Summary of acronyms and symbols.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Aerosols affect climate in multiple ways. Aerosol absorbs or scatters radiation in the atmosphere (so-called direct effect). Aerosols, except dust, interfere mainly with solar radiation. Some aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), thus affecting cloud albedo and lifetime (so-called indirect effect). Dark color aerosols can be deposited on sea ice, snow packs and glaciers, thus darkening the snow and ice surfaces, and enhancing the absorption of sunlight (so-called surface darkening effect). Some of the aerosols can absorb sunlight efficiently and heat the atmosphere. This heating can burn cloud (so-called semi-direct effect). Here, I offer an overview of the aerosol direct effect on solar radiation.
The effect of aerosols on climate is normally quantified in terms of aerosol radiative forcing. Aerosol radiative forcing is defined as the effect of anthropogenic aerosols on the radiative fluxes at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) and at the surface and on the absorption of radiation within the atmosphere. The effect of the total (anthropogenic + natural) aerosols is called aerosol radiative effect or total aerosol forcing. In this chapter, I discuss various parameters that affect aerosol direct radiative effect or aerosol direct radiative forcing.
τ | AOD | Aerosol Optical Depth |
τa | AAOD | Absorption Aerosol Optical Depth; = (1−SSA)×AOD |
α | AE | Ångström Exponent for Extinction |
β | AAE | Absorption Ångström Exponent |
SSA | Single Scattering Albedo | |
ASY | Asymmetry parameter |
Summary of acronyms and symbols.
Aerosol direct forcing can be, and has been, estimated purely from observations alone, but the estimation has been done predominantly by a radiation model. A variety of radiation models have been used for estimating aerosol direct forcing and all of them have common input variables such as AOD (or extinction coefficient), SSA (Single Scattering Albedo), ASY (Asymmetry Parameter). These input variables have been obtained by aerosol simulation models or by aerosol observations. I review the input variables and also give an estimate of aerosol direct radiative effect.
When a beam of light is attenuated, we call this attenuation extinction. Extinction is a result of scattering plus absorption. Aerosols can scatter and absorb light, and the attenuation due to aerosol is called aerosol extinction. Aerosol extinction will weaken the light intensity from Iλ to Iλ + dIλ after traversing a thickness ds in the direction of its propagation. λ represents wavelength. Then, the following equation holds:
where ρ is the density of the material, and kλ denotes the mass extinction cross section (in units of area per mass). kλρ is referred to as the aerosol extinction coefficient, whose units are given in terms of length (typically, cm−1). The aerosol extinction coefficient is the sum of the aerosol scattering coefficient and the aerosol absorption coefficient. Over the globe, the aerosol extinction coefficient is a function of space (X-Y-Z), time (T) and wavelength. The aerosol optical depth τ is a vertical integral of the aerosol extinction coefficient from the earth surface (Sfc) to the top of the atmosphere (TOA), as follows:
AOD is not a function of height. AOD is the sum of AAOD (Absorption Aerosol Optical Depth) and SAOD (Scattering Aerosol Optical Depth). AAOD (τa) is the vertical integral of the aerosol absorption coefficient.
Another way to understand AOD is that it describes column-integrated aerosol amount in an optical sense. When aerosol mass amount is doubled, AOD should also be doubled. Aerosol mass amount, however, is not directly related to aerosol forcing, as AOD is. Furthermore, satellite observations can be used to infer AOD, not aerosol mass amount. For these collective reasons, AOD is the most fundamental variable for aerosol-climate interaction. AOD is also called AOT (Aerosol Optical Thickness). Combining Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, we find that Iλ(Sfc) = Iλ(TOA)×exp(−AOD). Thus, aerosols with AOD of 1.0 reduce the light beam (i.e., direct radiation) by e−1. e−1 is 0.368. In this case, the sun will appear largely hidden by aerosols at the surface. AOD of 1.0 represents a very dense aerosol layer.
AOD is a function of wavelength. The community generally uses the 550 nm value for the standard AOD. Fig. 1 shows how aerosol forcing changes with respect to AOD. When AOD is small (say, < 0.3), doubling AOD leads to doubled forcing. When AOD becomes large, added AOD translates into a smaller increase in forcing.
Annual-mean clear-sky aerosol forcing as a function of AOD at 550 nm. The simulation is made with a Monte-Carlo radiation model as in Chung et al. (2005), which only considered solar radiation. Specified parameters are SSA=0.19 at all the wavelengths, ASY=0.7 at 550 nm, α=1.4, and land surface albedo of 0.15 at a latitude of 21˚N.
When photons hit an aerosol particle, some photons will be scattered while the other will be absorbed. The SSA is defined as the ratio of the scattering to the extinction. Extinction is the sum of scattering and absorption. When photons are scattered, the wavelength remains unchanged. SSA is a function of wavelength.
SSA can be computed in case of a single particle, aerosol layer or column integrated aerosols. For a single particle, the number of scattered/absorbed photons can be counted to calculate the SSA, or the scattering/extinction cross section can be measured/calculated. For a single particle, its SSA depends on particle size, particle shape and material refractive index. For an aerosol layer, the aerosol extinction/scattering coefficient can be used to compute the SSA. For column-integrated aerosols, AOD and SAOD can be used to compute the column-integrated SSA. For a group of aerosols, aerosol size distribution will affect the SSA.
Annual-mean clear-sky aerosol forcing as a function of SSA. SSA is prescribed to be wavelength independent here. AOD at 550 nm is 0.1, and the rest parameters are as in Fig. 1.
Fig. 2 shows how aerosol forcing changes with respect to SSA. It is very important to note that the forcing at the TOA depends crucially on SSA. When SSA is low, the TOA forcing is positive. Conversely, the TOA forcing becomes negative with high SSAs. Aerosol forcing typically refers to the TOA forcing. Another important feature is that the surface forcing becomes larger (more negative) with lower SSA given a fixed AOD. In other words, absorbing aerosols are more effective surface dimmers.
SSA is one of the aerosol intrinsic properties. Aerosols can be classified in terms of aerosol species, the most common of which are BC (black carbon), OM (organic matter), dust, sulfate, sea salt and nitrate. Sea salt, sulfate and nitrate are known to have close to 1.0 in SSA. OM was in the past treated as 100% scattering (Myhre et al., 2007; Stier et al., 2007), but is now widely accepted to have significant absorption due to brown carbon (Andreae & Gelencsér, 2006) (BrC) component. It appears that there are large differences in the estimated magnitude of BrC absorption (Alexander et al., 2008; Chakrabarty et al., 2010; Hoffer et al., 2006). Magi (2009, 2011) analyzed air-craft data over the southern Africa and concluded that OM SSA is 0.85±0.05 at 550 nm. There is a possibility that OM SSA over the southern Africa might differ from that over other regions.
Magi (2009, 2011) also gives BC SSA. According to his field study, BC SSA is 0.19±0.05 at 550 nm. BC SSA of 0.19 is very close to 0.185 from a theoretical calculation of BC aggregates by Chung et al. (2011) and also close to 0.18 from a laboratory study by Schnaiter et al. (2005). Many studies use a very high BC SSA (typically near 0.3), and this high BC SSA results from an assumption that BC is a spherical particle. BC has a cluster structure consisting of many monomers, and Chung et al. (2011) considered the cluster structure to derive the BC SSA. When BC is assumed to be spherical, Chung et al. (2011) found BC SSA to be 0.32.
Dust SSA has been estimated to be about 0.9 by Müller et al. (2010) and 0.92 by Eck et al. (2010) at 550 nm. When dust is transported over polluted areas, non-dust particles such as BC are often attached to dust. These two field studies (Müller et al., 2010; Eck et al., 2010) probably reported polluted dust SSA. Pure dust SSA is likely to be greater than 0.92. The combination of different aerosols will determine the aerosol SSA. When aerosols are BC rich, e.g., the SSA will be low thanks to the BC component. Thus, aerosol SSA is indicative of the relative abundance of each aerosol species.
When aerosols scatter light, the phase function describes the angular distribution of scattered energy. The phase function P(cosΘ) is a normalized function, such that
where Θ refers to the angle between the direction of incoming light and that of the scattered light. When Θ < π/2, the scattering is called forward scattering, while the scattering is backward when Θ > π/2.
The asymmetry parameter, or asymmetry factor, g is defined as follows:
When the forward scattering is as much as the backward scattering, ASY becomes zero. ASY increases as the forward scattering dominates over the backward scattering. Larges particles have higher ASY. In the atmosphere, monthly-mean aerosol ASY ranges from 0.6 to 0.82 (from AERONET data analysis). AERONET (Holben et al., 2001) is a ground-based network of sun photometers located at over hundreds of stations around the world.
Annual-mean clear-sky aerosol forcing as a function of 550 nm ASY. AOD is 0.1, and the rest parameters are as in Fig. 1.
ASY has large impacts on aerosol forcing at the TOA but have little impacts on the atmospheric aerosol forcing (Fig. 3). This is because ASY does not change aerosol absorption which dominates the atmospheric forcing. Large ASYs are associated with large aerosol forcing at the TOA because aerosols with large ASY less scatter the solar radiation back to the space.
α describes the wavelength dependence of AOD (or the aerosol extinction coefficient). In case of AOD Ångström exponent, the definition is as follows:
λR is the reference wavelength, and is typically 550 nm. α cannot be negative, and can be as high as 4.0. Lower α means that aerosol extinction is more independent of wavelength, which is the case for larger particles. Large particles are associated with lower α and higher ASY.
Fig. 4 shows the effect of increasing α on aerosol forcing. As α increases, the total aerosol extinction of broad-band solar radiation decreases. Thus, large α is associated with slightly less aerosol forcing.
In Section 2, I gave an overview of aerosol optical properties and explained how these properties affect aerosol forcing. Aerosol forcing is also influenced by non-aerosol properties, notably the surface albedo and low-level cloudiness.
The surface plays an important role in case of absorbing aerosols (i.e., aerosols with low SSA). As Fig. 5 shows, higher albedo (i.e., more reflection at the surface) increases aerosol absorption and thus aerosol forcing at the TOA as well as in the atmosphere. Higher albedo increases aerosol absorption because absorbing aerosols absorb not just the downward solar radiation but also the reflected upward radiation. Higher albedo also decreases aerosol scattering back to the space, further contributing to higher aerosol forcing at TOA. Ice, snow and desert have high surface albedo.
Low-level cloud reflects solar radiation effectively, and so absorbing aerosols above low cloud have more absorption, as demonstrated by Podgorny and Ramanathan (2001). Thus, absorbing aerosols above low cloud enhance aerosol forcing, just like absorbing aerosols over reflective surfaces. The difference between low cloud and highly-reflective surface is that aerosols can be located below or above low cloud. Zarzycki and Bond (2010) studied absorbing aerosol forcing with respect to low cloud. They found that BC aerosols above low clouds explain about 20% of the global burden but 50% of the forcing.
Annual-mean clear-sky aerosol forcing as a function of α. AOD at 550 nm is 0.1, and the rest parameters are as in Fig. 1.
Here, I present observationally-constrained estimates of aerosol optical properties over the globe. The principal observation used here is AERONET (Aerosol Robotic NETwork), which is a ground-based network of measuring aerosol optical properties (Holben et al., 2001) as mentioned earlier. There are hundreds of AERONET sites worldwide, and all the sites are located over the land or an island. I use the monthly Level 2.0 from Version 2 product for the period 2001–2009. In this dataset, values are pre- and post-field calibrated, cloud screened and quality assured. AERONET offers AOD, SSA and ASY at multiple wavelengths. Where necessary, I logarithmically interpolated AOD and linearly interpolated SSA/ASY to the desired wavelength.
Figure 5. Annual-mean clear-sky aerosol forcing as a function of land surface albedo. AOD is 0.1, and the rest parameters are as in Fig. 1.
AERONET offers world-wide but sparsely-located AODs. To get globally gridded AOD, I use satellite observations from MODIS (MODerate resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer) and MISR (Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer). MODIS is a satellite sensor on board Terra satellite and Aqua satellite. I downloaded Collection 5.1 Aqua and Collection 5.0 Terra M3 AODs at 550 nm. Terra AOD and Aqua AOD on the 1º×1º resolution were converted to monthly combined AOD on the T42 resolution using following algorithm: If there are at least 5 values from either satellite in each T42 gridbox, a median is calculated in order to remove outliers. Then, 2001−2009 climatology for each calendar month is computed. As for MISR AOD, I downloaded the CGAS MIL3MAE.4 product. Processing MISR AOD is similar to that of MODIS AOD.
I put together AERONET, MODIS and MISR AODs at 550 nm in the following. 1) I fill the gaps in MODIS AOD with MISR AOD using the iterative difference-successive correction method developed by Cressman (1959). MODIS does not give AOD over desert areas where MISR offers AOD. 2) The remaining gaps in MODIS+MISR AOD are filled with GOCART AOD again using Cressman(1959)’s method. 3) The spatial pattern in MODIS+MISR+GOCART AOD is coupled with the sparsely-distributed AERONET AOD values, using Chung et al. (2005)’s technique, as below.
Where N_AODj is the adjusted new value of the AOD at grid j, AERONETj,i is an AERONET_ AOD at station location i nearby the grid j, dj,i is the distance between j and i, and MMG_AODj,i is the MODIS+MISR+GOCART_AOD at the grid of AERONETj,i. Eq. 6 is applied for each calendar month. In this assimilation method, the order of influence is AERONET > MODIS > MISR > GOCART.
Fig. 6 visualizes the assimilated AOD. AOD is large over deserts such as the Sahara and the Gobi and their downstream areas. AOD is also large over biomass burning and fossil fuel combustion areas such as East Asia, South Asia, southern Africa and Amazon.
To get global SSA, I put together AERONET data and GOCART simulation as follows. First, GOCART SSA is computed using GOCART AODs as follows:
CA represents carbonaceous aerosols. D represents dust. 0.957 is dust SSA. This number comes from AERONET SSA over the sites that give AAE around 2.41 ~2.42. CA SSA of 0.741 is chosen to minimize the global/annual mean difference between GOCART SSA and AERONET SSA.
Then, these GOCART SSAs are further adjusted by AERONET SSA as below.
Like Eq. 6, Eq. 8 maximizes the influence of AERONET data. By applying Eq. 8, the final SSA has observational constraint on regional scales.
Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) at 550 nm, as derived by AERONET, MODIS and MISR observations.
Fig. 7 shows global aerosol SSA at 550 nm. Low SSA means absorbing aerosols. Typically, aerosols with SSA < 0.9 are considered absorbing. As the figure shows, heavy biomass burning areas such as the southern Africa show lowest SSA. This is because these areas emit large amounts of BC and relatively smaller amounts of scattering aerosols such as sulfate. Over much of the ocean, dominant aerosols are sea salt which has close to 1.0 in SSA.
To get global ASY, I put together AERONET data and GOCART simulation as follows. First, GOCART ASY is computed using GOCART SAODs as follows.
SAODsul(λR) refers to SAOD at 550 nm for sulfate. “fs” refers to fine sea salt, and “cs” refers to coarse sea salt. The numbers 0.62, 0.69 and 0.66 are chosen to match AERONET ASY. The numbers 0.778 and 0.85 came from the OPAC (Optical Properties of Aerosols and Clouds) data (Hess et al., 1998). GOCART SAOD is computed from AOD and SSA, where SSA is assigned in the following: 0.19 for BC, 0.85 for OM, 0.96 for dust and 1.0 for the rest. See section 2.2 for these numbers.
Single Scattering Albedo (SSA) at 550 nm, as derived by AERONET and GOCART simulation.
Finally, these GOCART ASYs are adjusted by AERONET ASYs as below.
By applying Eq. 10, the final ASY has observational constraint on regional scales. Fig. 8 shows global ASY at 550 nm. Again, low ASY is associated with small particles. As demonstrated in Fig. 8, biomass burning areas tend to show low ASY. This is because biomass burning aerosols consist mainly of BC and OM and these two aerosol species are the smallest species. Since BC merely scatters, biomass burning aerosol ASY largely represents OM ASY. Fossil fuel combustion areas also show relatively low ASY. Large ASY values are seen over deserts and their downstream areas as well as over the ocean, because dust and sea salt are the biggest aerosols.
In section 4, I presented observationally-constrained AOD, SSA and ASY at 550 nm. In a method similar to the ASY assimilation, I generate observationally-constrained α and co-albedo Ångström exponent. Co-albedo is 1−SSA. Now, I have all the aerosol input parameters needed to compute aerosol forcing except its vertical profile. The vertical profile and the radiation model are as in Chung et al. (2005), where the Monte-Carlo Aerosol Cloud Radiation (MACR) model was adopted with the observed cloud effects from the ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project). All the calculations are for solar radiation and for direct effects.
asymmetry parameter (ASY) at 550 nm, as derived by AERONET and GOCART simulation.
Fig. 9 shows the total (natural + anthropogenic) aerosol forcing over the globe. The forcing is mostly negative, and large negative values tend to be associated with high AOD, i.e., large aerosol burden in the atmosphere. Some areas have significantly positive forcing instead. For example, the aerosols over the eastern tropical Atlantic (between Eq. and 20ºS) have huge positive forcing. This positive forcing is aided by low level cloud. To be sure, we repeated the radiation calculation without cloud (Fig. 10). The clear-sky forcing eliminates this positive-forcing feature. The remaining positive forcing in Fig. 10 is all over highly reflective surfaces such as deserts, ice. In the absence of high sulfate albedo and low cloud, the aerosol forcing is negative everywhere.
Near-zero forcing in Fig. 9 is usually associated with very little aerosol. However, the near-zero forcing that occurs between significantly positive and significantly negative forcings has a sizable amount of aerosols. Although these aerosols have near-zero forcing at the TOA, they always have large positive forcing in the atmosphere or large negative forcing at the surface. The cancellation between the surface forcing and the atmosphere forcing occurs makes the zero forcing at the TOA. This cancellation occurs when the aerosol SSA is within a certain range associated with certain surface albedo and the presence of low clouds.
aerosol forcing (natural + anthropogenic) estimate at the TOA. Cloud effects are included here.
aerosol forcing (natural + anthropogenic) estimate at the TOA. Cloud effects are not included here.
Global average aerosol forcing is summarized in Table 2. As clear in Table 2, cloud increases aerosol forcing significantly from −4.3 Wm−2 to −2.0 Wm−2. Surprisingly, cloud decreases the atmosphere forcing slightly, indicating that the forcing enhancement by low cloud is not as much as the forcing reduction by mid or high cloud. However, this result (i.e., cloud effects on the atmosphere forcing) is sensitive to the aerosol vertical profile, and currently there is a lot of uncertainty in aerosol vertical profile. Chung et al. (2005) used an idealized profile.
All sky | Clear sky | |
TOA forcing | −2.0 Wm−2 | −4.3 Wm−2 |
Atmosphere forcing | +4.7 Wm−2 | +5.5 Wm−2 |
Surface forcing | −6.8 Wm−2 | −9.7 Wm−2 |
Global average total (natural + anthropogenic) aerosol forcing estimates.
Thus far, I have discussed fundamental aerosol optical properties and their influences on aerosol forcing, and given an observation-constrained estimate of global aerosol forcing. Although some important topics are not discussed here, the presented material here is a good starting point in studying the science of aerosol radiative forcing in my opinion.
The author would like to thank Kyunghwa Lee for her technical support. This work was supported by National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF 2012-0004055).
Currently, the world’s leading authority on global warming issues is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC is a scientific-political organization, created in 1988 by the United Nations (UN), and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 [1, 2]. Since its foundation, the IPCC has issued five reports (Assessment Reports), the first in 1990, the next ones in 1995, 2001, 2007, and 2014. The next report of IPCC is expected for the year 2022. The IPCC reports have reinforced, with growing evidence, that human influence on Earth’s climate is incontestable and that the terrestrial climate system’s warming is evident [2].
Aerosols, in particular, can alter the most diverse atmospheric processes, significantly affecting weather and climate. For example, they can absorb or scatter specific solar radiation wavelengths and radiation reflected by the Earth’s surface [3]. They can also modify the albedo (ability to reflect solar radiation on a given surface) and the lifetime of clouds [4]. A decrease in the albedo of clouds, for example, can lead to less reflection of radiation from the Sun, contributing to possible global warming effects. In this context, it is expected that the aerosol climatological behavior in the Earth’s atmosphere and its influence on climate change processes are of paramount importance.
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has encouraged the creation and expansion of networks aimed at atmospheric observations, and ground-based lidar networks have acquired great importance, both for atmospheric monitoring and research. Thus, regional lidar networks’ development to research the most diverse atmospheric configurations is strategic. The main fields where ground-based lidar measurements can be applied include [5, 6] atmospheric aerosol optical properties, urban aerosols and pollution, dust and biomass burning transportation, and cloud impacts on climate, planetary boundary layer dynamics, and processes of satellite data validation.
In terms of atmospheric structure, ground base lidars cover from the mesosphere down to the troposphere, through the stratosphere, and inspect each atmospheric layer in question. Under this perspective, laser radars’ operation began in the early ‘70s by observing stratospheric aerosols in Brazil and continued with sodium atoms (Na) concentration in the mesosphere. The stratospheric aerosols and ozone studies followed some years later in Argentina [7] and the late ‘80s in Cuba. By the late ‘90s and early 2000, the introduction of the lidar for tropospheric studies began.
We intend to summarize the most significant scientific achievements and developments related to ground-based Lidar remote sensing in South America in the next sections. LALINET’s most recent efforts in establishing standard protocols of system configurations, quality assurance, measurements, and data processing also will be approached [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. The chapter organization should first follow the studies performed in the mesosphere, followed by the work devoted to the stratosphere, and then we should show the studies related to the troposphere. These sections will be distributed over many specific studies regarding the scientific drives and methodologies employed.
The South American continent, encompassing 42% of the Americas, is a region that shelters the most remarkable ecosystems. Among these, we can cite the Amazon Rainforest, which is the largest tropical forest in the world, the Pantanal (or Chaco), one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites [12], and the Andes, the most extensive mountain chain in the world, and which hold a plethora of active and inactive volcanoes, extending from Venezuela to Patagonia, crossing all the continent from north to south. Patagonia, the continent’s southern region, presents many plants and wildlife, mostly endemic. It also houses another UNESCO World Heritage Site: The National Park Los Glaciares, in Santa Cruz, Argentina. [12].
Developing a regional ground-based lidar network in Latin and South America is of strategic importance: The knowledge rendered by the high-resolution profiles allows the knowledge of a wide variety of atmospheric phenomena to complement satellite observations and other retrievals by diverse ground-based instruments. Unfortunately, the available infrastructure of lidar stations in Latin America is limited in certain aspects. For example, only a few stations operate regularly (contrasted to Europe and North America), stations have different instrument designs, radiosonde launchings are not occurring nearby all stations, and only a reduced number of sun photometers is distributed across the continent [7, 11]. To get around such limitations and consolidate standard protocols of measurements, data acquisition, quality control, and assurance routines, and data analysis, the Latin America Lidar Network, LALINET, was established in 2001, during the First Workshop on Lidar Measurements in Latin America, held in Camagüey, Cuba, in March 2001 [7, 11, 13]. It was recognized as being part of the GAW (Global Atmospheric Watch) Aerosol Lidar Observation Network (GALION) in 2013 [7, 11, 13]. Figure 1 shows the location of the LALINET stations [14].
Schematic representation for the location of the LALINET stations in South America. Argentina (AR): 1-) SMN Headquarters (Buenos Aires), 2-) CEILAP Headquarters (Buenos Aires), 3-) Comodoro Rivadavia (Chubut), 4-) Neuquén (Neuquén), 5-) Pilar (Cordoba), 6-) Río Gallegos airport (Santa Cruz), 7-) OAPA Río Gallegos (Santa Cruz), 8-) San Carlos de Bariloche (Río Negro), 9-) San Miguel de Tucumán (Tucumán). Bolivia (BO): 10-) La Paz (La Paz). Brazil (BR): 11-) Manaus (Amazonas), 12-) São Paulo (São Paulo), 13-) Cubatão (São Paulo), 14-) Natal (Rio Grande do Norte). Chile (CH): 15-) Punta Arenas (Magallanes), 16-) Temuco (Cautín). Colombia (CO): 17-) UNAL Medellín (Antioquia), 18-) SIATA Medellín (Antioquia), 19-) Cali (Valle del Cauca). Edited using Google my maps [14].
The next sections of this chapter will present information about mesospheric, stratospheric, and tropospheric monitoring by LALINET stations and teams around South America and Cuba, plus some significant results. Table 1 below shows the operational stations and their characteristics. A detailed description of LALINET origin and its evolution is given in Ref. [7]. The Letter of Agreement between LALINET and GAW can be found in Ref. [15].
Country, City, Location Coordinates, Altitude (a.s.l.) | System configuration | ||
---|---|---|---|
Instrument | Emits (nm) | Detects (nm) | |
AR, Buenos Aires, SMN 34.5641 S, 58.4171 W, 10 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Buenos Aires, CEILAP 34.5553 S, 58.5062 W, 26 m | HSRL | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 607, (HSRL, ∥, ⊥), 408, 387, 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Rivadavia, CRD Airport 45.7922 S, 67.4629 W, 48 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Neuquén, NQN Airport 38.9521 S, 68.1368 W, 266 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Pilar, OMGP 31.6755 S, 63.8730 W, 332 m | HSRL | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 607, 532 (HSRL, ∥, ⊥), 408, 387, 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, R. Gallegos, RGL Airport 51.6117 S, 69.3072 W, 17 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Río Gallegos, OAPA 51.6004 S, 69.3194 W, 19 m | DIAL | 355 (Nd:YAG), 308 (Xe:Cl) | 387, 355, 347, 332, 308 |
AR, Bariloche, BRC Airport 41.1473 S, 71.1640 W, 837 m | Raman | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532, 408, 387, 355 |
AR, S. M. de Tuc., TMO 26.7871 S, 65.2068 W, 485 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
BO, La Paz, UMSA 16.5381 S, 68.0686 W, 3420 m | Scanning Elastic | 532 | 532 |
BR, Manaus, Embrapa 2.8906 S, 59.9698 W, 80 m | Raman | 355 | 408, 387 |
BR, São Paulo, IPEN 23.5607 S, 46.7398 W, 764 m | Raman | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532, 530, 408, 387, 355 |
BR, Cubatão, CEPEMA 23.8865 S, 46.4370 W, 8 m | Mobile Raman | 532 | 532, 607 |
BR, Natal, UFRN 5.8431 S, 35.2043 W, 20 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 |
CH, Punta Arenas, UMAG 53.1344 S, 70.8802 W, 10 m | Raman Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 607, 532 (∥, ⊥), 408, 387, 355 (∥, ⊥) |
CH, Temuco, UFRO 38.7459 S, 72.6156 W, 108 m | Elastic | 532 | 532 |
CO, Medellín, UNAL 6.2619 N, 75.5760 W, 1538 m | Elastic | 1064, 532 | 1064, 532 |
CO, Medellín, SIATA 6.2017 N, 75.5784 W, 1502 m | Elastic Polarized | 355 | 355 (∥, ⊥) |
CO, Cali, CIBioFi-UniValle 3.3770 N 76.5337 W, 982 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064 (∥, ⊥), 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
Details about the contributing teams, measurement protocols, reports, and equipment can be found on the web page
Meteors enter in the upper atmosphere at very high velocities (15–70 km s−1), and the collisions with the atmospheric constituents cause flash heating until the particles melt and their chemical elements vaporize. This ablation process is responsible for the layers of metal atoms as Na, K, Fe, Mg, Ca, Si, among others, which occur globally in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT). This cosmic dust’s primary sources are the sublimation of comets as they approach the Sun on their orbits through the solar system and the collisions between asteroids.
Lidar use for the upper stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower thermosphere investigations started in São José dos Campos, Brazil, in 1969 with a ruby laser operated at 694.3 nm. Clemesha and Rodrigues obtained the first aerosol profile using lidar in South America in 1971 [16]. The height range of measurement was 5 to 35 km due to the use of an 8 x 10″ receiver mirror. Later were obtained profiles up to 90 km in height using a 48″ mirror. In this work, high concentrations of aerosols were observed in the troposphere, a minimum just below the tropopause, around 15 km height, and higher concentrations in the lower stratosphere.
In 1972, when a new “handmade” dye laser became operational (see a Photo of this equipment in Figure 2), it was possible to start measurements of the Na layer in the MLT region, using Fabry-Perot interferometers and tuning the laser in the Na D2 line, 5890 Å, with a precision of 0.02 Å [17]. This system enabled the measurement of the mesospheric Na from 75 to 105 km of height [18]. The system continued to be operated regularly for long years obtaining the Na concentration at MLT region with different time and height resolutions, the stratospheric aerosol by Mie Scattering, and the atmospheric density and temperature from 30 to 65 km by Rayleigh scattering. In April 1975, 6 months after the eruption of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala, a massive increase in aerosol loads was observed in São José dos Campos, which remained in the atmosphere for almost two years [19].
The handmade dye laser for Na probing (it operates from 1972 to 1992). See also in the picture Dr. Barclay R. Clemesha (in memoriam), the project’s head.
Through Na profiles between 82 and 99 km obtained with the laser beam directed alternately in three positions in the sky, it was possible to estimate the wind’s speed in the mesosphere [20, 21]. The velocities vary with height in an oscillatory manner, with the amplitude increasing with height. These wave-like formations vary slowly with time and might be produced by propagating tides in the atmosphere. These structures’ common feature is their downward motion with time, consistent with the upward propagation of gravity wave energy. The more extended periods of oscillations are attributed to tides [22, 23]. Lidar measurements of the stratospheric aerosols enabled the observation of the eruption of El Chichón in México, eight months after in São José dos Campos, Brazil [24]. The transport of aerosols of the Pinatubo eruption was much more rapid and could be seen just 45 days after the eruption [25].
Research involving Na has included the first detection of the so-called Sporadic Sodium Layers [26]. The events occurred more frequently through periods of more significant meteor showers, especially in August. It is common to have sporadic E layers coincident with Na enhancement, which suggests that enhanced layers are generated by the wind shear distortion of Na clouds originated from meteor ablation. A significant result was that the long-lived sporadic layers appear to have a different nature from the short-lived ones. The difference is manifested in the more extensive duration and broader thickness and how the events are correlated with sporadic E layers [27].
In 1992, analyses of the vertical distribution of atmospheric Na layer with lidar showed a long-term trend of the centroid height, which decayed by approximately 700 meters between 1972 and 1987 [28]. However, from 1972 to 2001, the trend was 93 meters per decade. This new result appears dramatically diminishes the possibility of long-term cooling of the upper atmosphere [29].
In 1997 a new technique was developed to measure the Doppler temperature of the atmospheric Na layer by using a two-element birefringent filter together with a 0.2 nm free spectral range Fabry-Perot interferometer to produce a linewidth of about 20 pm. It produced a multi-line signal of the laser, with the lines spacing precisely equal to the separation of D2a and D2b transition of Na. With this assembly, it was possible to obtain the mesosphere’s temperature with a 5 K precision, a height resolution of 1 km, and a time resolution of 6 minutes [30, 31]. Lately, in 2004 the lidar was equipped with a new laser, which permitted more precise measurements of the mesopause temperature (see the assembly in Figure 3) [32, 33]. Gravity wave’s effects on the temperature in the mesopause were also studied [34, 35].
Photo presenting the continuum narrowband tunable laser for Na concentration and Mesopause temperatures. It operated at São José dos Campos measuring mesopause temperature from 2007 to 2009 and Na concentration from 2006 to 2016. This photo was taken by Barclay R. Clemesha (in memoriam).
Several mesospheric dynamics studies involving other instruments like photometers, meteor radar, and onboard rocket instruments have been made [23, 36, 37, 38, 39]. A mobile lidar has been developed to measure the Na concentration simultaneously with the volume emission profile for the NaD line of airglow in rocket campaigns in the Brazilian equatorial region of Alcântara (2.3728 S, 44.3965 W). An illustrative photo of this system is shown in Figure 4. This experiment allowed calculating the branching ratio of the reaction involved in the Na airglow [40].
Photo illustrating the INPE mobile lidar used during rocket campaigns in the Brazilian equatorial region of Alcântara, on 31 may 1992.
Along the time, the São José dos Campos lidar underwent many modifications and upgrades. In 1993, the transmitter laser was upgraded with a commercial laser (see its illustration in Figure 5). With this upgrade, it was possible to use the Rayleigh signal from the clean atmosphere from 30 to 75 km (below the resonant Na signal) to measure the relative atmospheric density and the absolute temperature. These measurements have been used to study mesospheric temperature general behavior and the effects of atmospheric waves [41]. The long series of measurements have enabled long-term studies of the mesospheric Na, aerosols, and temperatures associated with global change [29, 42, 43]. A dual-beam Na/K lidar was assembled in São José dos Campos, Brazil, to extend the Na layer studies and improve the knowledge about metal layers in the MLT region. This system was installed owing to a cooperative agreement between the National Space Science Center (China) and the National Institute for Space Research (Brazil) in November of 2016.
Photos showing the candela laser system assembled at INPE São José dos Campos in 1993. This system operated between 1993 and 2006—Photos taken by B. R. Clemesha (in memoriam).
The lidar uses two laser beams of 589 nm and 770 nm to simultaneously measure Na and K concentrations by the resonant scattering at MLT. The signal-to-noise ratio response allows 3 min time resolution and 96 m of height resolution in the profiles [44]. Figure 6 shows the Na/K lidar during operation.
Picture showing the dual-beam Na/K lidar located at São José dos Campos, Brazil. The vertical orange beam is at 589 nm for Na scattering and the infrared one at 770 nm for K scattering. This last is not visible in the photo, but the red star indicates the beam position. Liu Zhengkuan took the original photo.
It is essential to point out that, up to the present time, this is the unique K lidar system operating in the Southern Hemisphere (SH). For the first time, it was presented the nocturnal and seasonal behavior of K and Na concentrations measured simultaneously at SH [44]. The seasonal variation of these two metals was determined, and it is interesting to note their different behavior even though both are alkali metals and come from meteor ablation. Semiannual variation is observed in both metal concentrations with different maxima: K shows its maxima around the solstices more pronounced around June, and Na concentration shows a maximum around May and a broad one centered in September [44]. A plausible interpretation of the different seasonal changes between Na and K concentrations is presented in Ref. [45]. This analysis is based on two points: 1) the neutralization of K+ ions is particularly favored at low temperatures through summer (North Hemisphere), and 2) cycling between K and its primary neutral reservoir KHCO3 is substantially temperature independent [44]. Unfortunately, the first argument is not significant for this latitude, where the mesopause temperature has not a great summer to winter variation [33].
The first lidar measurements concerning stratospheric aerosols in Latin America were performed in Kingston, Jamaica, between 1964 and 1979 [46]. The lidar system held for these measurements was managed by the University of the West Indies and supported by the US Air Force [47]. Its primary purpose was to investigate the atmospheric profile, measuring molecular scattering. Moreover, the system proved valuable for measurements of stratospheric aerosol layers at wavelength 694 nm [48]. These lidar measurements from Jamaica represented a pioneering role, concomitantly with different research teams, developing lidars’ capacities to measure aerosols in the lower stratosphere [49]. Those measurements were also an essential contribution to the stratosphere’s early studies in the tropics [50].
In 1969, a new lidar instrument was designed and developed at INPE by Prof. Barclay Clemesha (see Section 3 for details). This equipment’s primary objective was to investigate the mesosphere dynamics; besides, stratospheric aerosol measurements were also performed. The first measurements were carried in 1970 at wavelength 694 nm [16], and regular measurements began in 1972 [51]. This project was responsible for collecting the longest stratospheric aerosol profile measurements in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere’s tropical zone, extending from 1971 to 2016. It includes stratospheric aerosols profiles from the two more significant volcanic eruptions of the XX century second half: the first happened in Mexico on 04 April 1982 (El Chichón), and the second in the Philippines on 14 June 1991 (Mount Pinatubo) [51, 52]. Measurements conducted at INPE between 1972 and 2016 proved the value and the importance of the stratospheric aerosols’ long-term monitoring. They have rendered information to understand the stratospheric aerosols layer evolution in the Southern Hemisphere’s tropics since the ‘50s [53].
A Cuban-Soviet scientific cooperation agreement supported the deployment in 1988 of a lidar system designed for stratospheric aerosols measurements at the Camagüey Meteorologic Center in Cuba [54]. The instrument operated intermittently between 1988 and 1997, providing stratospheric aerosols measurements from the Mount Pinatubo eruption in 1991. The 1988–1990 lidar aerosol profiles, at 532 nm, combined with satellite measurements, have been used to study background stratospheric aerosols in the Caribbean [55]. Camagüey Lidar Station (CLS) stratospheric aerosols profiles from Mount Pinatubo also contributed to the study of the radiative impacts of the eruption at regional [56] and global [57] scales. Moreover, the Camagüey lidar database was also used to validate the stratospheric aerosol SAGE II satellite measurements from Mount Pinatubo eruption [58, 59]. Furthermore, it was used to generate an extinction climatology in the UV for correcting Brewer ozone measurements [60].
By 1994 the Laser and Applications Research Center (CEILAP - UNIDEF) in Buenos Aires, Argentina, developed various lidar systems for atmospheric research [7]. One of these devices was designed to measure the atmospheric boundary layer, cirrus clouds, and tropospheric aerosols, operating at wavelength 532 nm [61]. A collaborative study between CEILAP and CLS evaluated how this lidar system could also be used for the higher troposphere and lower stratospheric aerosols research. Upon analyzing two tropospheric aerosols profiles extending into the lower stratosphere, encouraging results were found [62]. In June 2005, another lidar system was designed and installed by CEILAP in Río Gallegos, Patagonia. This instrument’s primary goal was performing measurements of stratospheric ozone, tropospheric and stratospheric aerosols, and water vapor. In particular, stratospheric aerosol profiles are used to correct the stratospheric ozone [63].
Western South America is bordered by the Andes, which divides the continent into two distinct regions. In South America, the vast majority of active volcanoes are located in the eastern part of the continent, and ash eruptions are routinely reported throughout the region. The volcanic activity includes periods of ash eruptions and cycling eruptions that spread out over months or even years [64, 65]. Great active volcanoes in South America are Nevado del Ruíz, in Colombia; Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, and Reventador, in Ecuador; Villarrica, Llaima, Nilahue, Lascar, Chaitén, and Calbuco, in Chile; El Misti, Ubinas and Sabancaya, in Peru; Aracar, Copahue, and Planchón-Peteroa in Argentina. There are no reported active volcanoes in Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and Brazil [64, 65].
On 22 April 2015, in Chile, the Calbuco volcano erupted and injected a significant amount of ashes and aerosols into the atmosphere [66].
The volcanic aerosol profiles in both the upper troposphere and the lower stratosphere, which originated from the Calbuco volcano eruption in Chile on 22 April 2015, were measured by different lidar stations in South America [7]. It was the first time that LALINET lidar stations, distributed across the continent, could analyze aerosol profiles together during an event. Lidar stations located in Buenos Aires, Comodoro Rivadavia, San Carlos de Bariloche, Neuquén, and Rio Gallegos (all five in Argentina), Concepción (Chile), and São Paulo (Brazil) observed the aerosols profiles [7, 67]. LALINET stations’ capabilities to operate in a coordinated way in case of a volcanic eruption were challenged, highlighting the coordination among LALINET teams.
On 23 April 2015 (one day after the eruption), the lidar system at the University of Concepción measured the aerosols profiles between 5 and 9 km, showing a multilayer structure. Both layers merged at around 7 km, decreasing its intensity and narrowing. The following day 24 April 2015, the two layers registered in the day before at Concepción were detected in the nighttime by the lidar system placed in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in heights varying between 5 and 7 km showing a drowning leaning. The aerosol’s multilayer formation was present at both lidar sites when identified for the first time. Lidar measurements conducted at IPEN in São Paulo on 27 April 2015 (five days after the eruption) exhibited aerosols found at an altitude of about 19 km in the stratosphere (Figure 7) [66]. Those lidar extinction profiles were confronted with those measured by the Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite Limb Profiler (OMPS/LP) instrument, revealing promising results [7].
Quick-look of the RCS at 532 nm measured at SPU Lidar Station on 27 April 2015. The SPU Lidar Station is installed at the Center for Lasers and Applications of the nuclear and energy research institute (CELAP/IPEN) in São Paulo. The signal between 18 km and 20 km shows aerosols originating from the Calbuco volcano eruption on 22 April 2015, in Chile.
The behavior of trace constituents in the Earth’s upper atmosphere, dictated by diverse physical processes, is of particular interest for the balance of stratosphere and mesosphere. Expressly, ozone has a principal function by absorbing the short-wavelength UV radiation (which might damage life) and keep the radiative budget stable [68]. For those reasons, ozone has been at the focus of the middle atmosphere research effort [69, 70].
Researchers’ interest in performing lidar measurements from the southern region of the southern hemisphere dates back to 1995. Researchers from CEILAP, together with Prof. Gérard Mégie (who was then head of the Service d’Aéronomie in France), considered conducting a campaign to measure ozone profiles using a DIAL (differential absorption lidar) system, in Patagonia, Argentina [71]. The configuration and installation of the lidar system began as a collaboration linking the two institutions. For the DIAL technique, two laser wavelengths are used to measure atmospheric ozone. One wavelength is well absorbed by ozone, while the other not. After the wavelengths travel into the atmosphere and are backscattered to two receivers, it is possible to make a ratio of the measurements, allowing direct determination of the ozone concentration as a function of range.
The instrument became operational in 1997 in Villa Martelli, Buenos Aires, where the headquarters of CEILAP is located. The initial version had only one telescope, which was 50 cm in diameter. It operated successfully until 2002. Later, the number of telescopes was increased to four, and a spectrometer was added. The apparatus was fine-tuned at the Villa Martelli headquarters.
The Service d’Aéronomie loaned the equipment’s electronic project and a container, which had already been used in the Arctic. However, financing was still an issue. Fortunately, since 1999, CEILAP has cooperated with the Tohoku Institute of Technology in Sendai, Japan. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) supported the south’s entire measurement campaign. It further contributed to acquiring a new Nd:YAG laser, which is imperative to the DIAL instrument. In this way, the SOLAR (stratospheric ozone lidar of Argentina) campaign started in June 2005 [72].
The campaign’s feasibility study was conducted, considering the nocturnal cloud cover over four towns in Argentine Patagonia. The data were compared with those corresponding to days when the Antarctic polar vortex crosses over these towns.
Different tracers were also considered, such as the total ozone column values measured by total ozone mapping spectrometry, the equivalent latitude method, and the potential vorticity maps calculated for the mid-stratosphere, according to studies carried out in collaboration with the Service d’Aeronomie in France and the National Institute for Environmental Studies in Japan.
The city of Río Gallegos region met the necessary conditions for the measurements. It is located at 2612 km from Buenos Aires, on the River Gallegos estuary banks, and has 140,000 inhabitants. Like other cities in southern Argentina and Chile, Río Gallegos is reached by the ozone hole’s edge during the austral spring. However, compared with its counterparts, it has a more significant number of clear nights or nights with less than one-eighth cloud cover, which means more opportunities for making measurements with the ozone DIAL. Río Gallegos also hosts the National University of Southern Patagonia, whose staff could participate in the campaign, and is near to Punta Arenas, Chile, where another research group has used a Brewer instrument to make ozone measurements, in cooperation with Brazilian researchers. On 10 June 2005, the team set off overland for Río Gallegos in two trucks that traveled 2612 km from Buenos Aires to the Military Air Base in Río Gallegos, where a mobile laboratory was set up. The base is located 18 km from the center of the town [72, 73].
A Xe:Cl excimer laser emission at 308 nm is employed for the absorbed wavelength in the DIAL technique, and an Nd:YAG laser at 355 nm third harmonic line is employed as the reference wavelength. Six channels are used for signal acquisition [72]. Four of them detect the emitted wavelengths’ elastically backscattered signal (high energy mode for the higher altitude ranges, attenuated energy for the lower ranges), and two correspond to the Raman wavelengths [72]. The CEILAP’s DIAL instrument setup is shown in Figure 8, and its full description can be found in Ref. [10].
Experimental setup of differential absorption lidar (DIAL) developed at CEILAP.
The CEILAP Lidar Division, in cooperation with other national and international institutions, has organized the SOLAR (Stratospheric Ozone Lidar of ARgentina) Campaign as a part of environmental investigations in the Southern Hemisphere [72]. This campaign’s objective was to monitor different atmospheric constituents using remote sensing techniques, mainly related to lidar, in Argentina’s southern part. The most critical and complex instrument involved in this campaign is a differential absorption lidar capable of producing precise and accurate stratospheric ozone profiles [72, 73].
The most substantial decrease of the ozone column over Río Gallegos through the 2005 spring was observed on 8 October, with a total ozone column of 196 DU estimated from integrating an ozone profile based on the lidar measurement and the US Standard 1976. This value expresses a decrease of 45% in the total ozone column concerning the mean total ozone value outside the ozone hole for this month (about 350 DU). Figure 9 shows the measured lidar profile on this day (dashed line), together with the ozone profile measured on 17 October (dotted line), which corresponds to standard ozone conditions outside the ozone hole (about 357 DU). The figure also shows the climatologic profile (black line) from the SAGE II measurements, which corresponds to the mean of the ozone measurements outside the ozone hole for the 1995–2004 period.
Lidar ozone profile inside (dashed line) and outside (gray dotted line) ozone hole in Río Gallegos. Climatologic profile for October from SAGE II data (black line) [74].
From the full set of lidar measurements, were selected 37 lidar profiles that match the HRLS profiles. The monthly mean lidar profiles were confronted with similar profiles measured by the High-Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder (HIRDLS) device onboard the NASA-Aura satellite. The collocation criteria for selecting satellite data were set using a distance of up to 500 km from site measurement and a temporal selection of about twelve hours for the measurement time. The mean stratospheric ozone lidar profile for October in Río Gallegos is shown in Figure 10. For comparison, the same quantity from satellite data is included.
Mean lidar profile (black line - error bar corresponds to ±1 std) and mean HIRDLS (white line) ±1 std. (shadow area) for October.
In general, good agreement between lidar and satellite data was found (inside the statistical error bar, with a relative difference of around 10%). The maximum disagreement between lidar and satellite data was observed in August mean profiles around 30 km. For October, the agreement was better than 10% above the ozone peak concentration. In general, it was observed that the variability of lidar profile concentrations is higher around the ozone peak, decreasing with height.
Differential Absorption lidar techniques have been demonstrated to be a reliable remote sensing technique to retrieve the stratosphere’s ozone profile [73]. Argentina has used DIAL techniques since 1999. In 2005, with French and Japanese researchers’ collaboration, the Lidar Division of CEILAP established a new site in Southern Patagonia, the South Patagonia Atmospheric Observatory (OAPA). This device has been part of Network Data for Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC) since 2008, and the research using its measurements allows the study of ozone hole overpass from South America [75] and the satellite validation in the South Hemisphere. After the SOLAR Campaign, several initiatives were carried out related to stratospheric ozone monitoring in Argentina. For example, the UVO3-Patagonia (2008–2010) and SAVER-Net projects (2013–2018) were the research activities made in collaboration with JICA, and Japanese and Chilean Researchers went more in-depth the observation of ozone in vertical profiles and total ozone column [76].
Part I of this chapter offered the opportunity to give a scientific overview of current and past lidar observation activities conducted in South America, with Cuba’s participation. This overview spans over almost 50 years of activities and grants how this part of the world is concerned with laser remote sensing of the atmosphere in almost its whole structure: Mesosphere and Stratosphere. This top-down approach also followed a chronological delivery of results, with the first results coming from the region in the highest portion of the atmosphere (mesosphere), and going downwards to stratospheric, and finally at the tropospheric studies. If, in the first years, these activities started as individual initiatives at different countries and research groups levels, the creation of a federative lidar network, namely LALINET, helped somehow to have more coordinated measurements. Moreover, the implementation of SAVERNET in Argentina and Chile improved how these joint measurements are conducted. The studies conducted in the mesosphere account for one of the most extended time series of lidar data, being of great importance in the Southern Hemisphere. Also, significant results about Na and K concentrations and their variability over almost three decades are available. The studies of ozone concentration in the stratosphere also provided relevant results, unprecedented for this portion of the globe. Part II of this chapter will be dedicated to tropospheric lidar observations.
The authors are thankful to the Brazilian Agencies National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), and National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA) LBA Central Office in Manaus. The authors also thank the NASA/AERONET teams, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Argentine Agencies National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), National Agency for the Promotion of Research, Technological Development and Innovation (ANPCyT), the Argentine National Defense University (UNDEF), UNDEFI and PID-UTN Projects, the Ministry of Defense of Argentina, and the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS). Also, to all NASA’s technical personnel, the Argentine Institute of Scientific and Technical Research for Defense (CITEDEF), and the Argentine National Meteorological Service (SMN), who have kept the solar photometers in operation, and especially to Raúl D’Elia. The authors wish to acknowledge the entire NASA CALIPSO and MODIS (AQUA/TERRA) teams, the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, for providing the HYSPLIT transport and dispersion model and the READY website, ESA/EOM projects teams, the Suomi NPP (National Polar-orbiting Partnership) Mission teams, and the Sentinel 5-P TROPOMI team. The authors also acknowledge the financial support from CIBioFi, the Colombian Science, Technology, and Innovation Fund-General Royalties System (Fondo CTeI-Sistema General de Regalías), and Gobernación del Valle del Cauca. The authors acknowledge the China-Brazil Joint Laboratory for Space Weather (CBJLSW) for Supporting this Book Chapter. Vania F. Andrioli would like to thank the CBJLSW and the National Space Science Center (NSSC) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) for supporting her postdoctoral fellowship. The authors from the Universidad de Magallanes would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) / Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Science and Technology Research Association for Sustainable Development (SATREPS) through the SAVERNet project; and the Program FONDECYT of the Chilean National Agency for Research and Development (ANID) through Project FONDECYT 11181335.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Al Azhar University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"113313",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Aal",middleName:null,surname:"Mantawy",slug:"abdel-aal-mantawy",fullName:"Abdel-Aal Mantawy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1683},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"8"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10454",title:"Technology in Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10502",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"34fe61c309f2405130ede7a267cf8bd5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Lukman Bola Abdulra'uf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10502.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"149347",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukman",surname:"Abdulra'uf",slug:"lukman-abdulra'uf",fullName:"Lukman Abdulra'uf"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10504",title:"Crystallization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3478d05926950f475f4ad2825d340963",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Youssef Ben Smida and Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10504.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10552",title:"Montmorillonite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c4a279761f0bb046af95ecd32ab09e51",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Faheem Uddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10552.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10572",title:"Advancements in Chromophore and Bio-Chromophore Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4aca0af0356d8d31fa8621859a68db8f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rampal Pandey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10572.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338234",title:"Dr.",name:"Rampal",surname:"Pandey",slug:"rampal-pandey",fullName:"Rampal Pandey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10581",title:"Alkaline Chemistry and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4ed90bdab4a7211c13cd432aa079cd20",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10581.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"300527",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",surname:"Marzouki",slug:"riadh-marzouki",fullName:"Riadh Marzouki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10582",title:"Chemical Vapor Deposition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9177ff0e61198735fb86a81303259d0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. 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