\r\n\tPrevalence of reading disability among school-age children depends upon the criteria used for definition; however, the prevalence of written expression disorders in estimated to be between 5 and 12 percent, the prevalence of written expression disorders is estimated to be between 7 and 15 percent, while the prevalence of dyscalculia is estimated to be between 3 and 6 percent.
\r\n
\r\n\tRisk factors for learning disorders are family history, socio-economic conditions, prematurity, presence of other developmental, mental and health conditions (e.g. behavioral disorders, autism, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders), prenatal exposition to neurotoxic agents, genetic disorders, particular medical conditions, history of traumatic brain injury or other neurological conditions.
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As a clinician, he has worked in different neurological departments in Italian hospitals, Alzheimer’s clinics, neuropsychiatric clinics, and neurological rehabilitative departments as the Neurological Department and Stroke Unit of Belcolle Hospital in Viterbo, Italy.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103586",title:null,name:"Sandro",middleName:null,surname:"Misciagna",slug:"sandro-misciagna",fullName:"Sandro Misciagna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103586/images/system/103586.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sandro Misciagna was born in Italy in 1969. He received a degree in medicine in 1995 and another in neurology in 1999 from The Catholic University, Rome. From 1993 to 1995, he was involved in research of cerebellar functions. From 1994 to 2003, he attended the Neuropsychological department involved in research in cognitive and behavioural disorders. 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1. Introduction
The worldwide search for alternative fuels for energy purposes has been growing for environmental and economic reasons. One of the renewable resources of considerable interest is biomass.
In countries where there is a vast area of fertile land, a tropical climate, and available water resources, the growing of sugarcane for subsequent use of its biomass is a viable alternative [35]. From the sugarcane, one may produce various types of sugar and alcohol as well as generate electricity. Even after processing its agricultural and industrial residues such as straws, bagasse, stalks, pulp, molasses, filter cake, and other products, it can be further exploited. The predominate products derived from the sugarcane as potential alternative energy sources are ethanol alcohol, bagasse, and residue of harvesting.
On the other hand, at present, there are significant logistical problems associated with producing biomass from sugarcane. The huge size of the agricultural area and the combined management of the economic, technical, political, social, and environmental factors cause the management of the the sugar–ethanol mills to become extremely complex. Thus, decision makers have sought help by resorting to mathematical and computational tools in an effort to optimize decision making in a safe, economic, and environmentally correct manner, thus making the use of this biomass more appealing.
Section 2 of this chapter addresses the major problems of the sugarcane crop, which may be solved by resorting to optimization techniques, while Section 3 discusses mathematical modeling and solution approaches to these problems.
Figure 1.
Source: https://www.flickr.com
2. Improving the quality, production, and management of the sugarcane biomass
The sugarcane is a plant belonging to the genus Saccharum L, of which there are at least six species. The sugarcane planted today is a multispecific hybrid called Saccharum spp. It is a semiperennial crop since after planting it is cut several times before being replanted. The sugarcane species comes from South East Asia and today has become one of the leading world crops, grown in over 100 countries. About 80% of the planet’s production is concentrated in ten countries, with Brazil and India accounting for over half the world’s output. On average, its productive cycle ranges over 6 years with five harvests.
The productive cycle of sugarcane begins with preparation of the land and the subsequent choice of the variety to be planted. The cycle then involves development, ripening, and harvesting. The sugarcane resprouts and follows the cycle once more and can be cut up to five times. Then replanting takes place and the entire procedure repeats itself. However, whenever it is replanted, the sugarcane’s quality suffers significantly in terms of biomass production, sucrose output, and fiber, in other words, in every measure that directly affects the end products: sugar, alcohol, and energy. Thus, considerable investment is required in the factors that improve cost, production, and quality of the cane without affecting environmental sustainability. Key factors include appropriate management, choice of the optimal variety to be planted, soil preparation, and the correct period for planting and harvesting.
The management of all these factors is extremely complex, and the farmers and factory managers have to resort to various tools to assist them. In this context, optimization techniques have proved to be fairly efficient, as they can contribute to optimized decision making, the achievement of optimum production goals, and the planning of environmentally sustainable processes.
The literature presents a vast amount of problems in which the solution can be assisted by using deterministic optimization methodologies. The application of these methodologies consists initially in studying the problem followed by its mathematical modeling, using the knowledge acquired on the issue concerned to identify parameters, variables, objectives, and constraints. Each optimization model has specific characteristics that depend on the problem that generated it. Functions defining objective function(s) and constraints may involve nonlinearities, convexities, and other particularities. Depending on these characteristics and the required solution technique, the model will be classified within an area of optimization. The next step is to validate the model by studying its performance and coherence of its mathematical results in relation to the reality being modeled. There then follows a discussion of the solution reached with specialists from the field.
Section 2.1 presents the main factors that characterize sugarcane biomass. Sections 2.2 to 2.5 discuss four problems which may be solved with the help of deterministic optimization techniques.
2.1. Sugarcane quality
The method of assessing the quality of the raw material should align with the needs of the producer in order to grow an economically viable crop while meeting the industry requirements. This implies that the choice of new varieties developed through genetic improvement should meet all these prerequisites.
According to Engelke [9], several measures may be used to assess the quality of sugarcane. These are the percentage of pol (sucrose) in juice and in cane, percentage of brix (total soluble solids) in juice and in cane, percentage of fiber in cane, commercial cane sugar (CCS), and purity. The process of determining sugarcane quality and calculation of each of the above measures is explained in detail by Engelke [9].
Among the measures detailed to ascertain the quality of the cane, the ones respecting the fiber and sugar contents should be emphasized. Fiber is a material that is insoluble in the water contained in the cane and constitutes a substance of great importance in the sugarcane agroindustry. From an agricultural standpoint, the varieties that are richest in fiber resist falling more easily, even when they are subject to straw removal and fire and are generally more resistant to the intrusion of pests in the stalk. From an industrial stance, the amount of fiber is important for the industry’s energy balance since the fibers (bagasse and pulp) can be used for burning in boilers, generating steam which is converted into electric energy for the mill itself. At the beginning of the harvest, it is of fundamental importance that the varieties have greater fiber content to ensure the provision of fuel for the boilers. Another significant measure of the sugarcane’s quality is the amount of sugars (pol percentage in cane) as it is mainly from sucrose (for sugar production), glucose, and fructose (for alcohol production) that the industrial output of sugar and alcohol stems. The level of sucrose is directly related to the point of sugarcane maturation since at this point the levels of sucrose are highest. Besides the content of sucrose, the point of sugarcane maturation is determined by the content of reducing sugars (glucose and fructose) and pulp humidity during the crop’s cycle [2, 7, 27].
The period of time in which the variety displays appropriate technological conditions to be harvested is the useful period of industrialization, known as the period of industrial utilization (PIU). The PIU commences when the sugarcane reaches the content of sucrose (pol percentage in cane) above the accepted standard (in Brazil it is above 12.257%). From this point, it continues to increase and once it reaches its peak, the sugar content starts decreasing to a minimum permitted figure. This limit is imposed to avoid a significant loss in sugar content. In Brazil, the end of the PIU is determined when the sugar content falls to the minimum of 16%. Different varieties present different values of PIU, some shorter and others longer. Hence, the knowledge of the range of this period is extremely important when it comes to planning a variety’s planting and harvesting. In this way, one can make the most of the quality of the sugarcane [7, 35]. Figure 2 illustrates the PIU values of varieties with different maturity curves.
Figure 2.
Maturity curves for poor (with a short PIU), medium (with a medium PIU), and rich (with a long PIU) cultivars [35].
In Brazil, the varieties regarded as poor display an appropriate period for harvesting of approximately 3 months. The varieties regarded as medium enjoy a period designed for a more flexible harvest, with a period of up to 4 months. The rich varieties can be gathered with maximum harvest flexibility, extending the period to up to 6 months, depending on the cultivar [35].
The fiber and pol contents are important means of measuring cane quality, but there are also other important factors to ensure the success of the sugar cane plantation in the production of quality biomass, such as preparation of the land for cane planting, choice of the right period for planting and harvesting, and the time the cut cane waits for milling [33].
On the basis of the quality factors discussed, mathematical optimization methodologies can help to determine the planning processes for sugarcane by striving to increase its quality and/or quantity.
2.2. Preparing the land for planting
Preparing the land for planting has a direct influence on the production of sugarcane and hence assures economic, social, and environmental benefits for the sugar–alcohol sector. Because a favorable utilization of the area implies an increase in cane production, improvements in transport logistics, simplification of planting and harvesting, control of pests and weeds, and minimization of the number of maneuvers of the harvesters lead to reductions in the use of pollutants and fuel costs [16, 22].
Figure 3.
Source: https://www.flickr.com
To profit more from the available area, a planning process is needed that considers the shape of the plots and the layout of the tracks, in keeping with the area’s relief and soil. Thought should be given to the length and width of the plots in the light of the slope, as every terrace should have a track. The tracks should be rationalized, where the area used for the path system should range between 2.5% and 4.0%. It is recommended that secondary paths are made to adequately accommodate the use of machinery. Early road planning is important to define the road network and consequently the shape of the plots and position of the furrowing [4, 16, 22].
The best recommended plots are those that are rectangular in shape and as long as possible. These are compatible with highly efficient paths that avoid sharp bends and the need for the harvesters to make excessive maneuvers, leading to a loss in time and fuel consumption. One should choose an area devoid of trees, fences, stumps, and large stones, which may prevent the movement of machines. A general cleaning up should be made, removing all the irregularities such as furrows, gullies, and holes. The degree of compression of the soil and its depth should be detected, principally in areas of reform. Besides this, the plots should not have slopes greater than that which is permitted for the machinery available in the market [1].
Problem 1: Optimized partitioning of the land into plots.
Optimized planning of the partitioning of land into plots consists of dividing the area available for sugarcane planting into regular plots of adequate sizes, so as to increase the ease of turnover of the cane harvester and hence to minimize the fuel cost arising from the harvesters’ maneuvers.
After preparing the soil and partitioning the land into plots, one should make the right choice of the variety to be planted in each plot, so as to enhance the production of the cane in terms of quality and quantity.
2.3. Selection of the sugarcane varieties
Among the sugarcane’s production and quality factors, the choice of the variety to be planted constitutes the most important decision since it provides the basis of the other technologies of production and processing of raw materials, thus providing significant increases in industrial productivity without an increase in production costs [12].
Figure 4.
Source: https://www.flickr.com
The varieties should display desirable features such as high yield, high sugar content, capacity to reshoot, no tendency to fall, and resistance to pests and diseases. The moment one chooses one variety to be planted, one must note its features and adaptation to the environment; otherwise, the productive and quality potentials may be compromised [29].
The right choice of sugarcane variety for cultivation is not an easy task, as it depends on a host of fundamental information related to agronomic and industrial factors, besides the interaction of biotic, abiotic, administrative, and economic factors. Many studies have been performed with a view to proposing mathematical optimization models to assist this choice.
Problem 2: Selection of sugarcane varieties to be planted.
The problem consists of determining which are the sugarcane varieties best adapted to local soil and climate such that they can be selected to be planted in the available plots, respecting constraints and optimizing the relevant objectives. The areas of the plots as well as the distances of the plots to the mill are generally known. The objectives include cost, profit, or production optimization and energy balance. Constraints ensure sugar and fiber demand is met as well as placing bounds on the planting areas, either in total or per variety.
2.4. Sugarcane cultivation and delivery
The sugarcane cultivation cycle extends from the preparation of the soil to delivery of the cane at the factory. Among the important stages of this cycle, planting and harvesting play a major role. In fact, planned planting and harvesting lead to a series of benefits throughout the cultivation cycle and in the industry. These are improved utilization of the area, increased cane output, improved transport logistics and better cane reception in the factory, administrative simplification of the industrial activities, enhanced response to the demands of the industry, improved utilization of labor, enhanced cost planning, and improved control of pests and weeds, among others.
Figure 5.
Source: https://www.flickr.com
Setting up a sugarcane plantation involves a series of factors as it is semiperennial. To ensure that the harvest, mainly mechanized, is successful, attention must be paid to the planting process as the lifespan of the cane plantation depends on the interaction of the two operations detailed in previous sections. Regarding the first operation, many factors determine the quality of planting from its density, soil preparation, planting season, choice of variety, quality, and age of the plant and parallel alignment of the rows of plants. Quality planting directly influences not only the factors that determine if the crop will ensure a high yield following harvest, but also the reduction of crop production costs. The importance of the early operations calls for good planning and considerable technical know-how. In fact, the planting process involves high costs, and decision making in this phase will influence the entire plantation cycle [23, 32].
The harvest season is determined by considering certain factors, such as the amounts of sucrose and reducing sugars contained in the cane juice. For this reason, it is not recommended to begin harvesting until the canes have achieved the minimum technological standards for industrialization nor delay the harvesting season to avoid a fall in the average yield. The output environment may ensure the sugarcane crop is handled better, thus guaranteeing its maximum economic exploitation [23, 32].
The principal indicator in determining the moment to renew a cane plantation is related to the yield noted in the course of its ageing. The greater the number of cuts, the greater the chances of a fall in productivity and the greater the likelihood of the need for renewal. Sugarcane farming is more productive in the first cuts, with a strong tendency for the yields to decline as the years they remain standing in the plots [7, 23, 32, 35].
One problem encountered in high-yield sugarcane regions is that of ensuring that the cane harvests in all plots are performed as closely as possible to the date at which the cane has accumulated the highest PIU value (maximum point on the maturity curve, see Figure 1). Should this be possible, then one may make the most of the biomass to produce sugar and alcohol and to generate energy as well as avoid the need for chemical products. On the other hand, this is an extremely difficult task, as the factories have fixed transport and sugarcane milling capacities and have to meet demand in every period of the year. Often, out of necessity, the cane is cut outside the PIU due to factory demand, industrial limitations, or to avoid the cold periods in zones where the cane freezes, leading to high biomass loss [7]. To overcome this problem, one must undertake optimized planning of sugarcane planting and harvesting.
Problem 3: Planning the planting and harvesting of sugarcane.
Optimized planning of planting consists in deciding in which periods the cane should be planted in each plot so as to satisfy demand during every period of the subsequent 4 or 5 years. The planning of the harvest is linked to the planning of the planting, as planting in each plot should be performed in such a way that the cane harvest is undertaken close to the date of the maximum pol cane content while satisfying demand and respecting the mill’s technical limitations. In this sense, mathematical optimization modeling can be of considerable assistance in producing the combining planting and harvesting plans.
2.5. Utilization of sugarcane residual biomass
Mechanized sugarcane harvesting generates large amounts of residue. This residue, known as harvesting residual biomass, is made up of stalks, straw, leaves, and fragments of cane stems. The purpose of this biomass has been widely studied, and various research papers demonstrate the feasibility of using stalks to produce energy in view of the high useful calorific value of this material. The calorific value varies according to the growing conditions and the type of variety [2, 3, 28, 30]. The process of handling the harvesting residual biomass is very costly, and the advantages of cropping, recovery, and utilization have mobilized university researchers, factory managers, and directors, all of whom are keen to find the most productive, economical, and effective way to conduct this operation. Biomass-related factors may provide another consideration in the choice of varieties. Optimized biomass allows for improved economic results and helps to implant the residue in the mill’s energy production system. According to Sartori et al. [29], in an attempt to minimize the environmental impact and the influences affecting productivity, and hence the sugar–ethanol mill’s profitability, researchers have persisted in choosing the sugarcane variety that produces stalks with a higher calorific value and a low harvesting cost without losing its yield features. Only in this manner will it be feasible to utilize this residue for energy co-generation.
Figure 6.
Source: https://www.flickr.com
Problem 4: Utilization of residual biomass to generate energy.
The problem consists in the determination of the optimized process to collect residual biomass from the field (straw) and from the industrial process (bagasse) to be used for energy generation purposes.
Such processes may comply with the objectives of minimizing the cost of harvesting and transportation of the biomass to a processing center, or maximizing the energy and economic balance in the sugarcane processes, or other economic or environmental objectives.
3. Optimization processes
In the light of this biomass profile for the generation of energy, sugarcane has become one of the most important crops, and considerable attention has been devoted to its cultivation. It is therefore fundamental to assess its renewability and sustainability, aiming to improve the raw material intended for the sector. This includes the complete production system from soil preparation through to extraction of the raw material leading to its ultimate use. Due to its dimension and complexity, the productive sugarcane chain is faced with a range of different problems. Therefore, various tools that may help to solve these problems have been used, of which one of the most important is optimization modeling.
3.1. Mathematical programming models
Optimization is a process in which one strives to obtain the best combination of several factors (decision variables), given certain limitations (set of constraints) in keeping with one or more particular objectives (objective functions).
A general problem of single-objective optimization consists in minimizing or maximizing a function, where its domain, when dealing with mathematical programming, is represented by the set { x∈Rn / g(x) ≤ 0}, which could also be expressed through the conditions g(x) = 0 or g(x) ≥ 0:
Minimizef(x)(or maximize)E1
subject to
g(x)≤0E2
x∈RnE3
where x is the vector of decision variables; function f: Rn→\n\t\t\t\t\tR is known as the objective function; a set of constraints is defined through functions g: Rn→Rp. These define the feasible region, i.e., the set of feasible solutions, n > 0 and p > 0, are integer numbers associated, respectively, with the number of decision variables and constraints.
Depending on the nature of the optimization problem (Equations (1)–(3)), the objective function, constraints, and variables assume different characteristics, calling for different solution techniques. These different problems are classified according to the characteristics of the objective function, equations, or inequalities, which describe the restrictions and the decision variables:
If f(x) and g(x) are linear functions, and x = (x1,x2,...xn), xi∈Rfor i = 1, 2,..., n, one has a linear programming problem (LP).
If f(x) and g(x) are linear functions, and x = (x1,x2,...xn), xiinteger for i = 1, 2,..., n, one has an integer linear programming problem (ILP).
If f(x) and g(x) are linear functions, and x = (x1,x2,...xn), xiinteger for some but not all i∈ {1, 2,..., n}, one has a mixed integer linear programming problem (MILP).
If f(x) and/or g(x) are nonlinear functions, and x = (x1,x2,...xn), xiinteger for i = 1, 2,..., n, one has an integer nonlinear programming problem (INLP).
If f(x) and/or g(x) are nonlinear functions, and x = (x1,x2,...xn), xi∈Rfor i = 1, 2,..., n, one has a nonlinear programming problem (NLP).
The counterparts of these problems with binary (0 or 1) instead of integer variables have also been widely used. The corresponding acronyms are BLP, MBLP, and BNLP. If there exist q objectives f1(x),f2(x),...,fq(x) to be maximized or minimized rather than a single objective, then one has a multiobjective programming problem (MOP). If the multiple objectives have target values to be achieved rather than being purely of the minimization or maximization type, then one has a goal programming problem (GP). Both multiobjective and goal programming models follow the same classification conventions with respect to integer variables and non-linear functions as the single objective case.
There are many other varieties of optimization problems, depending on the characteristics of the functions and variables involved [17, 18, 19]. For each class of problems, there are one or more exact or approximate specific solution methods [5, 8, 24, 36].
3.2. Approaches within sugarcane processes
The quality and quantity of biomass to be produced and the activities involving growing, harvesting, transportation, processing, and commercialization of the sugarcane are factors that may be optimized with the help of optimization techniques. Several studies dedicated to optimization models to resolve the above-mentioned Problems 1, 2, 3, and 4 have been published in recent years.
Problem 1: Optimized partitioning of the land into plots.
Consider an available area for planting sugarcane in a field. k is the number of possible plots that can be allocated to sugarcane in this area. Cherry et al. [6] defined the plot generation problem as follows. The planting area must be partitioned into rectangular plots with dimensions (lj, wj), where lj is the length and wj is the width of the plot j (j=1,2,...,k) in order to increase yield, reduce traffic, and minimize the maneuvers of the sugarcane harvesting machines while respecting all the constraints imposed by mill.
According to Cherry et al. [6], the planning begins with soil preparation and the partitioning of the planting area into sugarcane plots. The main feature of plots is that they must be rectangular to prevent excessive maneuvers by the harvesting machines. The cited authors propose a methodology using an NLP model for planning the division of the plantation area into plots in order to perform mechanized harvesting. As the plots are rectangular, the authors used a two-dimensional cutting theory based method to solve the problem. Computational experiments were performed regarding real cases, and the proposed methodology shows a reduction of over 40% in the number of maneuvers of the sugarcane harvesting machines, thus implying many economic and environmental advantages.
Problem 2: Selection of sugarcane varieties to be planted.
This problem consists in deciding which of the n varieties of sugarcane, adaptable to local climate and soil, should be planted in each of the k plots, with size Lj, and distance from the cane’s processing center given by Dj (j=1,2,...,k), in such a way that it optimizes one or more objectives, whether it be to minimize costs and/or to maximize production, maximize profit, or others. The solution should meet the company’s recommendations to maintain cane quality and the demand for sugar and alcohol. Examples of these constraints include the limitation of the average sucrose and cane fiber content and the utilization of the entire area set aside for the sugarcane plantation.
Sartori et al. [27] proposed two LP models for this problem. The first model involved the selection of varieties of sugarcane to be planted meeting the mill requirements to minimize the quantity of residue produced. The second model discussed the use of residue to produce energy. This is related to the selection of varieties and quantities to be planted in order to meet the requirements of the mill, to reduce the quantity of residue and to maximize the energy production. The models developed permit the optimization of the energy available in sugarcane residue and its quantity, with the purpose of selecting the best adapted varieties for the production of energy from the biomass or for the production of compost. With these models, it is also possible to determine the area to be planted per variety, the amount of pol to be produced, the amount of residue, and the amount of energy to be extracted.
Florentino and Sartori [13] linked the two problems proposed by Sartori et al. [29] with a BLP model to support variety selection and planting quantity of sugarcane in order to reduce crop residue, maximize energy generated by this residue, and satisfy the demand of the mill. They solved the conflict between these objectives by using nonzero-sum game theory. One player was associated with residue and another with energy. From the Nash equilibrium points supplied by the game, it was possible to choose a solution that satisfies the mill’s interests, thus reducing the sugarcane crop residue and increasing the energy generated by this residue.
Sartori and Florentino [28] presented a BLP approach to a problem that is similar to the ones discussed by Sartori et al. [29]. The approach does not involve determination of the planting area per sugarcane variety but instead focuses on the decision about the variety to plant in each plot. The model of [28] is more realistic since in practice there is only one variety per plot.
Piewthongngam et al. [25] proposed an optimization model for planning cultivation of sugarcane by selecting the time and the varieties that each producer in the Northeast of Thailand should plant, avoiding the generation of excess supply during the peak of harvest. The planning takes place over a long time period and determines the cultivation period, the varieties to be planted, and the time windows of harvest for each farm so that the total sugar production is optimized. The proposed LP model allows decision makers to visualize the sugarcane production in each farm individually on different dates and with different varieties. The results presented by the authors using mathematical programming showed a potential increase of the 23% in sugar production when compared with the traditional planning method.
Florentino et al. [11] proposed a multiobjective ILP model to choose sugarcane varieties so as to minimize costs in the use of crop residue and simultaneously to maximize the energy balance. The model assists the selection of planting varieties by supplying the lowest costs for transferring residual biomass from the harvest in the field to the production center and the optimized residual energy balance. It thus provides the mean energy and fiber content of the varieties of sugarcane selected for planting, taking into account the mill’s requirements. The above-mentioned authors encountered difficulty in solving this model using exact methods for large-sized instances. The two works mentioned below followed up [11] by trying to remedy these difficulties. Thus, Homem et al. [15] used a hybrid procedure involving the primal–dual interior point and the branch-and-bound method to solve the problem. The methodology presented a good computational performance and produced reliable practical solutions, but only for small size problems. Florentino and Pato [10] studied the computational complexity of the problem and showed that it is NP-hard. They proposed a solution methodology using a bi-objective genetic algorithm. A computational experiment undertaken with a set including real and semirandomly generated instances was reported, thus showing the practicality of the technique.
Problem 3: Planning the planting and harvesting of sugarcane.
The problem consists in determining the period of the year in which the cane should be planted and harvested in each plot over four consecutive years, so as to maximize the total cane production over the planning horizon. Constraints should be respected, such as imposing the guarantee that the cane be planted in all plots in the first year, a single variety be planted per plot, the guarantee of meeting the mill’s pol and fiber demands every planning year and the guarantee that the factory’s cane milling capacity be satisfied in all the harvest periods.
Milan et al. [21] presented an ILP model to minimize the cost of transportation of sugarcane from field to mill by integrating road and rail transport systems. The model presents constraints related to the continuous supply of sugarcane in the mill, time that the harvesters can work, type and capacities of vehicles for transportation, and the storage capacity of sugarcane and the availability of routes. According to the authors, the results showed that the model is useful for minimizing the cost of transportation and also for scheduling the transportation of sugarcane, even with the large number of variables and constraints that are present in the model.
The transportation logistics during the sugarcane harvest process is a difficult problem for mill managers to solve. Higgins [14] formulated and implemented an MILP model to assist in resolving operational problems and costs of transportation of sugarcane in Australia. The model improved the scheduling of vehicles and thereby reduced the number of vehicles needed as well as the queues and downtime of vehicles at the mill. Such transport scheduling facilitates the service of traffic agents at the mill during production. The Tabu Search and Variable Neighborhood Search metaheuristics were used to determine solutions to the model. These methodologies were able to find solutions with an average reduction of approximately 90% in vehicles’ queue time, as compared with schedules produced manually by traffic agents of the mill. The solution showed also a potential savings of AU$240,000 per year compared to schedules produced manually by the traffic agent of the mill.
Mele et al. [20] formulated a multiobjective MILP model intended to optimize both the economic and the environmental performance of the production chain of cane sugar. The model is used as a quantitative tool to support decision making in the area of supply chain project planning for the combined production of sugar and ethanol, with sustainable strategic alternatives. An analysis of the model was made using a case study based on a real scenario. The authors conclude that this mathematical tool can help authorities in the analysis of strategic agroindustries and energy policies.
Silva et al. [31] proposed an integer GP model for the aggregate production planning of a Brazilian sugar and ethanol company. This model was based on conventional selection and processing techniques for the design of lots, representing the production system of sugar, ethanol, molasses, and derivatives. The work deals decisions on the agricultural and harvesting stages, sugarcane loading and transportation and energy cogeneration, selecting the production process. This approach allows decision makers to set multiple aspiration levels for their problems. An application of the proposed model for real problems in a Brazilian sugar and ethanol mill was conducted and discussed.
Ramos [26] presented a BNLP model to help solve Problem 3. The authors use strategies to calculate the model’s parameters so that if the choice of harvesting dates lies outside the PUI, then the objective function suffers a penalty. This strategy also rewards harvesting dates close to the point of the cane’s maximum maturing curve. Thus, the mathematical optimization model delivers an optimum plan with an estimated production figure 17.8% above production obtained by conventional means in the area in which it was applied.
Problem 4: Utilization of residual biomass to generate energy.
This problem consists in optimizing the processes involved in the exploitation of the sugarcane harvest’s residual biomass for the purpose of energy generation.
Sartori et al. [29] developed a model to minimize the cost of the residual biomass transfer process, to evaluate the economics of using this material and to address sucrose production and planting area constraints, considering distances from the plots to the processing center. To solve this problem, multiobjective BLP techniques were used. The model enables one to determine an estimate of the total sucrose yield at a minimum cost and to demonstrate the economic viability of the use of the harvest’s residual biomass to generate energy. Spadotto [34] proposed the application of optimization theory to improve a system designed to use the straw resulting from the mechanized harvest of sugarcane to generate energy. The goal is to maximize the volume of straw to be loaded onto the truck in the form of straw bales, thus minimizing transport costs to the processing center.
Sartori et al. [28] proposed the optimization of the sugarcane residual biomass energy balance by considering the difference between generated and consumed energy in the process of transferring this biomass from the field to the processing center. The corresponding model is a BLP model taking into account enterprise demand restrictions and cane planting area constraints. The authors concluded that using the residual biomass produced in sugarcane harvests is viable, thereby generating more energy and reducing biomass in the field. Therefore, the methodology can be applied to optimize the energy balance.
4. Conclusion
In recent years, sugarcane biomass has stood out as an alternative source of energy, both through its generation of alcohol and the cogeneration of energy through the cane’s bagasse and the residue of harvesting. Thus, the growing of sugarcane has been the subject of many studies from planting to harvesting to removal to the mill. These studies have the purposes of providing a management procedure at a lower economic cost and improving the quality and quantity of the cane produced. These objectives can be attained through optimized cane cultivation planning because the planning brings about several benefits, principally enhanced quality, and yield, and thus an increase in the bio-energy to be generated. However, crop planning is a complex process that requires considerable care by sector managers as it involves social, economic, political, and environmental factors. These convert the decision-making processes into issues of a multiobjective nature with significant consequences. In this case, the need arises for mathematical and computational techniques, which may assist managers in setting up the planning process for cultivation and handling of the cane. This chapter has discussed the major problems of this area which may be overcome through optimization methodologies and points to literature discussing current models and their solution methodologies.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Brazilian foundations CNPq (grant no. 303267/2011-9), PROPE (Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa da UNESP), FUNDUNESP (Fundação para o Desenvolvimento da UNESP), and FAPESP (grant nos. 2014/01604-0 and 2014/04353-8) for their financial support.
Margarida Vaz Pato’s research was supported by a Portuguese funding from FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, under the project UID/MAT/04561/2013.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Improving the quality, production, and management of the sugarcane biomass",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Sugarcane quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Preparing the land for planting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Selection of the sugarcane varieties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Sugarcane cultivation and delivery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Utilization of sugarcane residual biomass",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Optimization processes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1. Mathematical programming models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Approaches within sugarcane processes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Anselmi, R. Sistematização correta reduz custo das operações no campo. Jornal da Cana, Ribeirão Preto, SP, n. 171, 36, 2008.'},{id:"B2",body:'Beeharry, R.P. 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Post-harvest deterioration of sugarcane. Sugar Tech, v. 11, n. 2, 109–123, 2009.'},{id:"B34",body:'Spadotto, A.F. Teoria de empacotamento aplicada ao transporte do palhiço de cana-de-açúcar. FCA UNESP, Botucatu SP, 55 p., 2008.'},{id:"B35",body:'Stupiello, J.P. A cana-de-açúcar como matéria prima. In: PARANHOS, S. B. Cana-de açúcar cultivo e utilização. Campinas: Fundação Cargil. v. 2, 761–804, 1987.'},{id:"B36",body:'Talbe, E.G. Metaheuristics: From Design to Implementation. Wiley, 624 p., 2009.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Helenice de Oliveira Florentino",address:"helenice@ibb.unesp.br",affiliation:'
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Labate\nand Elisabeth Jamet",authors:[{id:"192741",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Jamet",fullName:"Elisabeth Jamet",slug:"elisabeth-jamet"},{id:"195663",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Calderan-Rodrigues",fullName:"Maria Juliana Calderan-Rodrigues",slug:"maria-juliana-calderan-rodrigues"},{id:"195664",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca",fullName:"Juliana Fonseca",slug:"juliana-fonseca"},{id:"195666",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Labate",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Labate",slug:"carlos-alberto-labate"}]},{id:"52891",title:"Advances in the Application of Spectroscopic Techniques in the Biofuel Area over the Last Few Decades",slug:"advances-in-the-application-of-spectroscopic-techniques-in-the-biofuel-area-over-the-last-few-decade",signatures:"João Cajaiba Da Silva, Alex Queiroz, Alline Oliveira and Vinícius\nKartnaller",authors:[{id:"107106",title:"Prof.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cajaiba Da Silva",fullName:"João Cajaiba Da Silva",slug:"joao-cajaiba-da-silva"},{id:"192636",title:"MSc.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz",fullName:"Alex Queiroz",slug:"alex-queiroz"},{id:"192637",title:"MSc.",name:"Alline",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Alline Oliveira",slug:"alline-oliveira"},{id:"192638",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"Kartnaller",fullName:"Vinicius Kartnaller",slug:"vinicius-kartnaller"}]},{id:"52894",title:"Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry as a Tool of Biofuel Quantification",slug:"liquid-scintillation-spectrometry-as-a-tool-of-biofuel-quantification",signatures:"Romana Krištof and Jasmina Kožar Logar",authors:[{id:"192398",title:"Dr.",name:"Romana",middleName:null,surname:"Krištof",fullName:"Romana Krištof",slug:"romana-kristof"}]},{id:"53923",title:"Chromatographic Methods Applied to the Characterization of Bio-Oil from the Pyrolysis of Agro-Industrial Biomasses",slug:"chromatographic-methods-applied-to-the-characterization-of-bio-oil-from-the-pyrolysis-of-agro-indust",signatures:"Maria Silvana A. 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Castanheiro",authors:[{id:"172236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Castanheiro",fullName:"Jose Castanheiro",slug:"jose-castanheiro"}]},{id:"53017",title:"Thermodynamic Properties of Propanol and Butanol as Oxygenate Additives to Biofuels",slug:"thermodynamic-properties-of-propanol-and-butanol-as-oxygenate-additives-to-biofuels",signatures:"Eduardo A. Montero, Fernando Aguilar, Natalia Muñoz-Rujas and\nFatima E. M. Alaoui",authors:[{id:"192066",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Montero",fullName:"Eduardo Montero",slug:"eduardo-montero"},{id:"195808",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar",fullName:"Fernando Aguilar",slug:"fernando-aguilar"},{id:"195809",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Rujas",fullName:"Natalia Muñoz-Rujas",slug:"natalia-munoz-rujas"},{id:"195810",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatima E. M.",middleName:null,surname:"Alaoui",fullName:"Fatima E. M. Alaoui",slug:"fatima-e.-m.-alaoui"}]},{id:"51983",title:"Photocatalytic Reforming of Lignocelluloses, Glycerol, and Chlorella to Hydrogen",slug:"photocatalytic-reforming-of-lignocelluloses-glycerol-and-chlorella-to-hydrogen",signatures:"Masahide Yasuda",authors:[{id:"153619",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Masahide",middleName:null,surname:"Yasuda",fullName:"Masahide Yasuda",slug:"masahide-yasuda"}]},{id:"52482",title:"Renewable Hydrocarbons from Triglyceride's Thermal Cracking",slug:"renewable-hydrocarbons-from-triglyceride-s-thermal-cracking",signatures:"Vinicyus R. Wiggers, Ramon F. Beims, Laércio Ender, Edésio L.\nSimionatto and Henry F. Meier",authors:[{id:"191518",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicyus",middleName:"Rodolfo",surname:"Wiggers",fullName:"Vinicyus Wiggers",slug:"vinicyus-wiggers"},{id:"191623",title:"Dr.",name:"Laércio",middleName:null,surname:"Ender",fullName:"Laércio Ender",slug:"laercio-ender"},{id:"191624",title:"Dr.",name:"Edésio",middleName:null,surname:"Simionatto",fullName:"Edésio Simionatto",slug:"edesio-simionatto"},{id:"191625",title:"Prof.",name:"Henry",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Henry Meier",slug:"henry-meier"},{id:"194615",title:"BSc.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Beims",fullName:"Ramon Beims",slug:"ramon-beims"}]},{id:"52682",title:"Biogasification of Horse Dung Using a Cylindrical Surface Batch Biodigester",slug:"biogasification-of-horse-dung-using-a-cylindrical-surface-batch-biodigester",signatures:"Patrick Mukumba, Golden Makaka and Sampson Mamphweli",authors:[{id:"190991",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Mukumba",fullName:"Patrick Mukumba",slug:"patrick-mukumba"}]},{id:"52553",title:"Refractory Materials for Biofuel Boilers",slug:"refractory-materials-for-biofuel-boilers",signatures:"Valentin Antonovič, Jacek Szczerba, Jadvyga Keriene, Rimvydas\nStonys and Renata Boris",authors:[{id:"191584",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentin",middleName:null,surname:"Antonovič",fullName:"Valentin Antonovič",slug:"valentin-antonovic"},{id:"191933",title:"Prof.",name:"Jadvyga",middleName:null,surname:"Kerienė",fullName:"Jadvyga Kerienė",slug:"jadvyga-keriene"},{id:"191934",title:"Dr.",name:"Rimvydas",middleName:null,surname:"Stonys",fullName:"Rimvydas Stonys",slug:"rimvydas-stonys"},{id:"191935",title:"MSc.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Boris",fullName:"Renata Boris",slug:"renata-boris"},{id:"195219",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Szczerba",fullName:"Jacek Szczerba",slug:"jacek-szczerba"}]},{id:"52840",title:"Power Form Agripellets",slug:"power-form-agripellets",signatures:"Claudia Santibáñez Varnero and Marcela Vargas Urrutia",authors:[{id:"192111",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Santibanez",fullName:"Claudia Santibanez",slug:"claudia-santibanez"}]},{id:"52522",title:"SWOT Analysis Applied to Wheat Straw Utilization as a Biofuel in Mexico",slug:"swot-analysis-applied-to-wheat-straw-utilization-as-a-biofuel-in-mexico",signatures:"Gisela Montero, Conrado García, Marcos A. Coronado, Lydia\nToscano, Margarita Stoytcheva, Ricardo Torres, Ana M. Vázquez\nand Daniela G. Montes",authors:[{id:"69000",title:"Dr.",name:"Gisela",middleName:null,surname:"Montero",fullName:"Gisela Montero",slug:"gisela-montero"},{id:"69007",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:"MarÃa",surname:"Vázquez",fullName:"Ana Vázquez",slug:"ana-vazquez"},{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva"},{id:"173381",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Coronado",fullName:"Marcos Coronado",slug:"marcos-coronado"},{id:"192231",title:"Dr.",name:"Conrado",middleName:null,surname:"García",fullName:"Conrado García",slug:"conrado-garcia"},{id:"192232",title:"Dr.",name:"Lydia",middleName:null,surname:"Toscano-Palomar",fullName:"Lydia Toscano-Palomar",slug:"lydia-toscano-palomar"},{id:"192239",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",fullName:"Ricardo Torres",slug:"ricardo-torres"},{id:"192337",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Montes Nuñez",fullName:"Daniela Montes Nuñez",slug:"daniela-montes-nunez"}]},{id:"53174",title:"Use of Corn Dried Distillers Grains (DDGS) in Feeding of Ruminants",slug:"use-of-corn-dried-distillers-grains-ddgs-in-feeding-of-ruminants",signatures:"Ewa Pecka-Kiełb, Andrzej Zachwieja, Dorota Miśta, Wojciech\nZawadzki and Anna Zielak-Steciwko",authors:[{id:"190142",title:"Dr.",name:"Ewa",middleName:null,surname:"Pecka-Kiełb",fullName:"Ewa Pecka-Kiełb",slug:"ewa-pecka-kielb"},{id:"195770",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Zachwieja",fullName:"Andrzej Zachwieja",slug:"andrzej-zachwieja"},{id:"195771",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Miśta",fullName:"Dorota Miśta",slug:"dorota-mista"},{id:"195774",title:"Prof.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Zawadzki",fullName:"Wojciech Zawadzki",slug:"wojciech-zawadzki"},{id:"195775",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Zielak-Steciwko",fullName:"Anna Zielak-Steciwko",slug:"anna-zielak-steciwko"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73336",title:"Palliative Care in Colorectal Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93513",slug:"palliative-care-in-colorectal-cancer",body:'
1. Introduction
Cancer is a major public health problem worldwide, and colorectal cancer is the third most diagnosed cancer among both men and women in the United States [1], Brazil [2] and, overall, it is the third more frequent malignant disease around the world (1.85 million of new cases/years; 10.2% of total malignancies), with a 2.27% cumulative risk of onset between 0 and 74 years [3].
The mortality from colorectal cancer varies with several factors from the genetic variations of disease to the developmental status of a nation. Tumor staging remains the main prognostic factor.
The last two decades have seen substantial progress in the treatments to metastatic disease offering significant improvements in survival. According to SEER, the 5-year relative survival rate for patients diagnosed from 2008 to 2012 was about 64% for all stages taken together, and it was 14% for patients with metastatic disease [4].
At the time of first diagnosis, approximately 25% of patients present stage IV, with liver metastases, and up to 50% will develop recurrence in the liver during the disease course [5]. Most of these patients have liver metastasis considered unresectable at presentation [6], but about 20–30% of patients have a resectable disease that is confined to the liver [3], and despite a metastatic diagnosis, a half these of patients may benefit from the surgical resection of liver metastasis with curative intent, with improvements in a 5-year survival [7].
Colorectal cancer survival disparities are largely driven by socioeconomic inequalities that result in differences in access to early detection tests, refinements in molecular diagnosis, and the receipt of timely, high-quality treatment [8].
Today, the median overall survival for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer being treated both in phase III trials and in large observational series or registries is about 30 months and is more than double that of 20 years ago [9]. These patients with unresectable disease remain incurable and the treatments are mainly palliative.
We performed a non-systematic literature review of the results of a search in PubMed® with terms “palliative care” and “colorectal cancer” published in the last 5 years without restrictions of language. We found 304 articles that were manually selected for reading and synthesis of this work.
2. Palliative care
Palliative care has appropriately been receiving increased attention in recent years, due to better comprehension of this field of action and due to incremental costs of antineoplastic therapy disproportionated with clinical results.
From practical standpoint, therapy is considered palliative when resection of all known tumor sites is no longer possible or advisable and chemotherapy have limited benefit rate. Since a cure, as commonly defined, is not possible, the goal of treatment and eventually the success of therapy become judged by the control of symptoms and alleviation of suffering, not more by survival advantages or longer disease-free intervals [10].
Providing optimal palliative care for the patient with advanced colorectal cancer is a complex and challenging process. The success rate depends on proactive multidisciplinary interventions, taken early in metastatic disease [11].
Palliative care can improve all phases of the disease, it allows better decisions in the end-of-life care and potentially reduces health-care expenditures, but the exact understanding of commonly used terms such as “supportive care,” “symptom control” “palliative care,” and “hospice care” was rarely and inconsistently defined in the palliative oncology literature [12].
The roots of palliative medicine may be traced since Hippocrates through medieval medicine until a more recent approach of Cicely Saunders and to a new concept of modern palliative care. It has evolved from a philosophy of care for the dying to an interprofessional discipline that addresses mainly the quality of life for patients and their families throughout the disease trajectory [13].
The best palliative care will ever require a multidisciplinary approach where treatment plans will be made in accordance with the wishes of the patient and his family with a goal of decreasing morbidity and focus on improving quality of life by addressing their physical, emotional, and spiritual needs, and on supporting their families [14].
The provision of optimal palliative care for these patients is a compound and demanding process and becomes more challenging when an incurable and asymptomatic primary progress to advanced metastatic colorectal disease [15].
Surgical resection may provide good palliation of symptoms and prevent future tumor-related complications as we saw before [15].
Better than dividing patients into strict treatment protocols and different models of care, this new concept supports the provision of patient care by a single discipline comprised of a team of health-care professionals with expertise in symptom management, psychosocial care, spiritual support, caregiver care, communication, complex decision-making skills, and end-of-life care [16].
The need for incorporating palliative care into routine oncology practice is still enormous, but the benefits of doing so are even more significant. Outside United States and some places in Europe, financially strained health systems will need cost-effective models of palliative care delivery. As the aging population increases, the number of people diagnosed with cancer, and degenerative disease will increase, raising the need for this kind of approach.
As we see in the United States, as the cancer population grows, an already limited oncology workforce will be further strained. Cost- and resource-effective models of palliative care delivery will be required.
Volunteer work fills a large part of these gaps and can be the way out to overcome difficulties in access and funding [17], but adequate training of volunteers is essential to obtain the appropriate level of performance [16].
Community involvement needs to go beyond resource mobilization. In the current context of health systems, reaching higher levels of participation, involving the community as a partner in the implementation and support of these projects is something more complex and more difficult to achieve. Common barriers include the lack of mandatory preparatory work to understand the community’s social and political dynamics, the facilitators’ values and agenda [18].
Public expectations will rise and require that expectations will rise and require that palliative care be well integrated into all oncology care settings. All these factors will serve to promote the integration of expectations of a new way of oncology care.
The most important goals of palliative care are stablishing a good communication and offer an outstanding symptom control. Without adequate symptom control, no psycho-emotional measures can be adequately developed.
3. Symptoms of advanced disease
Initial symptoms vary from mild anemia to bowel obstruction. In extremis, two main situations are considered, asymptomatic (or minimally symptomatic) and severely symptomatic patients needing aggressive management, including emergency cases [9].
For a significantly part of symptoms or complications, the main treatment approach is surgery, by resection of the primitive tumor or stoma, eventually resection of liver metastasis, combined with radiotherapy (for rectal cancer) and chemotherapy (adjuvant or for metastatic disease).
Beyond surgery, the management of metastatic disease has significantly changed over the last three decades with the incorporation of antiangiogenics (bevacizumab and panitumumab) and anti EGFR1 agent (cetuximab), and more recently, immunomodulation with anti-PD1 and Anti PD-L1 agents. Nowadays the multidisciplinary approach is essential [19].
Emergency management of colorectal cancer patients still represents a major issue and is associated to high morbidity/mortality, and where there was often no time for patient directives to be established. The two major situations are obstruction and massive bleeding. Perforation is a rare presentation [20]. For these situations, palliative surgery may be the most appropriate approach.
Obstruction is traditionally approached surgically by colonic resection, stoma, or internal by-pass or a stenting [21].
Bleeding may be managed by surgery or less invasive approaches, including radiotherapy, laser therapy and other transanal procedures [12].
Perforation is associated with the highest mortality and remains mostly matter for surgeons, by abdominal lavage/drainage, colonic resection and/or stoma [11].
In cases of more advanced disease, patients may present with jaundice (due to liver metastasis or biliary tract obstruction) or malignant ascites. As the number of patients with malignant distal biliary obstruction who will undergo curative surgery is limited, endoscopy has a crucial role in palliation [22].
Biliary obstruction was most common cause of jaundice, and standard techniques of biliary cannulation by endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography are the main treatment option. When it fails, endoscopic ultrasound-guided biliary drainage is a better option compared to percutaneous drainage [23].
Biliary obstruction can be the presentation of an advanced stage of disease. Median overall survival after onset of jaundice was 1.5 months but may improved to 9.6 months in patients submitted to a biliary decompression who were able to receive further chemotherapy. Jaundice due to metastatic colorectal cancer is often an ominous finding, representing aggressive tumor biology or exhaustion of therapies [14].
Jaundice represents a major concern for patients, from the unpleasant feeling of itching and to the limitations of social interaction because the change in color of the skin.
Malignant ascites accompanies a variety of abdominal and extra-abdominal metastasis and mainly peritoneal dissemination of disease. It is a cause of high morbidity, major discomfort, and several other symptoms, leading to a significant reduction in the patient’s quality of life. This situation raises several treatment challenges where treatment options include a multitude of different procedures but with limited efficacy, new clinical problems as loss of proteins and electrolyte disorders that may cause diffuse edema, and some degree of risk [24].
Patients with anasarca usually present with great discomfort, with cold, thin skin and with skin transudate. These are situations that may require palliative sedation and suspension of parenteral hydration since excess of fluids worsens symptoms [25].
The treatment of malignant ascites primarily includes paracentesis and diuretics, as first-line treatments. Diuretic therapy is effective at the very beginning of the disease but efficacy declines with tumor progression and was associated with dry mouth and orthostatic hypotension [15].
Paracentesis is widely adopted but it is associated with significant patient discomfort, risks of bleeding or bowel perforation, and loss of significant amount of albumin, with worsening of peripheral edema.
Intraperitoneal chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and radioisotopes are rarely an option in this situation [13].
Some symptoms of advanced disease may be less specific for colorectal carcinoma and represent a systemic impairment by neoplastic disease, like cachexia/sarcopenia.
Cachexia is a multifactorial syndrome characterized by loss of appetite, weight, and skeletal muscle (sarcopenia) [26], leading to a cluster of symptoms like fatigue, functional impairment, increased treatment-related toxicity, poor quality of life, and reduced survival. Across malignancies, cachexia becomes more prevalent as the disease progresses, impacting approximately half of patients with advanced cancer [27].
Cachexia is a situation where preventive treatment is the most efficient. Once severe sarcopenia is established, the condition is rarely reversible. The nutritional approach should start with the development of anorexia, before weight loss begins [28].
Dietary counseling and physical activities must be offered with the goals of providing patients some advice for the preemptive management of cachexia. Enteral feeding tubes and parenteral nutrition should not be used routinely due to the discomfort, increment of costs and social life limitations.
No specific pharmacological intervention can be recommended as the standard of care, but progesterone analogs and short-term corticosteroids. It may be choose wisely because is associated with thromboembolic risk and gain of more fat gain than muscle mass [16].
Among other nonspecific symptoms of colorectal carcinoma, but often associated with advanced neoplasia, 35–96% of patients experience pain, 32–90% experience fatigue, and 10–70% experience breathlessness [25]. The broad ranges of incidence arise from the forms and time of assessment.
Symptom assessment in patients with advanced disease shows a progressive clustering of cascading events. Patients typically experience more than one symptom at any one time [29]. Grond et al. [16] found that 94% of those referred to a cancer pain clinic experienced additional symptoms, with 15% reporting at least five.
Symptoms may be a result of the interactions of conditions not only caused by the cancer itself, but as indirect consequences of the cancer, early or late adverse effects of treatment, and/or comorbid conditions [30].
Most patients with stage IV colorectal cancer have a poor prognosis, but numerous palliative modalities, as seem, are available today. When a cure is no longer possible, treatment is directed toward providing symptomatic relief, and a better quality of life [31].
It is difficult to draw the line between the usefulness of chemotherapy and therapeutic futility. As more drug options become available, the greater the tendency to prolong antineoplastic treatment.
Functional activity indexes can correctly evaluate disability but need to be combined and integrated with other parameters to assess prognosis.15 Poor performance status values are the main point to assess the possibility of the usefulness of chemotherapy.
Chemotherapy administration near death, showed that this approach did not improve quality of life for patients with poor performance status, and can be detrimental also for patients with good performance status [13]. Third line and beyond treatments prolonged overall survival versus palliative care, in high selected [32].
Aggressive care near the end of life as a sign of poor-quality cancer services [33] but, although numerous studies have measured these indicators, different criteria were used to define populations of interest make a comparison of results difficult [34].
Despite the frequency of symptoms and the limitations of antineoplastic therapy, oncologists did not systematically refer patients to a palliative care specialist, but only requested their intervention for pain and symptom management [35].
We need to change reality and dispel myths and prejudices in relation to palliative care to improve the quality of life between cancer diagnosis and death. It is necessary to change the role of the physician in navigating this course [36], or create referral programs regardless of the physician.
4. Time of palliative care in colorectal cancer
When a cure is no longer possible, treatment is directed toward providing symptomatic relief. The data available today leave little doubt that surgical resection, when feasible, may provide good palliation for some patients with metastatic disease. Although palliative surgery has been the mainstay of palliative care, an individualized multidisciplinary approach, which may involve both surgical and nonsurgical modalities, is probably the best current option [31].
In the last decade major changes in health-care delivery, changing demographics, and new treatment options have significantly changed the cancer patients’ trajectory [37]. Now is the time to adapt the current models of palliative care to achieve the strongest dissemination to all cancer care settings. Implementation of palliative care can be achieved through recognition of emerging best practices and financial support to afford this model of care [38].
The difference between curative and palliative care lies in defining the main goal of treatment, since palliative treatments can extend life [39]. Palliative care is incorrectly associated with the suspension of all forms of antineoplastic therapy, but the persistence of inappropriate antitumor treatments in non-responding patients and overly aggressive care often affects a patient’s quality of life [40].
A report from a retrospective cohort study including all patients who died of colorectal cancer between 2004 and 2012 in Manitoba, Canada, provides the better evidence that early palliative care involvement is associated with decreased odds of dying in hospital and lower health-care utilization and costs in patients with colorectal cancer [41].
5. Expected results
The goal of palliative care is improvement of quality of life. Good communication skills and flawless symptom control is associated with improved patient and family quality of life, greater treatment compliance, and may even offer survival advantages [42].
A 2016 meta-analysis evaluated 40 palliative care trials and concluded that this care was associated with improved patient quality of life and control of symptom burden [43].
The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) recommends the integration of palliative care into oncology practice [23], but despite the increasing evidence of the benefits of palliative care there is little consensus regarding strategies for integrating palliative care into the routine practice of oncology [44]. The lack of qualified professionals, the difficulties of access and the remuneration of professionals are still the biggest obstacles, especially in underdeveloped countries.
Palliative care has emphasized support for family caregivers. Although the family caregiver literature is even more limited than patient-focused studies, there is growing evidence of the benefits of palliative for family caregivers [15], but our current models of remuneration are insufficient to cover the care of the patient’s family members, and especially in the assistance to bereavement.
For palliative care to be truly integrated into oncology care, it will need to take on new forms, expanding for greater use in outpatient and community settings, survivorship clinics, and the most important, primary practice of oncology [45].
In an era of limited resources and incremental costs of health care, expanding palliative care capacity to meet clinical guidelines and population health needs seems to save costs. The major problem is a significant variance in estimates of the effects of treatment on costs, depending on the timing of intervention, the primary diagnosis, and the overall illness burden.
Because ASCO guidelines state that palliative care should be provided concurrently with other treatment from the point of diagnosis onward for all metastatic cancer, a broad evaluation is required to evaluate the cost effects of palliative care across the entire disease trajectory [46].
6. Conclusion
Colorectal carcinoma is a frequent entity, with many patients being diagnosed with metastatic disease “de novo” or having recurrences of the disease after primary treatment.
Although a fraction of patients may undergo resection of metastases with curative intent, the vast majority will remain eligible only for palliative treatment modalities, which may include surgery or systemic antineoplastic therapy.
Fundamentally, the practice of palliative care includes an impeccable control of symptoms, good communication, and psycho-emotional support for patients and their families.
The demand for palliative care to be integrated throughout the cancer trajectory, combined with a limited palliative care workforce, means that new models of care are needed.
Palliative care began in academic centers with specialty consultation services, and its value to patients, families, and health systems has been evident.
Volunteering can help fill most of the gaps in palliative care, but its implementation is still difficult and restricted to some more developed centers.
This chapter discusses evidence regarding the need for integration of palliative care into routine oncology care and describes the best practices recognized for dissemination of palliative care. The available evidence suggests that palliative care be widely adopted by clinicians in all oncology settings to benefit the patients with cancer and their families. Efforts are needed to adapt and integrate palliative care into community practice.
The benefits of palliative care can only be realized through effective dissemination of these principles of care, with more primary palliative care delivered by oncology clinicians.
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Most patients with stage IV colorectal cancer have a poor prognosis, but numerous palliative modalities are available today. When a cure is no longer possible, treatment is directed toward providing symptomatic relief. Good symptom management in oncology is associated with improved patient and family quality of life, greater treatment compliance, and may even offer survival advantages.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73336",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73336",signatures:"Ricardo Caponero",book:{id:"9788",title:"Colorectal Cancer",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Colorectal Cancer",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alberto Vannelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9788.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83881-103-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-102-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-117-4",editors:[{id:"34524",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Vannelli",slug:"alberto-vannelli",fullName:"Alberto Vannelli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Palliative care",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Symptoms of advanced disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Time of palliative care in colorectal cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Expected results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Siegel RL et al. Colorectal cancer statistics. CA: a Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2017;67(3):177-193'},{id:"B2",body:'Instituto Nacional de Câncer José Alencar Gomes da Silva. Estimativa 2020: incidência de câncer no Brasil/Instituto Nacional de Câncer. ISBN 978-85-7318-389-4 (versão eletrônica) José Alencar Gomes da Silva. Rio de Janeiro: INCA; 2019'},{id:"B3",body:'Mattiuzzi C, Sanchis-Gomar F, Lippi G. Concise update on colorectal cancer epidemiology. Annals of Translational Medicine. 2019;7(21):609-613'},{id:"B4",body:'Rawla P, Sunkara T, Barsouk A. Epidemiology of colorectal cancer: Incidence, mortality, survival, and risk factors. Przegla̜d Gastroenterologiczny. 2019;14(2):89'},{id:"B5",body:'Garden OJ, Rees M, Poston GJ, Mirza D, Saunders M, Ledermann J, et al. Guidelines for resection of colorectal cancer liver metastases. Gut. 2006;55(suppl 3):iii1-iii8'},{id:"B6",body:'Smith JJ, D’Angelica MI. Surgical management of hepatic metastases of colorectal cancer. Hematology/Oncology Clinics. 2015;29(1):61-84'},{id:"B7",body:'Choti MA, Sitzmann JV, Tiburi MF, Sumetchotimetha W, Rangsin R, Schulick RD, et al. Trends in long-term survival following liver resection for hepatic colorectal metastases. Annals of Surgery. 2002;235(6):759'},{id:"B8",body:'Edwards BK, Noone AM, Mariotto AB, Simard EP, Boscoe FP, Henley SJ, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2010, featuring prevalence of comorbidity and impact on survival among persons with lung, colorectal, breast, or prostate cancer. Cancer. 2014;120(9):1290-1314'},{id:"B9",body:'Van Cutsem E et al. ESMO consensus guidelines for the management of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Annals of Oncology. 2016;27(8):1386-1422'},{id:"B10",body:'Dixon MR, Stamos MJ. Strategies for palliative care in advanced colorectal cancer. Digestive Surgery. 2004;21(5-6):344-351'},{id:"B11",body:'Joffe J, Gordon PH. Palliative resection for colorectal carinoma. Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 1981;24(5):355-360'},{id:"B12",body:'Hui D et al. Concepts and definitions for “supportive care,”“best supportive care,” “palliative care,” and “hospice care” in the published literature, dictionaries, and textbooks. Supportive Care in Cancer. 2013;21(3):659-685'},{id:"B13",body:'Von Gunten CF, Lupu D. Development of a medical subspecialty in palliative medicine: Progress report. Journal of Palliative Medicine. 2004;7(2):209-219'},{id:"B14",body:'Meghani SH. A concept analysis of palliative care in the United States. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2004;46(2):152-161'},{id:"B15",body:'Rudler M et al. Optimal management of ascites. Liver International. 2020;40:128-135'},{id:"B16",body:'Lee J, Lee JE. A palliative care program for volunteers in a community setting: A mixed-methods pilot study. American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Medicine. 2020;37(6):455-464'},{id:"B17",body:'Scott R, Goossensen A, Payne S, Pelttari L. What it means to be a palliative care volunteer in eight European countries: A qualitative analysis of accounts of volunteering. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences. 2020:1-8. doi: 10.1111/scs.12832'},{id:"B18",body:'Kumar S. Community participation in palliative care: Reflections from the ground. Progress Palliative Care. 2020;28(2):83-88'},{id:"B19",body:'Costi R et al. Palliative care and end-stage colorectal cancer management: The surgeon meets the oncologist. World journal of gastroenterology: WJG. 2014;20(24):7602'},{id:"B20",body:'Lavanchy JL et al. Oncologic long-term outcomes of emergency versus elective resection for colorectal cancer. International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 2019;34(12):2091-2099'},{id:"B21",body:'Modlin J, Walker HSJ. Palliative resections in cancer of the colon and rectum. Cancer. 1949;2(5):767-776'},{id:"B22",body:'Nichols SD et al. Outcomes in patients with obstructive jaundice from metastatic colorectal cancer and implications for management. Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery. 2014;18(12):2186-2191'},{id:"B23",body:'Viesca MFY, Arvanitakis M. Early diagnosis and management of malignant distal biliary obstruction: A review on current recommendations and guidelines. Clinical and Experimental Gastroenterology. 2019;12:415'},{id:"B24",body:'Cavazzoni E et al. Malignant ascites: Pathophysiology and treatment. International Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2013;18(1):1-9'},{id:"B25",body:'Huang HL, Tsai JS, Yao CA, Cheng SY, Hu WY, Chiu TY. Shared decision making with oncologists and palliative care specialists effectively increases the documentation of the preferences for do not resuscitate and artificial nutrition and hydration in patients with advanced cancer: A model testing study. BMC Palliative Care. 2020;19(1):1-9'},{id:"B26",body:'Blauwhoff-Buskermolen S et al. Loss of muscle mass during chemotherapy is predictive for poor survival of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2016;34(12):1339-1344'},{id:"B27",body:'Roeland EJ et al. Management of cancer cachexia: ASCO guideline. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2020;38(21):2438-2453. DOI: 10.1200/JCO.20.00611'},{id:"B28",body:'Fearon K, Strasser F, Anker SD, Bosaeus I, Bruera E, Fainsinger RL, et al. Definition and classification of cancer cachexia: An international consensus. The Lancet Oncology. 2011;12(5):489-495'},{id:"B29",body:'Grond S et al. Prevalence and pattern of symptoms in patients with cancer pain: A prospective evaluation of 1635 cancer patients referred to a pain clinic. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 1994;9(6):372-382'},{id:"B30",body:'Twycross R, Harcourt J, Bergl S. A survey of pain in patients with advanced cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 1996;12(5):273-282'},{id:"B31",body:'Amersi F, Stamos MJ, Ko CY. Palliative care for colorectal cancer. Surgical Oncology Clinics of North America. 2004;13(3):467-477'},{id:"B32",body:'Chiang CL et al. Real-world treatment patterns and outcomes in refractory metastatic colorectal cancer. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2019;15:5-13'},{id:"B33",body:'Earle CC et al. Aggressiveness of cancer care near the end of life: Is it a quality-of-care issue? Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2008;26(23):3860'},{id:"B34",body:'Earle CC et al. Evaluating claims-based indicators of the intensity of end-of-life cancer care. International Journal for Quality in Health Care. 2005;17(6):505-509'},{id:"B35",body:'Massa I et al. Chemotherapy and palliative care near end-of life: Examining the appropriateness at a cancer institute for colorectal cancer patients. BMC Palliative Care. 2018;17(1):86'},{id:"B36",body:'Felder SI, Kwaan MR. Palliative care in advanced colorectal cancer–balancing treatment with comfort. Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 2016;59(11):1102-1104'},{id:"B37",body:'Lobb EA et al. Living with advanced cancer and an uncertain disease trajectory: An emerging patient population in palliative care? BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care. 2015;5(4):352-357'},{id:"B38",body:'Ferrell BR et al. Dissemination and implementation of palliative care in oncology. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2020;38(9):995-1001'},{id:"B39",body:'Harrington SE, Smith TJ. The role of chemotherapy at the end of life: “when is enough, enough?”. JAMA. 2008;299(22):2667-2678'},{id:"B40",body:'Prigerson HG et al. Chemotherapy use, performance status, and quality of life at the end of life. JAMA Oncology. 2015;1(6):778-784'},{id:"B41",body:'Delisle ME et al. Timing of palliative care in colorectal cancer patients: Does it matter? Journal of Surgical Research. 2019;241:285-293'},{id:"B42",body:'Henson LA et al. Palliative care and the management of common distressing symptoms in advanced cancer: Pain, breathlessness, nausea and vomiting, and fatigue. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2020;38(9):905'},{id:"B43",body:'Kavalieratos D et al. Association between palliative care and patient and caregiver outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2016;316(20):2104-2114'},{id:"B44",body:'Health Quality Ontario. Team-based models for end-of-life care: An evidence-based analysis. Ontario Health Technology Assessment Series. 2014;14(20):1'},{id:"B45",body:'National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care. Clinical Practice Guidelines for Quality Palliative Care. 4th ed. Richmond, VA: National Coalition for Hospice and Palliative Care; 2018. Available from: https://www.nationalcoalitionhpc.org/ncp/'},{id:"B46",body:'May P, Normand C, Morrison RS. Economics of palliative care for cancer: Interpreting current evidence, mapping future priorities for research. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2020;38(9):980-986'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ricardo Caponero",address:"r.caponero@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,200 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+146,270 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
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\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,200 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+146,270 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
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