Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) species grouped according to their morphology and fermentative pathway, isolated worldwide from grapes, musts, and wines (adapted from [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63846",title:"Lactic Acid Bacteria Contribution to Wine Quality and Safety",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81168",slug:"lactic-acid-bacteria-contribution-to-wine-quality-and-safety",body:'\nThis review focuses on the current knowledge about the impact of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in wine composition and flavor. In wine, LAB perform a second fermentation consisting of decarboxylating L-malic acid to L-lactic acid, designated by malolactic fermentation (MLF). This fermentation follows the alcoholic fermentation conducted by yeast (
Under favorable conditions, MLF occurs spontaneously after alcoholic fermentation by the growth of indigenous LAB population in wine. However, selected strains of LAB can be inoculated into wine to induce MLF. According to the types of wines produced, this biological deacidification may be considered beneficial or detrimental to wine quality. However, it should be highlighted that some LAB species in particular homofermentative pediococci and heterofermentative lactobacilli are responsible for wine spoilage [1].
\nLAB metabolic activity that may have a very significant impact on wine flavor includes the metabolism of citric acid and amino acids, the hydrolysis of grape glycosides, and the synthesis and hydrolysis of esters. Yet, other reactions can lead to the production of biogenic amines and ethyl carbamate by some LAB strains with negative consequences to wine safety.
\nAlthough it is not possible to have a clear definition of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), this group of bacteria is mainly characterized by the production of lactic acid as a major catabolic end product from glucose [2]. The other main characteristics of LAB are gram-positive cocci or bacilli, non-sporing, generally nonmotile, catalase negative, aerotolerant, acid tolerant, chemoorganotrophic, and strictly fermentative organisms. In some conditions, such as media containing hematin or related compounds, some strains may produce catalase or even cytochromes [3]. Though aerotolerant, they are a group of bacteria typical of non-aerobic habitats, very demanding from a nutritional point of view and tolerate very low pH values, with acidity tolerance being a variable trait among strains. LAB are present in very diverse environments (e.g., fermented foods and beverages, plants, fruits, soil, wastewater) and are also part of the microflora of the respiratory, intestinal, and genital tracts of man and animals [4, 5].
\nLactic acid bacteria (LAB) are naturally part of the microbiota of grapes, musts, and wines. In musts and wines, the LAB species that may be present and isolated are (i) heterofermentative cocci belonging to
Morphology | \nFermentation type | \nSpecies | \n
---|---|---|
Bacilli | \nFacultative heterofermentative | \n|
Heterofermentative | \n||
Homofermentative | \n||
Cocci | \nHomofermentative | \n|
Heterofermentative | \n
Either complexity or multiplicity of LAB metabolic activities in wine demonstrates that MLF is more than a simple decarboxylation of L-malic acid into L-lactic acid, and thus this very special and important fermentation may affect positively and/or negatively the quality of wine [17].
\nBesides the immediate effect of decrease in acidity by the transformation of a dicarboxylic acid (L-malic acid) into a monocarboxylic acid (L-lactic acid), MLF also improves sensorial characteristics and increases wine microbiological stability [18, 19]. Modifications in wine aroma induced by LAB are due to L-lactic acid, less aggressive to palate, and a huge number of other compounds such as diacetyl, acetoin, 2,3-butanediol, ethyl lactate and diethyl succinate esters, and some higher alcohols and aromatic aglycones that become free by the action of LAB β-glucosidases [20, 21, 22, 23]. Although produced in lower concentrations, sulfur compounds, particularly 3-methylsulfanyl-propionic acid with chocolate and toasted odors, may contribute to aromatic complexity of wines [24]. Also the activity of taninoacil hydrolase enzyme, commonly termed tannase, reducing wine astringency and turbidity may increase the quality and result in a better and pleasant sensorial perception for consumers [25].
\nAlthough not well understood at that time, the knowledge of the negative role of LAB on wine quality comes from the first studies of Pasteur at the beginning of the twentieth century. Some wine defects due to microorganism development were accurately described and LAB were shown to be responsible for wine “diseases” such as “tourne,” the degradation of tartaric acid; “bitterness,” the degradation of glycerol; and “ropiness,” the unacceptable increase in wine viscosity [26]. Although less frequent nowadays, due to better hygienic conditions in wineries and knowledge of microorganisms, these wine “diseases” together with others such as butter aroma due to excessive production of diacetyl, flocculent growth, mannitol taint, and the geranium odor, presented in Table 2, still may occur. Also, the formation of volatile phenols (4-ethylguaiacol and 4-ethylphenol) and mousy off-odor by acetamide production of tetrahydropyridines can be produced by some strains of LAB species responsible for malolactic fermentation (MLF). Other compounds, such as ethyl carbamate formed by the degradation of arginine and biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, and putrescine) from the degradation of amino acids, contribute negatively to wine quality and may affect the consumer’s health [18, 29, 30].
\nDeterioration | \nCompounds | \nSensory descriptor | \nResponsible microorganisms | \nAroma threshold | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Acrolein | \nBitterness | \nPediococcus | \n\n | |
Butter aroma due to excessive diacetyl production | \n2,3-Butanedione (diacetyl) | \nButtery, nutty, caramel | \n0, 1–2 mgl−1 | \n|
Flocculent growth | \n\n | \n | \n | |
“Mannitol taint” manitic fermentation reduction of fructose to mannitol | \nMannitol | \nViscous, sweet, irritating finish | \n\n | |
Formation of volatile phenols (4-ethylguaiacol and 4-ethylphenol) by degradation of phenolic acids mainly ferulic acid and | \n4-Ethylguaiacol and 4-ethylphenol | \n\n | Lactobacillus spp. | \n\n |
Formation of glyoxal and methylglyoxal | \n\n | \n | \n | |
Ropiness production of extracellular polysaccharides that increase the viscosity of wine | \nβ-D-glucan (exopolysaccharide) | \nRopy, oily, thick viscous, slimy, texture | \n\n | |
“Geranium odor” reduction of sorbic acid to 2,4-hexadienol which esterifies with ethanol to give 2-ethoxyhexa-3,5-diene, responsible for geranium odor | \n2-Ethoxy-3,5-hexadiene | \nCrushed geranium leaves | \n0.1 μgl−1, | \n|
Mousiness production of tetrahydropyridines | \n2-Acetyl-tetrahydropyridine (ACTPY), 2-ethyltetrahydropyridine (ETPY), 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (ACPY) | \nCaged mouse | \nLactobacillus | \n4–5 μgl−1, 2–18 μgl−1; 7–8 μgl−1 | \n
Production of biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, putrescine) by decarboxylation of amino acids | \nHistamine, tyramine, putrescine | \n\n | \n | |
Production of ethyl carbamate precursors | \nEthyl carbamate | \n\n | \n | |
“Lactic peak” lactic fermentation of sugars, production of D-lactic acid and excessive production of acetic acid involved in the fermentation | \nAcetic acid | \n\n | 0.2 gl−1 | \n|
“Tourne disease” tartaric acid degradation | \nAcetic acid | \n\n | \n |
The main effect of malolactic fermentation is the decarboxylation of L-malic acid into L-lactic acid, catalyzed by the malolactic enzyme. However, lactic acid bacteria produce several volatile compounds that can significantly influence wine aroma. Acetic acid and acetoinic compounds (C4 compounds) are the major products of citric acid metabolism by LAB. Acetoinic compounds comprise diacetyl, acetoin, and 2,3-butanediol. The biosynthesis of these compounds depends on citric acid metabolism (Figure 1).
\nCitric acid metabolism by
Diacetyl (2,3-butanedione), one of the most important flavor compounds produced by LAB, imparts a distinct buttery or butterscotch aroma to wine. Diacetyl is formed as an intermediate metabolite of the reductive decarboxylation of pyruvate to 2,3-butanediol, associated with citrate metabolism by LAB. The precursor of diacetyl in this pathway is α-acetolactate, which is also an intermediate in the biosynthesis of the amino acids valine and leucine in prototrophic LAB. Pyruvic acid results from the metabolism of sugars and citric acid. To be capable to utilize citrate, LAB must possess the genes encoding permeases for citrate transport and citrate lyase for citrate metabolism [31].
\nYeasts are also able to synthesize diacetyl in the course of alcoholic fermentation. However, most of this diacetyl is reduced by yeasts to acetoin and 2,3-butanediol, and only low concentrations of diacetyl remain at the completion of fermentation. Diacetyl reduction is further encouraged by the presence of yeasts or LAB after the conclusion of malolactic fermentation [32].
\nSalo [33] determined a sensory odor threshold level of 0.0025 mg/L for diacetyl in 9.4% (w/w) ethanolic solution. Yet, Guth [34] calculated 0.1 mg/L for diacetyl odor threshold in water/ethanol (90 + 10, w/w). Moreover, Martineau et al. [35] showed that the diacetyl flavor threshold depends on the wine type. They found that the flavor detection threshold was 0.2 mg/L in a lightly aromatic Chardonnay wine, 0.9 mg/L in a low tannic aromatic Pinot noir wine, and 2.7 mg/L in a full-flavored, full-bodied Cabernet Sauvignon wine. These wines were made without oak contact.
\nReports of diacetyl concentration in wine vary from 0.2 to 4.1 mg/L [36]. The final concentration of diacetyl in wine depends on the concentration of sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide combines reversibly with diacetyl in wine, suppressing the buttery note of wine flavor [37].
\nWine esters are important contributors to wine aroma. They comprise ethyl esters of organic acids (e.g., ethyl lactate), fatty acids (e.g., ethyl hexanoate, ethyl octanoate, ethyl decanoate), and acetates of higher alcohols (e.g., ethyl acetate, isoamyl acetate). These compounds are not only produced by yeasts during alcoholic fermentation and LAB during MLF but can also be formed by slow chemical esterification between alcohol and acids during wine aging [38]. LAB of the genera
Most volatile compounds that make the varietal aroma of wines are present in grapes in the form of glycoconjugated nonvolatile odorless molecules. These glycosides are β-D-glucose and diglycoside conjugates, with the latter consisting of glucose and a second sugar unit of α-L-arabinofuranose, α-L-rhamnopyranose, β-D-xylopyranose, or β-D-apiofuranose [42]. The aglycon moiety of these compounds belongs to different classes of volatiles, including monoterpenes and C13-norisoprenoids. The glycoconjugates can be slowly transformed into free volatile aroma compounds through acidic hydrolysis during wine aging. Yet, a faster enzymatic hydrolysis of these glycosides by wine microorganisms can also occur. The hydrolysis of the disaccharide glucosides requires the action of two enzymes in sequence: first the disaccharide (1 → 6) linkage is cleaved by the appropriate
Yeasts, mainly non-
The β-glucosidase activity of different strains of
Glycosidic activity is widespread in
LAB isolated from wine (including strains of
When sorbic acid ((E,E)-2,4-hexadienoic acid) as potassium sorbate is added as an yeast inhibitor to wines containing residual sugar, LAB can degrade this compound in 2-ethoxyhexa-3,5-diene (2-ethoxy-3,5-hexadiene). 2-Ethoxyhexa-3,5-diene has an offensive crushed geranium leaves odor with a detection threshold of less than 1 ng/L [49, 50]. Sorbic acid inhibits yeast growth, but it does not inhibit LAB growth at the levels allowed in wines for this compound, demonstrating the need for maintaining adequate levels of sulfur dioxide (an effective inhibitor of LAB) in such wines. When used together, sorbate and sulfur dioxide can prevent secondary fermentations and control the growth of LAB in sweet table wines, with a pH of 3.3–3.9, at levels as low as 80 mg/L sorbate and 30 mg/L sulfur dioxide [51].
\nVarious LAB isolated from wine showed the ability to synthesize 4-vinylphenol, by decarboxylation of
LAB use amino acids both as a strategy of survival particularly in nutrient limiting media and evidently in response to acid stress and as a source of energy. However, this may have implications for the quality and food safety of fermented products [53, 54].
\nThe metabolism of amino acids such as arginine and histidine does not affect taste but creates a problem at consumer’s health level by increasing the concentrations of biogenic amine and ethyl carbamate precursors in the wine, which are toxic compounds, thus contributing negatively to wine safety [55].
\nArginine is one of the amino acids present in higher concentrations in grape musts and wines. LAB may use this amino acid by arginine deaminase pathway. This pathway involves three enzymes: arginine deiminase (ADI, EC 3.5.3.6), ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC, EC 2.1.3.3), and carbamate kinase (CK; EC 2.7.2.2) [56]. The presence of the three enzymes of the ADI pathway appears to occur in most heterofermentative lactobacilli, leuconostocs, and oenococci, although they have already been detected in homofermentative species of LAB isolated from wine. However, the arginine pathway presence in all species seems to be a strain-dependent phenotype [57]. By this pathway, 1 mole of L-arginine is converted into 1 mole of ornithine and 1 mole of carbon dioxide and 2 moles of NH3. The intermediate products of this pathway, citrulline and carbamoyl phosphate, are precursors of the ethyl carbamate, a potentially carcinogenic compound. This compound is formed from a spontaneous chemical reaction involving ethanol and precursors including urea, citrulline, carbamoyl phosphate, N-carbamyl, α- and β-amino acids, and allantoin [58]. According to Ough et al. and Kodama et al. [59, 60], the ethanolysis reaction of citrulline and urea for ethyl carbamate formation may occur at normal or elevated storage temperatures. Even though ethyl carbamate is produced in small quantities, its concentration in wine is subjected to international regulation and therefore must be carefully controlled. Maximum level in the European Union and Canada for table wines is 30 μg/L (100 μg/L for fortified wines in Canada), while in the USA the values are more restrictive, being 15 μg/L for table wines and 60 μg/L for dessert wines [55, 60, 61].
\nSome controversial information about the contribution of LAB for ethyl carbamate production is found in the scientific literature [8]. Tegmo-Larsson et al. [62] reported that malolactic fermentation did not affect the concentrations of ethyl carbamate in wine. However, more recent information suggests that some lactic acid bacteria, specifically
Biogenic amines are low molecular weight organic bases, which can be formed and degraded during the normal metabolic activity of animals, plants, and microorganisms [29]. In the human body, these substances may play an important metabolic role, related to growth (polyamines) or to functions of the nervous and circulatory systems (histamine and tyramine). But when ingested in excess, they may be the cause of hypotension, hypertension, heart palpitations (vasoactive amines), headaches (psychoactive amines), and various allergic reactions [30, 66]. Biogenic amines are fundamentally formed from the decarboxylation of the precursor amino acids by the action of substrate specific enzymes [6, 67, 68]. Thus, the amines histamine, tyramine, tryptamine, serotonin, 2-phenylethylamine, agmatine, and cadaverine are formed from the amino acids histidine, tyrosine, tryptophan, hydroxytryptophan, phenylalanine, arginine, and lysine, respectively [69, 70, 71]. Putrescine can be formed from ornithine or agmatine, and spermidine and spermine are formed from putrescine by the binding of aminopropyl groups catalyzed by spermidine synthase and spermine synthase [72]. During the fermentative processes of many raw materials (milk, meat, vegetables, barley, and grapes) to obtain food and beverages, such as cheese, sausages, fermented vegetables, beer, and wine, the formation of biogenic amines by LAB may occur. Many bacteria present decarboxylase activities, which favor their growth and survival in acidic environments, by the increase of pH, as previously mentioned. In wine, several amino acids can be decarboxylated, and consequently, biogenic amines can be found, predominating histamine, tyramine, putrescine, isopentylamine, cadaverine, and α-phenylethylamine [29, 30, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81]. However, their content in wine is much lower than that found in other foods [82], although ethanol may potentiate the toxic effect of histamine by inhibiting amino oxidases. Like ethyl carbamate, there are recommendations for the maximum histamine levels allowed in wine. EU countries and Canada recommend histamine levels not exceeding 10 mg/L, except Germany where the limit is 2 mg/L. Some biogenic amines, for example, putrescine and cadaverine, when in high concentrations, besides their toxicity, can confer sensory detectable unpleasant alterations, such as a fruit and rotten flesh odor, respectively. In wine, although biogenic amines may have other sources such as grapes, the metabolic activity of
So, the existing content of biogenic amines in wine will depend on the presence of precursor amino acids, LAB strains with decarboxylase activity, and environmental factors that affect the growth of these strains as well as some oenological practices [30, 88, 89]. In general, low pH and high concentrations of SO2 and ethanol limit the growth of these strains and consequently the production of biogenic amines. On the other hand, factors favoring microbial growth such as high temperatures, availability of nutrients in must and wine (sugars, amino acids, organic acids), and inappropriate hygienic practices increase the probability of high amine concentrations [29]. As referred for the formation of ethyl carbamate, wines stored in prolonged contact with lees show higher levels of biogenic amines, attributed to viable but non cultivable LAB cells [30]. Generally, higher biogenic amine contents are found in red wines comparing to rosé, white, and fortified wines [86, 90, 91].
\nThe contribution of LAB to wine flavor and composition has been described in this review. The difficulties in controlling and anticipating the effects of malolactic fermentation (MLF) on wine quality, given ample species and strain-dependent behavior, remark the importance of strain selection to explore the genomic diversity of LAB.
\nSelection of starter cultures for MLF should target good adaptation to the harsh wine conditions and potential for the production of flavor compounds, emphasizing in particular glycosidase and esterase activities. Also, the absence of arginine deaminase pathway and amino acid decarboxylases and ability to detoxify mycotoxins such as ochratoxin [92] and biogenic amine degradation [93, 94] should be considered as criteria for LAB strain selection for using as starter cultures.
\nThe authors gratefully acknowledge support from project INNOVINE & WINE—Innovation Platform of Vine and Wine—NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000038.
\nEfforts of human beings to find solutions to the diseases, magic and witchcraft and religious beliefs created the basis of traditional medicine. Currently used drugs are mostly sourced from traditional medical products such aspirin, which has been developed as a painkiller from quinine and cocaine has been prescribed in modern medicine for a long time.
Traditional medicine is living harmonized with cultural components where any disease information is passed through the generations. Not only in developing countries, but also in developed countries, traditional practitioners or physicians using traditional methods continue to give primary health services.
World Health Organization defined traditional medicine as the skills and practices based on health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs from various cultures, whether explicable or not, incorporating plant, animal- and mineral-derived medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination in the maintenance of health and well-being to prevent, diagnose, improve or treat physical and mental illness [1].
The therapeutic outcome is very much related with expectancy, which is created mostly by belief and attitude and results as a placebo, or “meaning response,” effect both in modern and traditional medicine.
From our experience, the most common reasons for using traditional medicine are:
Economic considerations (it is more affordable).
The healers know better the sociocultural background of the patients and they are closer to the patient’s ideology.
More concern about the adverse effects of chemical (synthetic) medicines.
Desire for more personalized health care.
Greater public access to health information.
The distances to be covered in some countries.
The strength of traditional beliefs.
The shortage of health professionals, particularly in rural areas.
Low incidence of harmful incidents.
Perception of traditional and complementary medicine as natural and safe.
Traditional and complementary medicine is considered natural, safe and non-toxic.
From our experience, in the use of traditional and complementary medicine, there are problems such as:
the difficulty in setting the limits
little knowledge about drug-herbal interactions
the indeterminant ethical point of view
the secrecy of healing methods
the absence of written records
incorrect diagnosis
improper dosage
low hygiene standards
the lack of a complete code of conduct
missing scientific and correct instructions, documentation and data base
insufficient control in labeling and sales
non-formal structure or organization to train tradi-practitioners
abuse of traditional medicinal products
weak labeling
inefficient control in the market for consumption
no national nor international convention nor treaty about traditional and complementary medicine
There are many different systems of traditional medicine, because the philosophy and practices of each are influenced by the prevailing conditions, environment and geographic area [2].
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which is still used in present day health care conserving the holistic approach, is rooted to the ancient philosophy of Taoism and accumulates ancient knowledge dating back more than 2500 years. In this understanding, the human body is considered as a miniature version of the surrounding universe.
TCM encompasses many different practices:
moxibustion (burning an herb above the skin to apply heat to acupuncture points),
Chinese herbal medicine,
tui na (Chinese therapeutic massage),
dietary therapy and
acupuncture.
Tai chi: Gentle, dance-like body specific movements or postures, coordinated by breathing, relaxation and mental focus. Tai chi practice improves balance and stability in patients with Parkinson’s disease; reduces pain from knee osteoarthritis and fibromyalgia; and increases the quality of life and mood in patients with heart failure.
Harmony between two opposite forces,
The modalities of CAM vary from culture to culture, and from country to country.
Traditional systems of medicine that exist in other East and South Asian countries, are mostly influenced by TCM and each one has developed distinctive features of its own. For example, Kampo, the system of traditional herbal medicine in Japan, is even covered by the national health insurance plan and is practiced by many licensed medical doctors.
Ayurveda is practiced in India at the national level within the Federal Health System [4].
In Africa up to 90% and in India 70% of the population use traditional medicine for their health care needs [5].
In the United States, under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994, any herb, botanical and natural concentrate, metabolite and constituent of extract, is classified as a dietary supplement and no additional toxicity studies are required, if the herb has been on the market prior to 1994 [6].
EU has standardized the information and guidelines related to herbal medicines by producing necessary materials, such as monographs on herbs and preparations, guidelines for the collection of materials of herbal origin, the standardization of applications, the identification and quantitative determination of herbal preparations and their complex compositions [7].
More and more people use the traditional medicines even in developed countries because of the positive perception of patients for the use of herbal medicines and satisfaction with therapeutic outcomes coupled with the disappointment with conventional allopathic or orthodox medicine in terms of effectiveness and/or safety [8].
Since herbal extracts may be contaminated or adulterated, their quality control has a direct impact on their safety and efficacy [9].
To isolate each active ingredient from any herb would be time-consuming at a high cost [10].
Plants, herbs and ethnobotanicals are the oldest known health care products and vary depending on the ethnological, medical and historical background of each country. Plants and natural sources form the basis of today’s modern medicine and pharmacological industry commercially manufacturing drug preparations for health promotion and treatment of disease. About 25% of the drugs prescribed worldwide are derived from plants.
In July 1996, WHO gathered 100 scientific experts from different countries and they made a list of 28 medicinal plants originally prepared by the WHO Collaborating Centre for Traditional Medicine in Chicago, Illinois, United States of America with 28 monographs.
Over the past 100 years, the development and mass production of chemically synthesized drugs have revolutionized health care. For example, three of the top-selling botanical products, namely
Currently, herbs are applied for the treatment of chronic and acute conditions and various ailments and problems such as cardiovascular disease, prostate problems, depression and inflammation. In Africa, for example, a traditional herbal medicine, the Africa flower, has been used for decades to treat wasting symptoms associated with HIV [5].
About 960 plant species are used by the Indian herbal industry [11].
Overall international trade in medicinal plants and their products was US$ 60 billion in 2010 and is expected to reach US$ 5 trillion by 2050.
The pharmaceutical industry has come to consider traditional medicine as a source for identification of bio-active agents that can be used in the preparation of synthetic medicine. Some of the medicinal plants have been already phyto-chemically screened and characterized and their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anticancer and anti-diabetic activities are being tested by biochemists, toxicologists and pharmacologists, in animal models (in vivo), cell lines, pathogen (bacteria, fungi and viruses), parasites (malaria Plasmodium, sleeping sickness (Trypanosome)) and many others. Such clinical research trials have resulted in safety, efficacy and good pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics parameters for potential drugs [12].
About 200 years ago, the first pharmacologically active pure compound, morphine, was produced from opium extracted from seeds pods of the poppy
The expanding herbal product market threatens biodiversity due to the overharvesting of plants. Bad collection and cultivation can lead to the extinction of certain plant species and the destruction of natural resources. It is expected that 15,000 of 50,000–70,000 medicinal plant species are threatened with extinction. The herb-herb and herb-drug interactions challenge the identification of the active compounds in the plants and require research-based evidence, increased awareness and study, as polypharmacy and polyherbacy.
The “traditional” ways of identification and preparation of herbs need to be replaced with more accurate and reproducible methods to ensure the quality, safety and consistency of the product. Given the market value, potential toxicity and increasing consumer demand, particularly in the sick and elderly members, regulation of production and marketing of herbal supplements and medicines bring two main areas of concern such as the international diversity and national policies regarding the regulation of the production and use of herbs (and other complementary medicines) and their quality, safety and scientific evidence in relation to health claims.
In many countries, the herbal medicine market is not adequately regulated, herbal medicines and related products are introduced into the market without any mandatory safety or toxicological evaluation and the products are therefore not registered and controlled by regulatory bodies. There is no effective regulation for manufacturing practices and quality standards. The establishment of regulation and registration procedures is still a problem in both developed and developing countries.
Lack of any documentation system for information, conventions, treaties and decree on medicinal plants led to abuse the uses and sale of products without any instruction or any scientific studies on the active principles and safety and poor labeling.
Some herbal products on the market may be of low quality and suspecting efficacy, but sold without prescription and the potential hazards of such an inferior product may not be recognized. Although herbs may also have undesirable side effects, no set “doses” and herb-drug or herb-herb interactions are possible. There is a belief that herbs, as natural products, are inherently safe without side effects and their efficacy can be obtained over a wide range of doses. The general perception is that herbal remedies or drugs are very safe and devoid of adverse effects. But, herbs have been shown to produce undesirable or adverse reactions causing serious injuries, life-threatening conditions and even death.
In many countries, CAM practice is provided outside the national health care systems and practiced by non-regulated personnel. Therefore, it is usually not monitored by the safety mechanisms and reporting systems of the main-stream regulatory and legislative frameworks.
Generally, health professionals are not trained about the use and the effect of herbal medicines [14].
Analysis of adverse events related to the use of herbal products is more complex than the conventional pharmaceuticals. The evaluation of safety is complicated by factors such as the geographical origin of plant material, different processing techniques, route of administration and compatibility with other medicines. Furthermore, there is a lack of knowledge on taxonomic botany and documentation by most manufacturers of herbal medicines during identification and collection of medicinal plants used for herbal remedies.
There are different ways to define medicinal plants or herbs. As a result, different approaches have been adopted with regard to licensing, dispensing, manufacturing and trading in order to ensure the safety, quality and efficacy of medicinal plant preparations.
By definition, a dietary supplement is a product ingested to supplement the diet. The dietary ingredients in these products may include vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals.
To eliminate the confusion of common names, the mostly used binomial names (including their binomial synonyms) should be accepted for medicinal plants. For example,
In this book, we have planned to bring together a scientific approach to the development of traditional and complementary medicine, the current use especially in Africa where one of the oldest traditional medical use still exists. The theoretical explanation, which combines with energy and information medicine, explains the bio-field approach as an individualized and holistic therapeutic approach. The interrelation with the modern pharmaceutical industry and the conflicts with the modern medicine are emphasized by the oxidative theory which is quite popular in modern medicine to explain the deviation from homeostasis.
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
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\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
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