homeostatic processes [22]. Adults who were breastfed during infancy have lower total and LDL cholesterol, lower blood pressure and lower risk of cardiovascular disorders [13].
\nThe onset of labor begins with a decrease in maternal progesterone blood level, which results in a rise of maternal estrogens to progesterone ratio. Estrogens are transcriptional promoters of oxytocin gene which initiate uterine contractions. Furthermore estrogens are also transcriptional promoters of oxytocin genes in SON and PVN nuclei in the maternal central nervous system. Oxytocin is transported to the posterior pituitary which then enters the maternal circulation and result in the milk ejection from the breast.
\nEstrogens in the breast milk enter the newborn’s circulation and cross the blood brain barrier. Estrogens act as transcriptional promoter for oxytocin gene in the hypothalamic SON and PVN nuclei. Oxytocin is then transported to a number of oxytocin receptors in the newborn’s brain. Imaging studies comparing the activation of oxytocin receptor sites in breastfeeding and formula feeding mothers demonstrate significant enhancement of oxytocin receptors in breastfeeding mothers, which correlates with greater neural response [8] (Figure 1) Additionally plasma and salivary concentration of oxytocin are reported to be higher in breastfeeding compared to formula feeding mothers, 36% in plasma and 23% in saliva, respectively [23]. Furthermore the 24 hour urine concentration of oxytocin in breastfeeding mothers is significantly higher compared to formula-feeding mothers [8] (Figure 2). Postpartum depression appears to be associated with formula feeding and there is an association between Edinburgh postpartum depression scale and urinary oxytocin concentration [8] (Figure 3). Similarly other neuropsychiatric disorders which are highly associated with depression and anxiety may share the low oxytocin levels [3].
\nBrain imaging comparing the oxytocin receptors’ enhancement in breastfeeding and formula feeding mothers. From Bartel and Zeki [
Urinary excretion of oxytocin in post-partum mothers and Edinburgh post-partum depression scale. From Grewen et al. [
Comparison of urinary excretion of oxytocin in breastfeeding and formula feeding mothers. From Grewen et al. [
There is significant evidence that maternal bonding is mediated by oxytocin and the peri-aqueductal gray matter (PAG), the limbic system and the lateral orbitofrontal cortex are identified with maternal behavior [8]. There is strong evidence that an enriched environment result in increased release of oxytocin from the hypothalamic nuclei and have permanent effects on the physiology and behavior of mammalian species [9, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Furthermore the oxytocinergic system appears to regulate the sensory, emotional, motivational and cognitive pathways which are affected in individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders.
\nSteroid hormones have significant roles in pregnancy. Progesterone is important in maintenance of gestation and estrogens play a significant role in parturition and lactation. The mother provides the first messenger, estrogens during the labor, via the placenta, to the unborn infant, and after the delivery through her breast milk. Estrogens are transcriptional promoters of oxytocin and its receptors. The second messenger, oxytocin is released by the infant’s hypothalamic nuclei, after breastfeeding and mother-baby sensory interactions. A single dose of estradiol results in an increase in plasma oxytocin level in women [28]. Oxytocin binding with oxytocin receptors result in profound changes in the infant’s central nervous system. Other ingredients of breast milk, DHA, ARA and cholesterol significantly augment the role of oxytocin in brain development. However it appears that oxytocin has a central role in brain development and lack of oxytocin or the use of oxytocin blockers significantly alter the behavior and neurodevelopment of mammalian species.
\nThe stages of infant and child development have been well-established and correlate with the stages of neuronal migration and myelination [29, 30] (Figures 4 and 5). There is clear evidence that any interruption of neuronal migration and myelination result in impaired brain function. Myelination is an ongoing process into early adolescence, in response to neural activity. Neuropsychiatric and neuro-developmental disorders are strongly considered to be associated with synaptic disconnectivity involving early white matter development.
\nStages of brain development during infancy and childhood. From Deoni et al. [
The relationship of CSBSDP scores with the duration of breastfeeding.
The incidence of neuro-developmental and neuropsychiatric disorders far exceeds all the other genetic, congenital and sporadic causes of mental deficiencies. Most infants with developmental delays, 30–40 years ago, had chromosomal anomalies (the Downs syndrome), birth defects, cerebral palsy, kernicterus and congenital athyroidism. Autism was quite rare and most physicians had never heard of this disorder. Many physicians are still baffled by it and try to avoid taking care of children with autism. Some physicians do not know what causes autism and believe that the child is born with autism trait. There is also no consensus on which specialist should make the diagnosis and which specialist should be taking care of the child with autism. We believe that autism spectrum disorder is the most common cause of developmental delay in developed countries, because of formula feeding, early weaning and lack of mother-baby sensory interactions [31, 32].
\nApproximately 50 years ago, Dr. Julius Richmond, who was my first pediatrics professor and later became US Surgeon General, characterized that child development is the basic science of pediatrics [33]. This statement is still true now, because of the ever increasing knowledge accumulated in the past 2 decades on child development.
\nWe have previously reported on the association of formula feeding and early weaning with autism spectrum disorder using retrospective parent’s report [31, 32]. In the present communication we report on the association of breastfeeding and improved developmental milestones using prospective and longitudinal infant and toddler developmental screening.
\nAll infants had developmental evaluation at the following ages during their well-baby visits, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 24 months. All infants were seen by a pediatrics provider and the mother or the father was asked to answer the questions on the evaluation form. The evaluation form was then scored by the provider and the results were discussed with the parent. Therefore this is a longitudinal and prospective evaluation of infants and toddlers that identifies the areas of risk and referral for further evaluation and treatment. We have utilized this screening tool to evaluate the association of the score at 24 months of age with the length of breastfeeding. Our hypothesis is that increasing the length of breastfeeding will be associated with a higher score. We are utilizing CSBS DP infant and toddler developmental screen that measures seven language predictors, emotion and eye gaze, communication, gestures, sounds, words, understanding and object use [34]. CSBS DP has been successfully tested for validity and reliability with large samples of children [34]. CSBS DP is not predictor for the child’s IQ, however it identifies children at risk of communication disorders and more specific, autism spectrum disorder.
\nOne hundred and ten children were screened beginning at 6 months of age. The breastfeeding history of the infants were monitored at every well child visit and recorded. All infants including infants with prematurity, chromosomal disorders, birth defects, congenital infections and genetic disorders were also screened for developmental delay; however, they were excluded from this report. The CSBS DP scores were plotted in relation to the duration of breastfeeding as shown in Figure 5.
\nWe have previously reported the association of early weaning and formula feeding with autism spectrum disorder [31, 32]. The present study which was based on our direct observation and prospective evaluation of infants and toddlers is further support that breastfeeding results in better developmental outcome. CSBC DP is predictive of the risk of communication disorders and speech problems in toddlers and we have been able to seek services to assist the families with toddlers as young as 18 months of age. Early diagnosis and treatment of at risk children result in better outcome.
\nIn our previous study we reported on the impact of the infant feeding methods on the development of the autism spectrum disorder [32, 33]. With the current study we are able to predict that breastfeeding longer than 1 year is associated with higher CSBS DP score and lower risk of developmental delays.
\nUnited States may have the highest rate of autism in the world because of the lack of paid maternity leave. Many mothers who work in low paying jobs return to work 2 weeks after delivery of their infant and a majority do not breastfeed their babies. Modernization has reduced mother-infant sensory interactions. The infants spend more time in the infant seat on the back seat of the family car, in a stroller or a play pan. Mothers do not hold their babies during feeding and the formula bottle is frequently propped up in the infant’s crib or the car seat. The combination of formula feeding and absence of mother-baby sensory interaction increases the risk of developmental delay in the child.
\nImaging studies of infants and children as young as 10 months to 4 years of age were performed to compare the myelination of the brain on children who were breastfed for at least 3 months, those who were only formula-fed and those who were given mixed breast and formula [35]. The results of this study provide further evidence that breastfed infants have higher degree of myelination compared to the other two groups of children who were formula-fed or given mixed feeding. Furthermore longer duration of breastfeeding results in greater brain myelination as shown in Figure 6. The myelination occurs primarily in frontal and temporal white matter, peripheral aspects of the internal capsule and corticospinal tracts, superior longitudinal fasciculus and superior occipital-frontal fasciculus. These regions and pathways are associated with higher order cognition, executive functioning, planning, social-emotional functioning and language [35]. Therefore we can connect structure and function, increased level of myelination with increasing breastfeeding duration. Additionally the percentage of breast milk in an infant’s diet has been correlated with cortical thickness in the parietal lobe as well as verbal IQ in adolescents [16].
\nAssociation of improved myelination with duration of breastfeeding. From Deoni et al. [
We have documented the superiority of breastfeeding and an enriched environment resulting in higher cognitive ability and IQ. We have also shown that infants should be at least breastfed for the first 3 years of life to realize the maximal benefits of breastfeeding. We have presented strong and convincing evidence from various disciplines that breastfeeding result in higher IQ and cognitive functions that last into adulthood. Early weaning and formula feeding are associated with higher prevalence of childhood communicable diseases, diabetes, childhood leukemia, sudden infant death and autism. Additionally formula feeding strains the health care and public education systems with increased demands and higher expenditures.
\nThe first 1000 days last a life time the rest of our lives, and every child deserves to reach his fullest potentials.
\nTouraj Shafai MD, PhD (Biochemistry), Fellow of the American Academy of Pediatrics and Fellow of the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine. He is Assistant Clinical Professor at University of California, Riverside, School of Medicine.
\nMonika Mustafa MD, Fellow of American Academy of Pediatrics, Assistant Clinical Professor of Pediatrics at University of California, Riverside, School of Medicine.
\nSandra Campos PAC, assisted in data collection.
\nLida Niake, Research Assistant, assisted in data collection and creating the graphs for the manuscript, Undergraduate biology major.
\nThe opinions expressed in this manuscript are only the opinions of the authors. The authors declare no competing interest.
In this 21st century, feeding the teeming millions is the greatest challenge before us. The green revolution of 1960s although could alleviate the growing demands for food to a great extent but at the cost of food quality and environmental health. Long term applications of chemical fertilizers in crop production systems have been resulting in unpredictable reduction in yields and increase in the cost of cultivation. However, with the shrinking land, the burgeoning competition for water, land and other resources from non-agriculture sector might aggravate agricultural production in the near future. Hence, intensive farming through enhanced cropping intensity has been the way out for mitigating the population driven demands for food, feed, fodder and fibre without much scope for recycling of the agricultural wastes in majority of cases. For raising of multiple crops in a year the farmers burn farm residues
Near about half of the habitable land on this planet is under agriculture [2]. Of the 1,600 million hectares of cultivated land [3], 50.8 per cent is occupied by cereals [4]. About 52.5 per cent calories for humans are available from cereals at global scale [4] with major contributions from corn (1,116.34 million tons), wheat (764.49 Mt), rice (495.78 Mt), barley (156.41 Mt), sorghum (57.97 Mt), oat (22.83 Mt) and rye (12.17 Mt) [5]. Cereals are special not because of their uses as staple food but due to production of ethanol and cattle feed in many advanced nations. However, in many underdeveloped and developing countries this precious wealth has not yet been fully utilized [6]. It is high time to use this precious waste from crop field in judicious manner not only to recycle the carbon and sequester it back into the soil but also to harness clean and green energy out of it through appropriate measures.
Farm residues can be broadly divided into crop residues, and wastes from livestock and aquaculture depending on the activities carried out. Field crop residues are plant parts left over in the field without much attention unless otherwise is immediately followed by a succeeding crop. Crop residues can be put under agricultural and agri-industrial categories. Agricultural residues remaining after threshing and separation of the economic plant part(s) can be of (a) processed residues such as husks and hay and (b) field crop residues such as stalks and stubbles. Husk and hay are often left over in the crop field due to engagement of crop combined harvesters and axial flow threshers. Sometimes, the distance between crop field and farm house plays a decisive role in stacking of hay and husk in the crop field after threshing. That apart, farm mechanization in many developed countries has also shifted from animal driven to fossil fuel based farm power and thus excluding the need for gathering feedstock in the haystack. Furthermore, the risk of fire in haystack due to storage of dried crop residues can also not be eliminated completely. Hence, many farmers are not interested in transporting such bulky by-products from crop field to farmhouse. In mono cropped areas, natural weathering and decomposition by soil organisms usually degrade the field crop residues but the residue management challenge is mostly under sequential cropping.
Agri-industrial residues in the other hand are derived from industries such as peels of potato, orange, and cassava; bagasse and molasses of sugarcane; oilcakes of groundnut, mustard, sunflower, sesame, soybean and coconut; and husks and bran of rice [7]. Huge quantities of organic wastes are produced by food and vegetable oil processing industries every year- but if left untreated and unutilized, may cause environmental pollution as well as human and animal health issues. A representative chemical analysis report of few agri biomass are depicted under Table 1 for comparative studies.
Agro-industrial wastes | Chemical composition (%) | References | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cellulose | Hemi- cellulose | Lignin | Ash (%) | Total solids (%) | Moisture (%) | ||
Sugarcane bagasse | 30.2 | 56.7 | 13.4 | 1.9 | 91.66 | 4.8 | [8, 9] |
Rice straw | 39.2 | 23.5 | 36.1 | 12.4 | 98.62 | 6.58 | [8] |
Corn stalks | 61.2 | 19.3 | 6.9 | 10.8 | 97.78 | 6.40 | [8] |
Sawdust | 45.1 | 28.1 | 24.2 | 1.2 | 98.54 | 1.12 | [8, 10] |
Sugar beet waste | 26.3 | 18.5 | 2.5 | 4.8 | 87.5 | 12.4 | [8] |
Barley straw | 33.8 | 21.9 | 13.8 | 11 | _ | _ | [9] |
Cotton stalks | 58.5 | 14.4 | 21.5 | 9.98 | _ | 7.45 | [9] |
Oat straw | 39.4 | 27.1 | 17.5 | 8 | _ | _ | [10] |
Soya stalks | 34.5 | 24.8 | 19.8 | 10.39 | _ | 11.84 | [11] |
Sunflower stalks | 42.1 | 29.7 | 13.4 | 11.17 | _ | _ | [11] |
Wheat straw | 32.9 | 24.0 | 8.9 | 6.7 | 95.6 | 7.0 | [9, 10] |
Chemical composition of agri-industrial wastes [7].
Agricultural burning is the intentional setting of fire in the open field for preparation of the land for the next crop or killing the weeds and insect pests. Natural causes such as lightening and planned anthropogenic fire account for only 10–20 per cent of the total open burning across the globe [12]. Burning of agricultural residues is different from fire in forests, grasslands or any vegetation.
Slash and burn cultivation has been a traditional system in agriculture to clean up vegetation on virgin land and cultivate crops for a few years before shifting to a new area. Tradition, timing, ease, weather and location factors encourage the farmers to burn residues in many regions. Burning is the cheapest and quickest way of eliminating unwanted thrash from the crop fields. Addition of plant nutrients and killing of pathogens, insects and weed species also influence decision to burn residues
Burning of crop residues
Large scale burning of paddy stubbles in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh in India in the month of late October and November every year is estimated to be 35 Mt. This practice is spreading to other parts of the country like wildfire due to the advent of precision farm-equipments that allow resowing with the minimum soil disturbance. The crop field is made ready for the succeeding zero till wheat crop by burning of straw and stubbles leftover in the field from the crop harvested by combined harvester. India generates around 500 Mt. of residues from rice, wheat, sugarcane, maize, millet and other crops every year [14] of which 142 Mt. are leftover after fuel, fodder and industrial uses [15] and 92 Mt. are burnt every year across the country. Table 2 compares the agricultural wastes generated in India and its adjacent countries which reveal that the volume of waste is far more than the total waste generated by other countries.
Country | Agricultural waste generated (million tons/year) |
---|---|
Myanmar | 19 |
Indonesia | 55 |
Bangladesh | 72 |
India | 500 |
Near about 70 per cent of crop residues in India are cereals of which 34 per cent come from rice, and 22 per cent from wheat crops [14]. Estimation indicated burning of about 80 per cent of the total 20 Mt. of rice stubble in Punjab alone [14]. Whereas another estimate indicated 9.8 and 1.23 Mt. of rice residue-burning in Punjab and Haryana, respectively [18]. Burning of rice is more compared to wheat in the North West India as rice contains more silica (12–16 per cent vs. 3–5 per cent) which is not easily digestible. About 75 per cent of wheat straw is collected and stored as fodder. Rice stem contains lower silica than leaves and hence rice is to be cut as close to ground if used for feeding animals [19]. Management of rice straw is difficult compared to wheat due to shorter window for sowing of wheat and low temperature which compels the farmers to resort to burning during October–November every year [20]. Several major cities of North India—including New Delhi, Lucknow, and Kanpur—faced elevated levels of aerosol pollution [21]. The extent of aerosol pollution in India, Pakistan and Nepal region, mostly from crop residue burning, can be observed from the captured image of the NASA’s Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on Aqua satellite on 7 November 2017 (Figure 1).
NASA Earth Observatory image of the aerosol pollution in India, Pakistan and Nepal on 7 November 2017 [
Agriculture comes under the state list of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India and hence, the State Governments have to take austerity measures against residue burning. Burning of crop residues is a crime in India according to the Air Pollution Act, 1981 and Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code [14]. Courts in India have banned open burning of crop residues and made provisions of penal actions by collecting fines from the errant farmers. In 2018, the national green tribunal (NGT) of India imposed penalty of Rs.2,00,000 on the Delhi government for not filing an action plan for incentives and infrastructural assistance against stubble burning [22]. Subsequently, the NGT asked the Delhi government to deposit 250 million rupees (INR) with the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) as performance guarantee [23]. Consequent up on Public Interest Litigation in M. C. Mehta vs. Union of India (order IA No.158129 and 158129 of 2019 in writ petition (C) No.13029 of 1985) [24] an ordinance dissolving the Environment Pollution (Control and Prevention) Authority has been passed by the Indian government to set up a new Commission with over 20 members to regulate pollution in Delhi-NCR region [25]. In this ordinance, the Ministry of Law and Justice has made provisions for imprisonment up to five years or with fine up to rupees one crore or both for abrogation of the rule/provisions or order/directions of the Commission [25]. The Hon’ble Supreme Court of India has also realized the need for incentives to small and marginal farmers those abiding to the rules by paying a sum of Rs.100 per quintal of crop residues [24].
In the United States, agricultural burning policy has been formulated to monitor open burning of agricultural wastes and weeds for fire, weed and pest control adjacent to the crop field so as to allow regulated burning in small scale to maintain agricultural production but without impairing public health and air quality parameters. The agricultural burning managers are authorized to monitor burning at state, local and tribal level and no burning should be carried out without approval from the competent authority [26].
Cereals generate huge agriculture as well as agri-industrial wastes across the globe. If not managed judiciously then in long run, that may lead to the environmental pollution and global warming. Open burning of agricultural wastes is detrimental to both environment and human health. Poisonous gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), methane (CH4) and particulate matters (PM2.5 and PM10) are released into the atmosphere (Figure 2). An estimate reveals burning of crop residues release 149.24 Mt. of CO2, 9 Mt. of CO, 0.25 Mt. of SOx, 1.28 Mt. of PM and 0.07 Mt. of black carbon [14]. The situation is austere in India due to intensive rice-wheat cropping system [27]. One ton of stubble burning leads to the loss of 5.5 kg nitrogen, 2.3 kg phosphorous, 25 kg potassium and 1 kg sulfur besides organic carbon [14]. As per an estimation, stubble burning releases substantial quantity of heat that elevates the surface temperature from 33.8 to 42.2°C killing soil fertility maintaining biota [14]. The population of microorganisms, earthworms and beetles get reduced drastically in the upper layer of soil affecting the rate of soil formation. The population of beneficial insects reduces drastically and the enemy inset population increases to a great extent.
Open burning of rice straw before land preparation for second rice crop in Bargarh district of Odisha.
Stubble burning increases the particulate matters in the air creating pulmonary diseases (COPD), bronchitis, lung capacity loss, emphysema, cancer, etc. [27] in humans and animals besides irritation in eyes, nose and throat [14]. The Ministry of Earth Sciences’ monitoring agency SAFAR in Delhi has estimated the share of stubble burning in PM2.5 pollution as high as 36 per cent [28]. In Punjab (India) alone an estimated 760 million rupees (INR) is spent annually to alleviate stubble burning related diseases [27]. The Energy and Resources Institute (2019) reported 5 million deaths in South Asia in 2012 due to air pollution which was around 22 per cent of the total deaths in the region [27].
The crop stubbles and agricultural wastes, if managed properly, could generate profits to the farmers and protect the environment from the severe pollution as well. Some of the available alternative management practices include soil incorporation, compost and biochar making, thermal power generation, pulp and paper manufacturing, cement brick making, mushroom production, or biofuel production (Figure 3) [27]. However, most of the farmers in North India are not yet fully aware of many such alternatives that lead to
The management of agricultural wastes.
Since long back,
Incorporation of maize crop residues in clayey Andosol in Ethiopia at 6 Mg per hectare for consecutive three years indicated 22–52 per cent reduction in penetration resistance in top 5–10 cm soil, 39–57 per cent lower evaporative flux and elevated (22 per cent) macro and meso porosity [30]. After 17–18 cycles of residue incorporation in rice-wheat system, the mean weight diameter (MWD) of water stable aggregates, bulk density (BD), and water holding capacity (WHC) of soil increased [31].
Crop residues on the soil surface protect the soil from erosion, act as mulch that keep the soil cool and improves soil tilth [32]. In the USA, near about 40 per cent cropland are under no till farming with minimal investment and more than 10 M ha has been sown under cover crops with basic objectives to incorporate residues
Rapid reduction in the soil organic carbon (SOC) across the globe due to intensive monocropping without biomass incorporation has been the greatest challenge before us in this 21st century. With the changing climate and advent of chemical farming, the role of soil in maintaining the ecosystem services has brought forth so many issues and if left unattended may end in peril. About 29 and 60 per cent increase in carbon stocks in silt-loam and clayey soil in top 20 cm soil whereas the effect was seen in the upper horizon only in sandy soil has been reported [34].
Residue incorporation needs energy and time. Extra N at the time of incorporation is needed for preventing temporary immobilization of nutrients (mostly N) and correcting high C:N ratio of substrates [35]. The rate of immobilization lasts for four to six weeks under favorable soil type, moisture and temperature conditions and management factors. Starter N dose of 15 to 20 kg ha−1 could very well increase the yield of succeeding wheat or rice crop without any adverse effect on the next crop. Wheat yield depression of 0.54 to 0.08 t ha−1 has been reported with soil application of 60 and 180 kg N ha−1, respectively [36]. However, release of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and CH4 that leads to global warming can also not be set aside. Incorporation of cereal straw (having wide C:N ratio) with green manure (having narrow C:N ratio) facilitates decomposition before rice transplanting. Wheat yield reduction in initial 2 to 3 years of rice straw incorporation a month before wheat planting were although reported but in subsequent years, straw incorporation had no significant adverse effect on wheat yield. Rather, wheat yield increased by 0.6 t ha−1 over 2.91 t ha−1 with straw removal [36]. In contrast, yield advantage in wheat sown after 3 weeks of rice straw incorporation was reported in clay loam soil but not in sandy loam soil. After incorporation of rice straw, about 10–20 per cent of it is assimilated by the rice crop itself, 10–20 per cent is lost to the atmosphere through various pathways and 60 to 80 per cent is immobilized in soil [36]. Nutrient up to 40 kg ha−1 could be harnessed through incorporation of 10 t of rice straw 4 to 5 weeks before transplanting of rice in the main field [36]. Residue incorporation increases soil N and available P and K [36]. Long-term comparative studies on wheat crop residue incorporation versus inorganic fertilizer application in India showed significantly higher yield in rice and wheat through inorganic nutrition but in subsequent years, the yield under residue incorporation plus inorganic fertilizer was at par with sole inorganic one. In the fourth year, the combined mode of nutrition out-yielded the inorganic one [36].
Composting is the method of aerobic or anaerobic decomposition of organic solid wastes. It is not new; rather, it has been the oldest practice of recycling the plant nutrients in the soil. Small scale backyard composting is a usual practice in many developing and underdeveloped countries. Up till now, composting had not gained the status of agriculture industry. But with the gaining popularity of organic farming or eco-farming, its demand has increased these days. Its bulkiness, low nutrient content and high labour requirement are the major challenges in undertaking such organic waste composting projects. However, on-site composting without transportation of crop residues could be the befitting answer for maintaining soil fertility and sustaining crop production in long run. Compost improves bio-physiochemical properties of the soil while the need for synthetic fertilizers and plant protection measures could be eliminated completely. Its application improves nutrient uptake and cycling, soil microbial activity and biodiversity, and deficit moisture stress conditions as it regulates soil pH, improves soil texture, structure and aggregates, increases water holding capacity, cation ion exchange capacity and soil biodiversity [37]. It reduces soil erosion, protects crop against soil borne diseases, increase carbon sequestration and reduce compaction [37]. Composting releases heat during thermophyllic stage that kills most of the pathogens, insect larvae and eggs, and weed seeds [37].
On decomposition, biomass turns into a humus like substance called compost. The rate of compositing depends on the type of substrate and microbes, ambient air temperature, moisture level, aeration, presence or absence of toxic chemicals and heavy metals and surface area of the residue. Aerobic decomposition releases CO2 and H2O while anaerobic composting releases CH4.
The total carbon and nitrogen (C:N) ratio of the substrate is important for deciding the rate of decomposition of organic matter. Higher the ratio then longer is the duration for degradation. The desired C:N ratio for decomposition is 24:1 [38]. This 24 part of carbon is divided into 16 parts for energy and 8 parts for microbial body as most microbes have a body with C:N of 8:1 [38]. When C:N ratio exceeds 24 then microbes explore other available sources with moderate ratio. Immediately after addition of biomass, the microbial population increases resulting in immobilization i.e. transformation of N from available form to non available form. When these microbes die and decompose, the N mineralizes and becomes available for crop removal. Cereals have higher C:N ratio than legumes and hence, legumes decompose faster [38]. The Table 3 depicts C:N ratio of different agricultural crops.
Name of crops | C:N ratio |
---|---|
Wheat straw | 80:1 |
Rye straw | 82:1 |
Oat straw | 70:1 |
Rice straw | 67:1 |
Corn stover | 57:1 |
Legume hay | 17:1 |
C:N ratio of different agricultural crops at harvest [38].
The C:N ratio changes with stage of the crop. It also differs in different plant parts and with the progression of decomposition [38]. Cereals take longer period for composting that can be reduced by mixing with legumes or supplementing nitrogenous fertilizers. In compost pits cereal substrates are put in alteration with the vegetables or pulse residues. For example, rice straw and grass put together resulted in the highest rate of vermicompost production at the end of 120 days cycle compared to either of these substrate composted separately [39]. Similarly, [40] suggested addition of food stuff with rice bran for getting superior vermicompost with average C:N ratio of 20.85, 183.3, 16.86 and 15.16 from 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:5 ratio of rice bran: food stuff, respectively.
Crop residues are used for vermicomposting, enriched composting, farm yard manure, etc. Vermicomposting is the biological degradation of substrates by combined action of earthworms and microorganisms. Windrows method of vermicomposting is popular and widely practiced by adding rice straw, animal manure, and shredded banana trunks and maintaining the moisture at 60 per cent [41]. Tank, pit or heap method of vermicomposting can be followed as per convenience and quantity of available residues to be managed. Spent straw from mushroom farm containing C and N of 14.3 and 0.7 per cent can also be recycled through composting [41].
Unlike open burning, composting preserves essential plant nutrients and almost all nutrients remain inside the compost. Only the loss of N occurs in form of ammonia and nitrous oxide due to volatilization [42]. As much as 75 per cent of total N in manure is lost in form of NH3 and 1.5 to 7.3 per cent in form of N2O [43, 44]. Most composts do not contain more than 2 per cent N and its release depends on the C:N ratio, soil temperature, moisture and microbial activity [44]. Composts are better supplements for crop plants unlike most chemical fertilizers that are devoid of trace or micronutrients. The CHNS analyses of rice straw and its compost revealed increase in oxygen, sulfur and moisture but reduced total organic carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen [45]. Application of effective microorganisms (EM) to composting rice is reported to have increased macro and micronutrient content. The N, P and K content of the rice-compost is higher with EM and the Fe content was significantly higher without significant increase in Zn and Cu [46].
Production of biochar or pyrogenic carbon was the age-old practice in the Amazonian river bank which was evident from the
Researchers have observed that the pyrolytic temperature of 400°C brings in high alkalinity, cation exchange capacity, high level of available P and exchangeable cation in rice straw biochar which is suitable for soil amendment and used as fertilizer [49]. At this temperature, rice straw biochar shows the largest Cu (II) absorption capacity (0.37 mol kg−1) that is mostly of non electrostatic absorption [50]. Corn stalk biochar can also be used as efficient absorber of Pb+2 [51] and Cd+2 [52]. Continuous application of rice straw biochar and rice straw has positive influence on soil physicochemical properties with 26.9 and 70.2 per cent increase in total porosity and air permeability [53]. Its application increases soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen [53] and increases wheat productivity and accumulate P in grain [54]. Corn cob biochar is reported to have increased the pH, organic matter, soluble and available K in calcareous sandy soil [55]. Maize straw biochar application to soil reduced harmful bacteria diversity but selectively promoted community of functional bacteria population [56]. The C sequestration capacity of corn stalk (0.26) was increased to 0.64 to 1.0 on charring as resistance of char to decomposition prohibits C losses during charring [57].
Plant residues contain cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin with small fractions of sugars, pectin, protein, nitrogenous, lipids, tanins and inorganic materials [58]. Lgnin mostly provides the structural support and is almost resistant to chemical reactions and biological degradation compared to cellulose and hemicelluloses and thus resists fermentation [59, 60, 61]. In crop plants, the nonfood portion such as stalk, husk, straw, stover and bare corn cob contain lignocellulosic biomass. As in agriculture, cereals occupy the maximum area and production so also the largest quantity of such lignocellulosic materials. The residue management in cereal-cereal system such as in rice-rice and rice-maize/wheat is the biggest challenge before researchers. Very often the farmers opt for onsite open burning of the crop residues to get rid of huge biomass with higher lignocellulosic materials in it [62]. But with the advent of innovative green energy technologies, such so called wastes are now converted into precious biofuels to mitigate the growing demands.
Biofuels are produced through pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials by fungi, bacteria and enzymes that break down the lignin, a complex polymer and degrade cellulose and hemicelluloses to corresponding monomers and sugars for effective fermentation and fuel conversion [63]. The pretreatment is mostly chemical or biological but it could be mechanical and physicochemical too that result in increased surface area and porosity, and decrease in crystalinity. Biomass degradation results into ethanol, biodiesel, biobutanol, syngas, and woodtar/oil. The ethanol produced from crop residues is known as 2G bioetahol. Depending on the feedstock and process design, several by-products such as stillage, evaporator condensate and solubles, spent cake and/or distiller’s grains are produced which can be used in agricultural amendment, civil construction or sanitary landfills. Stillage is a nutrient rich biodegradable material rich in both total suspended solids (TSS) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) that requires significant processing for remediation. Lignin, a waste product from bioethaol plant is used for generating heat energy required for other processes and thus the final produce is in a form of ash. Ash is alkaline in reaction with significant quantities of Si, P, K, Ca, AL, Fe, and Mg in it which can very well be used in agriculture. In Figures 4 and 5, the harvested paddy straw is gathered by square baler and stacked in the collection centre at Thuapali village of Bargarh distract in Odisha, India as a pilot study programme under the direct supervision of the BPCL, India.
Post harvest operation of square baler in farmer’s field in Bargarh district of Odisha, India.
Stacking of square bales of rice straw in stockyard in Bargarh district of Odisha.
Anaerobic digestion of biomass produces biogas, a renewable energy containing methane as primary constituent and a final solid nutrient rich residue. Stages of anaerobic digestion include hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. In hydrolysis, the water splits into H+ and OH−. Larger polymers such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates breakdown to smaller monomers such as amino acids, simple sugars, and fatty acids in presence of an acid catalyst. In acidogenesis, acidogenic bacteria further break down organic matter still too large for methane production. Acetogenesis is the formation of acetate by acetogens for further breaking down of the biomass to a point from where methanogens can further act and degrade the remaining material to generate methane as biofuel [64]. Dried cereal crop residues should not be directly injected into the biogas unit rather mixing of animal dung in partial combination is preferable to increase the biogas efficiency. However, maize silage can be directly used for biogas production [65]. Biogas generation technology is older than biofuel production technology. The methane production potential of wheat straw is of 0.145 to 0.39 m3 kg−1 and rice straw of 0.241 to 0.367 m3 kg−1 [15]. By 2030, grasses and cereals could be the primary source of biomass for the biogas plants across the globe [66]. Table 4 enlists the major composition of bio-wastes from major crops.
Source | Composition |
---|---|
Rice | Husk, bran and straw |
Wheat | Bran and straw |
Maize | Stover, husk, and skins |
Millet | Stover |
Residues produced from major crops [67].
Rice husk and cereal straw are used for making of particle boards. Rice husk is cleaned and cereal straw thus defibred into particles is mixed with rice husk at desired proportion and then blended with cashew nut shell liquid or cardanol phenol formaldehyde resin [68]. The mixture is spread into a mat or layer of uniform desired thickness and hot pressed like conventional method of particle board making [68]. Rice husk is 20 per cent of total rice produced which can be used as cheaper, lighter, denser, stronger, durable and more uniform substitute for conventional wooden and ply boards thereby protect against deforestation and environmental degradation. Because of high Si content rice husk is difficult to burn. Apart from rice husk, rice and wheat straw can also be used for making straw-wood particle composite boards and insulation boards. However, use of rice husk in comparison to bamboo for particle board making resulted in poor quality due to higher Si content in rice husk and non-availability of suitable blender for effectively binding rice husk [69]. Advance researches are still continuing to develop an efficient and effective adhesive for rice husk boards.
Rice straw can be used as raw material for making quality paper. It contains lesser lignin compared to conventional wood and thus requires milder chemical pre treatment. Cheaper soda and soda-AQ methods are used for making paper in many developing countries but blending pollutes water by releasing more than 500 chlorinated compounds that are highly toxic, bioaccumulative and carcinogenic [70]. The graduates of IIT, Delhi have developed a pulp making process in a start up called Kriya Labs [71] that can be used in making paper, plates and cups [72].
Bio-Lutions India in Bengaluru purchases crop wastes from farmers and transforms them into biodegradable packaging materials for fruits and vegetables which can be degraded completely within three months [72]. Bio-plastics, derived from rice straw by mixing with starch, cellulose, glycerol and protein are ready to substitute the conventional plastic very shortly as it is readily biodegradable within 180 days of use compared to 500 years required for plastics to degrade [72].
The straw functions very well as bedding for animals such as horses. When briquetted, straw absorbs 5 times more fluid than normal straw for bedding. This minimizes the cleaning work in the stable, and creates a better environment for the animals. Furthermore, briquetted straw is useful for burning, and it is an excellent source of energy through generating heat, steam and electricity in conventional boilers or gasification plants.
With the advent of modern scientific agricultural practices, the agriculture and agri-waste production have increased at exponential rates across the globe. Cereals, being the staple food for humans as well as feed for cattle, contribute the most to the pool of such agri-wastes. Sustainable management of crop residues, especially in cereal systems, has been the greatest challenge before us in this world with the ever burgeoning population, agricultural production and economic growth. Rice and wheat contribute the most to the agri bio-waste pool due to wider cultivation and large scale production. However, many countries in Asia, Africa and America, at present, have failed to cope up with the large volume of crop residues although a majority of these are used as fodder and fuel. In India, northern states such as Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh burn crop residues in the month of October and November every year thereby releasing toxic fumes into the atmosphere that are very often drifted to the adjacent cities and states. Most of these residues are byproducts of wheat and rice. Small farmers usually resort to burning of crop residues as it is the inexpensive alternative in absence of technical know-how on any other better profitable and sustainable residue management or disposal opportunities.
Large scale burnings of crop residues shockingly increase air pollution and serious health issues. In the past few decades, the authorities have relentlessly tried to explore multiple waste management options to cater such unequivocal but perilous agri-wastes from the cereal systems. The possibilities of waste incorporation and decomposition through soil addition and composting are few preferred acceptable alternatives. Penal actions have also been provisioned against the errant promoters of open burning. In this line, in India, the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) have come together to monitor open burning of crop residues through aerial surveillance and to penalize farmers for doing so. However, continued air pollution in the month of November and December in spite of much touted successful, sustainable and effective actions against open burning has raised many eyebrows. Hence, efforts are being made to explore farmers’ friendly and financially viable options of residue management such as composting, biochar making, biofuel and biogas production, particle and composite board making, paper manufacturing, etc. In many developed countries, 1G and 2G ethanol production have now gained momentum that use waste biomass judiciously for generation of liquid and gaseous fuels. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) funds are being allocated in many countries for conducting research and development on large scale profitable biofuel production. It is high time to develop national gas-grid line with the support of remote sensing and GIS tools to monitor and regulate biomass production and utilization. Community biomass collection centres could facilitate easy and speedy collection and back up storage of biomass for further residue management strategies. And importantly, the residue management options should involve environment, education, social, and economic sectors holistically in addition to agriculture and energy sectors beyond the disciplinary boundaries.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-7397 (SK Dwibedi).https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2250-6726 (VC Pandey).
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
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\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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