Identifiable causes of osteoporosis
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"861",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanomaterials",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "Nanomaterials" includes all aspects of metal-oxide nano-structures, nano-composites, and polymer materials instigating with materials survey and preparations, growth and characterizations, processing and fabrications, developments and potential applications. These topics have utilized innovative methods of preparation, improvement, and continuous changes in multidimensional ways. The innovative frontiers are branching out from time to time to advanced nanotechnology. It is an important booklet for scientific organizations, governmental research-centers, academic libraries, and the overall research and development of nano-materials in general. It has been created for widespread audience with diverse backgrounds and education.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-913-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4383-3",doi:"10.5772/1371",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"nanomaterials",numberOfPages:358,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"f32b97a9aa541939cb212373d471d477",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/861.jpg",numberOfDownloads:85880,numberOfWosCitations:126,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitations:127,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:293,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 20th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 17th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 24th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24438/images/system/24438.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohammed Muzibur Rahman received his BSc and MSc from Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh, in 1999 and 2001, respectively. He received his Ph.D. from the Chonbuk National University, South Korea, in 2007. After completing his Ph.D., Dr. Rahman worked as a postdoctoral fellow and assistant professor at pioneer research centers and universities located in South Korea, Japan, and Saudi Arabia (2007 to 2011). Presently, he is an associate professor at the Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) and the Chemistry Department at King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia, where he has been since 2011. He has published more than 300 international and domestic conferences and several book chapters and edited fourteen books. His research interests include composite materials, electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, semiconductors, nanotechnology, nanomaterials, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, sensors, ionic liquids, surface chemistry, electrochemistry, self-assembled monolayers, and devices.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"25339",title:"Nucleation and Growth of TiO2 Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/25912",slug:"nucleation-and-growth-of-tio2-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:8954,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,signatures:"H. Mehranpour, Masoud Askari and M. Sasani Ghamsari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25339",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25339",authors:[{id:"64949",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",surname:"Sasani Ghamsari",slug:"morteza-sasani-ghamsari",fullName:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari"},{id:"102433",title:"Mr.",name:"Hamed",surname:"Mehranpour",slug:"hamed-mehranpour",fullName:"Hamed Mehranpour"},{id:"136004",title:"Dr.",name:"Masoud",surname:"Askari",slug:"masoud-askari",fullName:"Masoud Askari"}],corrections:null},{id:"25340",title:"Synthesis, Characterization and Biological Applications of Water-Soluble ZnO Quantum Dots",doi:"10.5772/27238",slug:"synthesis-characterization-and-biological-applications-of-water-soluble-zno-quantum-dots",totalDownloads:6327,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,signatures:"Raphaël Schneider, Lavinia Balan and Fadi Aldeek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25340",authors:[{id:"6855",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",surname:"Balan",slug:"lavinia-balan",fullName:"Lavinia Balan"},{id:"69408",title:"Prof.",name:"Raphael",surname:"Schneider",slug:"raphael-schneider",fullName:"Raphael Schneider"}],corrections:null},{id:"25341",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/27698",slug:"iron-oxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:23192,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:33,signatures:"Mohammed M. Rahman, Sher Bahadar Khan, Aslam Jamal, Mohd Faisal and Abdullah M. Aisiri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25341",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25341",authors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"},{id:"118068",title:"Dr.",name:"Aslam",surname:"Jamal",slug:"aslam-jamal",fullName:"Aslam Jamal"},{id:"118069",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher",surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-khan",fullName:"Sher Khan"},{id:"118070",title:"Dr.",name:"M",surname:"Faisal",slug:"m-faisal",fullName:"M Faisal"}],corrections:null},{id:"25342",title:"Nanocomposite Materials with Oriented Functionalized Structure",doi:"10.5772/33104",slug:"nanocomposite-materials-with-oriented-functionalized-structure",totalDownloads:2881,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Petrişor Zamora Iordache, Nicoleta Petrea, Rodica Mihaela Lungu, Răzvan Petre, Ciprian Său and Ioan Safta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25342",authors:[{id:"94041",title:"MSc.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Petrea",slug:"nicoleta-petrea",fullName:"Nicoleta Petrea"},{id:"118319",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodica Mihaela",surname:"Lungu",slug:"rodica-mihaela-lungu",fullName:"Rodica Mihaela Lungu"},{id:"118321",title:"BSc.",name:"Ciprian",surname:"Sau",slug:"ciprian-sau",fullName:"Ciprian Sau"},{id:"118325",title:"Dr.",name:"Petrisor",surname:"Iordache",slug:"petrisor-iordache",fullName:"Petrisor Iordache"},{id:"118367",title:"Mr.",name:"Razvan",surname:"Petre",slug:"razvan-petre",fullName:"Razvan Petre"},{id:"121342",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan",surname:"Safta",slug:"ioan-safta",fullName:"Ioan Safta"}],corrections:null},{id:"25343",title:"Synthesis of Carbon Nanomaterials Using High-Voltage Electric Discharge Techniques",doi:"10.5772/25819",slug:"synthesis-of-carbon-nanomaterials-using-high-voltage-electric-discharge-techniques",totalDownloads:2650,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"A. D. Rud, N. I. Kuskova, L. I. Ivaschuk, L. Z. Boguslavskii and A. E. Perekos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25343",authors:[{id:"64659",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Rud",slug:"alexander-rud",fullName:"Alexander Rud"},{id:"69807",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalja",surname:"Kuskova",slug:"natalja-kuskova",fullName:"Natalja Kuskova"},{id:"69810",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyubov",surname:"Ivaschuk",slug:"lyubov-ivaschuk",fullName:"Lyubov Ivaschuk"},{id:"69813",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonid",surname:"Boguslavskii",slug:"leonid-boguslavskii",fullName:"Leonid Boguslavskii"},{id:"69814",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatolii",surname:"Perekos",slug:"anatolii-perekos",fullName:"Anatolii Perekos"}],corrections:null},{id:"25344",title:"New Methods and New Types of Functionalised Nanocomposites Intended for the Ecological Depollution of Waters",doi:"10.5772/34078",slug:"new-methods-and-new-types-of-functionalised-nanocomposites-intended-for-the-ecological-depollution-o",totalDownloads:2381,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Nicoleta Petrea, Petrişor Zamora Iordache,Rodica Mihaela Lungu, Ioan Safta, Razvan Petre and Andrada Pretorian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25344",authors:[{id:"94041",title:"MSc.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Petrea",slug:"nicoleta-petrea",fullName:"Nicoleta Petrea"},{id:"118325",title:"Dr.",name:"Petrisor",surname:"Iordache",slug:"petrisor-iordache",fullName:"Petrisor Iordache"},{id:"121342",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan",surname:"Safta",slug:"ioan-safta",fullName:"Ioan Safta"},{id:"118736",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodica Mihaela",surname:"Lungu",slug:"rodica-mihaela-lungu",fullName:"Rodica Mihaela Lungu"},{id:"118739",title:"BSc.",name:"Razvan",surname:"Petre",slug:"razvan-petre",fullName:"Razvan Petre"},{id:"119357",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrada",surname:"Pretorian",slug:"andrada-pretorian",fullName:"Andrada Pretorian"}],corrections:null},{id:"25345",title:"Review of Nanocomposite Thin Films and Coatings Deposited by PVD and CVD Technology",doi:"10.5772/25799",slug:"review-of-nanocomposite-thin-films-and-coatings-deposited-by-pvd-and-cvd-technology",totalDownloads:10086,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,signatures:"Krzysztof Lukaszkowicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25345",authors:[{id:"16860",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Lukaszkowicz",slug:"krzysztof-lukaszkowicz",fullName:"Krzysztof Lukaszkowicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"25346",title:"Polymer/Montmorillonite/Silver Nanocomposite Micro- and Nanoparticles Prepared by In-Situ Polymerization and Electrospraying Technique",doi:"10.5772/26212",slug:"polymer-montmorillonite-silver-nanocomposite-micro-and-nanoparticles-prepared-by-in-situ-polymerizat",totalDownloads:3943,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Jeong Hyun Yeum, Jae Hyeung Park, Jae Young Choi Jong Won Kim, Sung Kyou Han and Weontae Oh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25346",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25346",authors:[{id:"18597",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeong Hyun",surname:"Yeum",slug:"jeong-hyun-yeum",fullName:"Jeong Hyun Yeum"}],corrections:null},{id:"25347",title:"Designing Nanostructured Carbon Xerogels",doi:"10.5772/17157",slug:"designing-nanostructured-carbon-xerogels",totalDownloads:3713,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:18,signatures:"Esther G. Calvo, J. Ángel Menéndez and Ana Arenillas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25347",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25347",authors:[{id:"14045",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Angel",surname:"Menéndez Díaz",slug:"j.-angel-menendez-diaz",fullName:"J. Angel Menéndez Díaz"},{id:"15134",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Arenillas",slug:"ana-arenillas",fullName:"Ana Arenillas"},{id:"27457",title:"Ms.",name:"Esther",surname:"G.Calvo",slug:"esther-g.calvo",fullName:"Esther G.Calvo"}],corrections:null},{id:"25348",title:"Carbon and Silicon Fluorescent Nanomaterials",doi:"10.5772/25809",slug:"carbon-and-silicon-fluorescent-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:4973,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Joaquim G. G. Esteves da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25348",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25348",authors:[{id:"16117",title:"Dr.",name:"Joaquim",surname:"Esteves da Silva",slug:"joaquim-esteves-da-silva",fullName:"Joaquim Esteves da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"25349",title:"Bioinspired Metal Nanoparticle: Synthesis, Properties and Application",doi:"10.5772/25305",slug:"bioinspired-metal-nanoparticle-synthesis-properties-and-application",totalDownloads:9451,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:22,signatures:"Sujoy K. Das and Enrico Marsili",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25349",authors:[{id:"62940",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrico",surname:"Marsili",slug:"enrico-marsili",fullName:"Enrico Marsili"},{id:"62942",title:"Dr.",name:"Sujoy",surname:"Das",slug:"sujoy-das",fullName:"Sujoy Das"}],corrections:null},{id:"25350",title:"Biorecycling of Precious Metals and Rare Earth Elements",doi:"10.5772/25653",slug:"biorecycling-of-precious-metals-and-rare-earth-elements",totalDownloads:4541,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,signatures:"Kevin Deplanche, Angela Murray, Claire Mennan, Scott Taylor and Lynne Macaskie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25350",authors:[{id:"64033",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Deplanche",slug:"kevin-deplanche",fullName:"Kevin Deplanche"},{id:"68806",title:"Prof.",name:"Lynne",surname:"Macaskie",slug:"lynne-macaskie",fullName:"Lynne Macaskie"},{id:"68807",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",surname:"Mennan",slug:"claire-mennan",fullName:"Claire Mennan"},{id:"68809",title:"Ms.",name:"Angela",surname:"Murray",slug:"angela-murray",fullName:"Angela Murray"},{id:"68810",title:"Mr.",name:"Scott",surname:"Taylor",slug:"scott-taylor",fullName:"Scott Taylor"}],corrections:null},{id:"25351",title:"Molecular Design and Supramolecular Assemblies of Novel Amphiphiles with Special Molecular Structures in Organized Molecular Films",doi:"10.5772/25601",slug:"molecular-design-and-supramolecular-assemblies-of-novel-amphiphiles-with-special-molecular-structure",totalDownloads:2796,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Tifeng Jiao, Sufeng Wang and Jingxin Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25351",authors:[{id:"63887",title:"Prof.",name:"Tifeng",surname:"Jiao",slug:"tifeng-jiao",fullName:"Tifeng Jiao"},{id:"101752",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jingxin",surname:"Zhou",slug:"jingxin-zhou",fullName:"Jingxin Zhou"},{id:"102745",title:"Dr.",name:"Sufeng",surname:"Wang",slug:"sufeng-wang",fullName:"Sufeng Wang"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5308",title:"Nanofiber Research",subtitle:"Reaching New Heights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e5d2ad58b1840ec81e587914d52f5e0b",slug:"nanofiber-research-reaching-new-heights",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah M. Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5308.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5777",title:"Electrochemical Sensors Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c290f7095446d3908041a5185fded2e5",slug:"electrochemical-sensors-technology",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5777.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7230",title:"Recent Advances in Ionic Liquids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cebbba5d7b2b6c41fafebde32f87f90b",slug:"recent-advances-in-ionic-liquids",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7230.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6218",title:"Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9f38af20209e9d816b7d57ecbba386b9",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6218.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5848",title:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa9478b98a858b7c57bf056ac5c6e197",slug:"recent-progress-in-organometallic-chemistry",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9206",title:"Importance of Selenium in the Environment and Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e21bd2a386a2d078fe53a4d1658e44bf",slug:"importance-of-selenium-in-the-environment-and-human-health",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohamed Asiri, Anish Khan and Inamuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9206.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7671",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"549e8caa1b260cea0dd3fe688cd126f5",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",bookSignature:"Mohammed Rahman, Anish Khan, Abdullah Asiri and Inamuddin Inamuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6856",title:"Gold Nanoparticles",subtitle:"Reaching New Heights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23e172496e46e18712a901308d074cfb",slug:"gold-nanoparticles-reaching-new-heights",bookSignature:"Mohammed Rahman and Abdullah Mohammed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5403",title:"Advances in Colloid Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38413a6aefb978b024eac803fba6c354",slug:"advances-in-colloid-science",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5403.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66068",slug:"addendum-an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia",title:"Addendum - An Overview of PET Radiopharmaceuticals in Clinical Use: Regulatory, Quality and Pharmacopeia Monographs of the United States and Europe",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66068.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66068",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66068",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66068",chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"3198",leadTitle:null,title:"Digital Filters and Signal Processing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Digital filters, together with signal processing, are being employed in the new technologies and information systems, and are implemented in different areas and applications. Digital filters and signal processing are used with no costs and they can be adapted to different cases with great flexibility and reliability. This book presents advanced developments in digital filters and signal process methods covering different cases studies. They present the main essence of the subject, with the principal approaches to the most recent mathematical models that are being employed worldwide.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0871-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6289-6",doi:"10.5772/45654",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"digital-filters-and-signal-processing",numberOfPages:322,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad19128b3c5153cd5d30d16912ed89f3",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez and Noor Zaman",publishedDate:"January 16th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3198.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:21594,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfTotalCitations:36,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 9th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 7th 2012",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/22844/images/system/22844.jpeg",biography:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez has been accredited as Full Professor at UCLM, Spain since 2013. He also works as a Honorary Senior Research Fellow at Birmingham University, UK, Lecturer at the Postgraduate European Institute, and has worked as Senior Manager in Accenture (2013-2014). He obtained his European PhD with a maximum distinction. He is a holder of the Runner Prize for Management Science and Engineering Management Nominated Prize (2020), Advancement Prize (2018), First International Business Ideas Competition 2017 Award (2017), Runner (2015), Advancement (2013) and Silver (2012) by the International Society of Management Science and Engineering Management (ICMSEM), and Best Paper Award in the international journal of Renewable Energy (Impact Factor 3.5) (2015). He has published more than 150 papers (65 % ISI, 30% JCR, and 92% internationals), some recognized as follows: “Applied Energy” (Q1, as “Best Paper 2020”), “Renewable Energy” (Q1, as “Best Paper 2014”), “ICMSEM” (as “excellent”), “International Journal of Automation and Computing” and “IMechE Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit” (most downloaded), etc. He is an author and editor of 25 books (Elsevier, Springer, Pearson, Mc-GrawHill, IntechOpen, IGI, Marcombo, AlfaOmega, etc.), and 5 patents. He is also an Editor of 5 International Journals and Committee Member of more than 40 International Conferences. He has been a Principal Investigator in 4 European Projects, 6 National Projects, and more than 150 projects for universities, companies, etc. He is an European Union expert in AI4People (EISMD) and ESF. He is Director of www.ingeniumgroup.eu. His main interest are: artificial intelligence, maintenance, management, renewable energy, transport, advanced analytics, and data science.",institutionString:"University of Castile-La Mancha",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"University of Castile-La Mancha",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"155714",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",slug:"noor-zaman",fullName:"Noor Zaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155714/images/5120_n.png",biography:"Dr. Noor Zaman acquired his degree in Engineering in 1998, and Master’s in Computer Science at the University of Agriculture at Faisalabad in 2000. His academic achievements further extended with Ph.D. in Information Technology at University Technology Petronas (UTP) Malaysia. He has vast experience of 16 years in the field of teaching and research. He is currently working as an Assistant Professor at the College of Computer Science and Information Technology, King Faisal University, in Saudi Arabia since 2008. He has contributed well in King Faisal University for achieving ABET Accreditation, by working as a member and Secretary for Accreditation and Quality cell for more than 08 years. He takes care of versatile operations including teaching, research activities, leading ERP projects, IT consultancy and IT management. He headed the department of IT, and administered the Prometric center in the Institute of Business and Technology (BIZTEK), in Karachi Pakistan. He has worked as a consultant for Network and Server Management remotely in Apex Canada USA base Software house and call center.\n\nDr. Noor Zaman has authored several research papers in indexed journals\\\\international conferences, and edited six international reputed Computer Science area books, has many publications to his credit. He is an associate Editor, Regional Editor and reviewer for reputed international journals and conferences around the world. He has completed several international research grants\\\\funded projects and currently involved in different courtiers. His areas of interest include Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), Internet of Things IoT, Mobile Application Programming, Ad hoc Networks, Cloud Computing, Big Data, Mobile Computing, and Software Engineering.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"King Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"759",title:"System Modeling and Analysis",slug:"system-modeling-and-analysis"}],chapters:[{id:"40445",title:"Maintenance Management Based on Signal Processing",slug:"maintenance-management-based-on-signal-processing",totalDownloads:2773,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"},{id:"155699",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",surname:"Ruiz De La Hermosa Gonzalez-Carrato",slug:"raul-ruiz-de-la-hermosa-gonzalez-carrato",fullName:"Raul Ruiz De La Hermosa Gonzalez-Carrato"},{id:"155700",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús María",surname:"Pinar Perez",slug:"jesus-maria-pinar-perez",fullName:"Jesús María Pinar Perez"},{id:"156010",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor",surname:"Zaman",slug:"noor-zaman",fullName:"Noor Zaman"}]},{id:"41076",title:"Spectral Analysis of Exons in DNA Signals",slug:"spectral-analysis-of-exons-in-dna-signals",totalDownloads:2042,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"},{id:"155714",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor",surname:"Zaman",slug:"noor-zaman",fullName:"Noor Zaman"},{id:"155957",title:"Dr.",name:"Mnueer",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mnueer-ahmed",fullName:"Mnueer Ahmed"}]},{id:"41666",title:"Deterministic Sampling for Quantification of Modeling Uncertainty of Signals",slug:"deterministic-sampling-for-quantification-of-modeling-uncertainty-of-signals",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"20815",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan Peter",surname:"Hessling",slug:"jan-peter-hessling",fullName:"Jan Peter Hessling"}]},{id:"41868",title:"Direct Methods for Frequency Filter Performance Analysis",slug:"direct-methods-for-frequency-filter-performance-analysis",totalDownloads:1812,totalCrossrefCites:6,authors:[{id:"20067",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexey",surname:"Mokeev",slug:"alexey-mokeev",fullName:"Alexey Mokeev"}]},{id:"40459",title:"Frequency Transformation for Linear State-Space Systems and Its Application to High-Performance Analog/Digital Filters",slug:"frequency-transformation-for-linear-state-space-systems-and-its-application-to-high-performance-anal",totalDownloads:2741,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"154837",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Kawamata",slug:"masayuki-kawamata",fullName:"Masayuki Kawamata"}]},{id:"40133",title:"A Study on a Filter Bank Structure With Rational Scaling Factors and Its Applications",slug:"a-study-on-a-filter-bank-structure-with-rational-scaling-factors-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"154810",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumio",surname:"Itami",slug:"fumio-itami",fullName:"Fumio Itami"}]},{id:"41655",title:"Digital Filter Implementation of Orthogonal Moments",slug:"digital-filter-implementation-of-orthogonal-moments",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"153833",title:"Dr.",name:"Barmak",surname:"Honarvar Shakibaei Asli",slug:"barmak-honarvar-shakibaei-asli",fullName:"Barmak Honarvar Shakibaei Asli"},{id:"166106",title:"Prof.",name:"Raveendran",surname:"Paramesran",slug:"raveendran-paramesran",fullName:"Raveendran Paramesran"}]},{id:"40215",title:"Two-Rate Based Structures for Computationally Efficient Wide- Band FIR Systems",slug:"two-rate-based-structures-for-computationally-efficient-wide-band-fir-systems",totalDownloads:1664,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"23087",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Gustafsson",slug:"oscar-gustafsson",fullName:"Oscar Gustafsson"},{id:"89357",title:"Prof.",name:"Håkan",surname:"Johansson",slug:"hakan-johansson",fullName:"Håkan Johansson"}]},{id:"41503",title:"Analytical Approach for Synthesis of Minimum L2-Sensitivity Realizations for State-Space Digital Filters",slug:"analytical-approach-for-synthesis-of-minimum-l2-sensitivity-realizations-for-state-space-digital-fil",totalDownloads:1276,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"154681",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Kawamata",slug:"masayuki-kawamata",fullName:"Masayuki Kawamata"},{id:"164775",title:"Dr.",name:"Shunsuke",surname:"Yamaki",slug:"shunsuke-yamaki",fullName:"Shunsuke Yamaki"},{id:"164871",title:"Dr.",name:"Masahide",surname:"Abe",slug:"masahide-abe",fullName:"Masahide Abe"}]},{id:"40283",title:"Particle Swarm Optimization of Highly Selective Digital Filters over the Finite-Precision Multiplier Coefficient Space",slug:"particle-swarm-optimization-of-highly-selective-digital-filters-over-the-finite-precision-multiplier",totalDownloads:1918,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"154822",title:"Prof.",name:"Behrouz",surname:"Nowrouzian",slug:"behrouz-nowrouzian",fullName:"Behrouz Nowrouzian"},{id:"155063",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyyed Ali",surname:"Hashemi",slug:"seyyed-ali-hashemi",fullName:"Seyyed Ali Hashemi"}]},{id:"41630",title:"Analytical Design of Two-Dimensional Filters and Applications in Biomedical Image Processing",slug:"analytical-design-of-two-dimensional-filters-and-applications-in-biomedical-image-processing",totalDownloads:2433,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"20530",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu",surname:"Matei",slug:"radu-matei",fullName:"Radu Matei"},{id:"154993",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Matei",slug:"daniela-matei",fullName:"Daniela Matei"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"24368",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Pantar",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24368/images/4736_n.jpg",email:"ana.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"120",title:"Digital Filters",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10692f498575728ddac136b0b327a83d",slug:"digital-filters",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5223",title:"Non-Destructive Testing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cd0602adf345e3f19f63dfbf81651d0",slug:"non-destructive-testing",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro Garcia Marquez, Mayorkinos Papaelias and Noor Zaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5223.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6593",title:"Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88cae11440930f7ba788d5cfedec5979",slug:"decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez, Alberto Pliego Marugán and Mayorkinos Papaelias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6593.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6086",title:"Dependability Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8fbd4b0feef5494393639fa03a0f718",slug:"dependability-engineering",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez and Mayorkinos Papaelias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6086.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3197",title:"Engineering Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52723a3454f918817d45845dde4e8458",slug:"engineering-management",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez and Benjamin Lev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3197.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9332",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72ccbc5aab28621bad2e810c4bd5bd53",slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8453",title:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma",subtitle:"Behind the Mask",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9342a056651f34acc565b467a71e1e27",slug:"lean-manufacturing-and-six-sigma-behind-the-mask",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez, Isaac Segovia Ramirez, Tamás Bányai and Péter Tamás",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8453.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7751",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d54796f7da58f58fa679b94a2b83af00",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8623",title:"Maintenance Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cc93ad76fdd6709b8c50c6ba7e4e0c",slug:"maintenance-management",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez and Mayorkinos Papaelias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8623.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3158",title:"Design and Architectures for Digital Signal Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29151ebf095f6c31d6a4d29d265b1c24",slug:"design-and-architectures-for-digital-signal-processing",bookSignature:"Gustavo Ruiz and Juan A. Michell",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24430",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Ruiz",slug:"gustavo-ruiz",fullName:"Gustavo Ruiz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48260",title:"Genetic Disorders Associated with Osteoporosis",doi:"10.5772/59961",slug:"genetic-disorders-associated-with-osteoporosis",body:'
Osteoporosis (OP) is a common skeletal disease and a global problem. The prevalence of OP is approximately 10.3% in the general population and affects over 200 million women worldwide [1]. Approximately 30% of postmenopausal women suffer from OP in Western nations. About 50% of affected women and at least 15% of affected men will undergo fragility fractures in their lifetime. OP is chronic and does not present with apparent symptoms before osteoporostic fractures occur. This can cause disability, a decreased quality of life, and even death. As a result, OP imposes a heavy financial burden on society that includes not only the direct cost of osteoporostic fractures but also the indirect costs of disablement. In the United States, the direct cost of OP was over USD 13.7 billion in 2005 and may reach USD 25.3 billion by 2025. Therefore, OP is a pressing public health concern and greater understanding of its mechanisms is imperative.
Population ageing is accelerating worldwide, and OP is becoming increasingly prevalent. However, the risk factors that contribute to OP are not clear. Many factors have been suggested to affect the likelihood of OP, including genetics, gender, age, poor diet, smoking and medications (Figure 1). It has been reported that the genetic heritability of bone loss in humans is up to 56% [2,3]. This has been found through comparisons of bone mineral density (BMD), the hallmark trait of OP, in monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins after menopause. Additionally, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 37,534 individuals in Europe and North America has confirmed that LRP5 (lipoprotein-receptor-related protein) significantly increases the risk of OP and osteoporotic fractures [4]. Therefore, genetic factors play a significant role in the aetiology of OP and its complications.
Bone mass is affected by genetic (60%~80% contribution) and other factors (20%~40% contribution) including exercise, sunlight, nutrition, smoking, alcohol, medication and ageing. Factors along the upline potentially contribute to higher bone mass and along the downline cause lower bone mass.
OP is characterized by reduced BMD, impaired microarchitecture of bone tissue and increased risk of fractures. OP has a wide range of phenotypes including abnormal BMD, bone turnover, osteoporotic fracture, skeletal growth, and fracture risk. Although OP genetics aims to identify pathological genes that increase the chance of bone fragility, osteoporotic fractures are not appropriate candidate phenotypes for heritability studies. As fractures occur due to a wide variety of reasons, not necessarily as a result of bone fragility, fractures alone are insufficient qualifiers for studies. In contrast, previous studies have reported a strong genetic correlation between BMD and bone mass/fracture phenotypes [5]. To this date, most OP studies have focused on BMD because of the high heritability and relative ease of measurement. This chapter will discuss the hereditary factors in pursuit of a new understanding of pathological genes in OP, including an overview of current technology at the cutting-edge of OP testing.
OP may be caused by primary and secondary factors (Table 1). Mostly, OP results from primary factors; in approximately 20%~40% of patients the condition has secondary causes [5,6]. Primary OP has two categories: type I (postmenopausal) and type II (senile) OP. Type I OP is believed to be associated with oestrogen deficiency and usually occurs in women between the ages of 51 and 75. It results in excessive bone resorption and fractures, including in the trabecular bone in the vertebrae and distal radius. Type II OP usually results from age-related vitamin D deficiency and affects women and men over the age of 70. It mainly causes hypocalcaemia, increased parathyroid hormone (PTH) release, bone resorption and fractures, including in both the trabecular and cortical bone on the long bones, causing fractures of the femoral neck, proximal, humerus and tibia, and pelvis.
\n\t\t\t\tIdentifiable Causes\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\tPrimary cause\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSecondary cause\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Personal condition | \n\t\t\tChronic glucocorticoid therapy | \n\t\t
Oestrogen deficiency | \n\t\t\tThyrotoxicosis | \n\t\t
Low weight and body mass index | \n\t\t\tVitamin D deficiency | \n\t\t
Increased age | \n\t\t\tAlcoholism and smoking | \n\t\t
Gender | \n\t\t\tHypogonadism (men) | \n\t\t
Family history | \n\t\t\tMalnutrition | \n\t\t
Identifiable causes of osteoporosis
As discussed in detail in other chapters of this book, OP is a chronic and complex disease that is influenced by both non-genetic and genetic factors. Non-genetic factors are common and worthy of consideration (Table 2). One of the most important is oestrogen, which changes with age [6, 7]. Oestrogen acts directly on oestrogen receptors in osteoblasts and its deficiency affects BMD, which leads to the risk of OP in postmenopausal women and contributes to the development of OP in elderly men. The chemical element lead is another potential risk factor for OP. Lead impairs cell proliferation and viability by affecting the response of cells to hormonal stimuli, which interferes with hormone and cytokine signal-transduction processes. This causes a toxic effect in skeleton systems and influences bone mineral homeostasis and growth. Calcium is one of our most common body minerals and is required for normal skeletal growth and maintenance [8]. A low-calcium diet causes loss of trabecular bone by affecting the function and phenotype of bone-marrow cells [8-10]. This has been shown to further accelerate bone loss in ovariectomized (OVX) rats, though BMD levels were partially rescued by calcium supplements [8-10]. Cadmium is toxic and causes bone loss after the start of dietary cadmium exposure [11-12]. It has been demonstrated that cadmium exposure leads to an increase in serum calcium, phosphorous and PTH levels in concomitant with significant reduction in serum vitamin D (3), osteocalcin (OC) levels and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BALP) activity [11-12]. Reduced BMD is usually associated with kidney impairment in response to cadmium exposure [12]. Although the toxic effects of aluminium overload on bone metabolism were first reported with a severe form of osteomalacic osteodystrophy [13], recently it has been reported that accumulated aluminium content in bone during life does not substantially influence the level of BMD [14-15]. Additionally, no clinical symptoms of bone disease were found in individuals with aluminium contamination, but its accumulation in tissue was significant [14-15]. Interestingly, dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was found to induce BMD recovery in osteopenic rats affected by aluminium [16]. Alcohol slows cell proliferation and viability to arrest longitudinal bone growth, and affects dry weight, mineral content and mechanical integrity [17-18]. This may increase the risk of developing OP – further confirmation is given by epidemiological findings. Additionally, studies on animals have reported that alcohol suppresses young bone growth and inhibits adult bone formation – alcohol has greater deleterious effects on bone formation than on bone resorption [18]. Smoking, particularly heavy smoking, may affect nutritional absorption, decrease absorption of calcium, and interfere with oestrogen. This eventually results in lower oestrogen levels, lower bone density, a dramatic decrease in the bone mass/mineralization, and a higher incidence of bone fractures [19-21]. Notably, smoking duration was not associated with BMD in 1,054 subjects, including 26.2% of current smokers (n=276), 17.7% of former smokers (n=187), and 56.1% of never smokers (n=591) [21].
Non-genetic factors in the risk of osteoporosis.
Although non-genetic factors play a significant role in determination of the risk of OP, twin and family studies have reported that up to 60~80% of the variance in BMD is attributable to genetic factors. Non-genetic factors vary markedly among individuals who show different bone response to stimuli, and genetic factors appear to be more dominant than the combination of non-genetic factors in the pathogenesis of OP. The search for pathogenic genes that cause OP remains one of the greatest challenges and the most active scientific area in musculoskeletal research. Despite the impact of environmental factors, it has been confirmed that genes related to OP exist and have pathogenicity. These are multiple genes with small individual effects; not more than 10% are associated with BMD. Therefore, the impact of genetic factors in the pathogenesis of OP is still unclear. To date, different methods have been used to identify the susceptible genes related to OP (Fig. 2.). These are elaborated below.
Strategies in the identification of genetic variants of osteoporosis and other complex diseases. Linkage studies in families and sibling pairs refer to phenotyping members of extended families for the feature of interest (e.g., BMD). The control study looks for the association of a marker allele with disease by comparison among unrelated subjects. Experimental crosses in animals are performed to prove the findings from linkage and candidate gene studies.
Ever since Mendel first elucidated the concept of inheritance in the pea plant, genetic analyses have used families, which often share similar genes, to study gene characteristics. With the development of genomic technology, the discovery of genetic markers spanning the entire human genome for Mendelian diseases and traits has been achieved after widespread mapping efforts. Major monogenic skeletal disorders with OP that have been identified to date include osteogenesis imperfecta, Bruck syndrome, osteopetrosis, high-bone-mass syndrome, osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome, von Buchem disease, sclerosteosteosis, familial expansile osteolysis, juvenile Paget’s disease, hypophosphatasia, neonatal hyperparathyroidism and pyknodysostosis. These diseases affect BMD and can cause either high- or low-mass syndrome.
Although many pathogenic genes have been identified (Table 3), many do not qualify as osteoporosis genes due to a lack of robustness. Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related 5 (LRP5) protein is a transmembrane low-density lipoprotein receptor which functions in receptor-mediated endocytosis [22-24]. The LRP5 gene was identified as the cause of the monogenic disease osteoporosis-pseudoglioma by mapping and candidate gene screening [22-24]. Inactivation of LRP5 leads to the suppression of mechano-responsiveness and reduces bone mass and Young’s modulus in osteoporosis-pseudoglioma [25, 26]. Activation of LRP5 increases bone mass in osteosarcoma. Furthermore, population-based and cohort studies have confirmed the significant association of LRP5 with BMD in Asian and European populations [27-29]. Bone fragility and risk of fracture have been reported with the mutation of LRP5 in families of affected patients. Patients with multiple thoracic vertebral fractures were confirmed to have about two compound heterozygous missense mutations in LRP5 [30, 31]. Meta-analyses and genome-wide studies carried out for separate large populations have revealed consistency between LRP5 variants in BMD and fracture risk – this will be further addressed in the next part. In addition to LRP5, low-density lipoprotein-related 4 (LRP4) protein was identified as a candidate sclerostin interaction partner by an unbiased proteomics approach [32]. The mutation of LRP4 has been reported to be associated with bone overgrowth by impairing the sclerostin facilitator function.
AR | \n\t\t\tAHSG | \n\t\t\tApoE | \n\t\t\tBMP2 | \n\t\t\tBGP | \n\t\t\tCASR | \n\t\t
CLCN7 | \n\t\t\tCOL1A1 | \n\t\t\tCOL1A2 | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\tCYR1B1 | \n\t\t\tCOMT | \n\t\t
CYP1A1 | \n\t\t\tCYP17 | \n\t\t\tCTR | \n\t\t\tCYP19 | \n\t\t\tCCR2 | \n\t\t\tDBP | \n\t\t
DRD4 | \n\t\t\tERbeta | \n\t\t\tERalpha | \n\t\t\tFRA-1 | \n\t\t\tGH1 | \n\t\t\tGnRH | \n\t\t
HLA-A | \n\t\t\tIL-6 | \n\t\t\tLRP5 | \n\t\t\tLRP4 | \n\t\t\tLCT | \n\t\t\tIL-1RA | \n\t\t
LEPR | \n\t\t\tIL-10 | \n\t\t\tI-TRAF | \n\t\t\tIRAK1 | \n\t\t\tIGF-1 | \n\t\t\tIGF-II | \n\t\t
Klotho | \n\t\t\tMMP-1 | \n\t\t\tMGP | \n\t\t\tMTHFR | \n\t\t\tMMP-9 | \n\t\t\tNPY | \n\t\t
NCOA3 | \n\t\t\tOSCAR | \n\t\t\tOPG | \n\t\t\tP57(KIP2) | \n\t\t\tPON1 | \n\t\t\tPDE4 | \n\t\t
PPARG | \n\t\t\tPLDO1 | \n\t\t\tPTHR1 | \n\t\t\tPTH | \n\t\t\tPDE4D | \n\t\t\tQPCT | \n\t\t
RIL | \n\t\t\tRUNX2 | \n\t\t\tSox4 | \n\t\t\tSERT | \n\t\t\tSOST | \n\t\t\tTNFalpha | \n\t\t
TNFR2 | \n\t\t\tTCIRG1 | \n\t\t\tTGFbeta | \n\t\t\tWRN | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Genes associated with BMD/osteoporosis. These genes are identified through association studies and correlate with BMD and osteoporosis-related phenotype.
Vitamin D receptor (VDR) is one of the trans-acting transcriptional regulatory factors that regulate proteins involved in bone mineral homeostasis. It has been reported that the polymorphism of the third region of VDR is significantly associated with BMD, and the allelic variation of this gene may contribute 75% of the genetic effect on BMD change [33]. Additionally, the polymorphism of the VDR gene, including Bsml, Apal, Fokl and Taq genotypes, regulates BMD and is associated with OP [34-37]. VDR polymorphisms emerge in the rheumatoid-related OP and the ApaI, BsmI and TaqI polymorphisms may be susceptible risk factors for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Interestingly, the Ff genotype may be responsible for development of OP in RA [38, 39].
Type I collagen is a constituent major-bone protein, and the genes (COLIA1 and COLIA2) are believed to be candidates for genetic control of BMD. The COLIA1 gene polymorphism is suggested to be implicated in reduced BMD and increased fracture incidence [40]. Mutations in the two genes for type I collagen have been confirmed to cause osteogenesis imperfecta, and are associated with OP in postmenopausal women [41, 42]. Population-based studies have indicated that COL1A1 Sp1 polymorphism may contribute to the development of OP such that Sp1 polymorphic variants of COL1A1 gene are associated with BMD values [43-46]. The “ss” and “TT” genotypes possess lower lumbar-spine BMD [46].
The oestrogen-receptor gene encodes an oestrogen receptor (ESR), a member of the superfamily of nuclear receptors that are involved in DNA and hormone binding and activation of transcription. The ESR can interact with oestrogen and transcription factors including SP-1, AP-1 and NF-κB. As oestrogens are important endocrine regulators in skeletal growth and maintenance, oestrogen-deficient animals exhibit reduced BMD and oestrogen substitution shows restored bone compartments [47-49]. One case of OP in a male patient was reported to show an inactivating mutation of the ESR gene, which was parallel with the male knockout mice with null alleles at the ESR locus [50]. However, inactivation of ESR alpha, specifically in nervous tissue, the main ER for oestrogenic bone effects, causes increased BMD in mouse trabecular and cortical bone [51]. Interestingly, ER alpha in osteocytes has been shown to play an osteoprotective role in the trabecular bone formation, confirmed by tests on ER alpha-deletion mice [52].
Although many genes have been identified in monogenic skeletal disorders connected to OP, the linkage data have not been sufficiently robust due to sample size and significance. Studies in OP genetics need to facilitate more powerful and more sophisticated approaches, such as GWAS studies, to achieve the identification of OP heritable factors.
Genome-wide association study (GWAS) aims to identify disease-associated loci called single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which contribute to small variations of BMD in the genome. If an allele of an SNP occurs significantly more or less frequently in people with a particular disease than in people without the disease, the allele is associated with the disease traits. Although previous linkage and candidate-gene studies have provided few replicated loci for OP, genome-wide association approaches have produced clear and reproducible findings.
Two SNPs, rs3736228 on chromosome 11 in the LRP5 gene and rs4355801 on chromosome 8 near the TNFRSF11B gene, were reported to cause risk of OP and osteoporotic fracture in 2,094 British women [53]. The rs3736228 in the LRP5 gene was identified to correlate with decreased BMD in lumbar spine and femoral neck. The rs4355801 near the TNFRSF11B gene correlated with decreased BMD for lumbar spine and femoral neck [53]. In a study of 583 postmenopausal women, the polymorphism of three variants TNFRSF11B (rs4355801, rs2073618, and rs6993813) and one of LRP5 (rs3736228) was further confirmed to be associated with BMD variations [54]. In a prospective study of 37,534 subjects in Europe and North America, variants of LRP5 (rs3736228, rs4988321) and one variant of LRP6 (rs2302685) were examined in terms of their effect on BMD and contribution to risk of fracture. The rs3736228 and rs4988321 variants of LRP5 were associated with reduced lumbar-spine BMD, femoral-neck BMD, and fractures. The rs2302685 of LRP6 polymorphism was not associated with any OP phenotype, including reduced BMD and fracture [55, 56]. This was further confirmed in a study of 944 postmenopausal Spanish women, where the rs2302685 variant of the LRP6 polymorphism was not significantly associated with lumbar-spine or femoral-neck BMD [57]. LRP4 was also analysed for SNP in cohort studies of European populations. One associated SNP of LRP4 (rs6485702) was significant in hip and whole-body BMD, modulated through the Wnt and BMP signalling pathways [58, 59].
Other gene polymorphisms associated with changes in BMD included the Cerberus 1 (CER1) gene, ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin type 1 motif 18 (ADAMTS18), transforming growth factor beta receptor III (TGFBR3), high-mobility group (HMG), signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), PTH, and sperm-ion channel gene CatSper channel auxiliary subunit beta (CATSPERB). In a cohort of 1,083 human subjects, one SNP (rs3747532) in human CER1 gene was reported to play a role in the increased risk of low BMD in women prior to menopause and a vertebral fractures cohort [60]. In an association test of 379,319 SNPs in 1,000 unrelated American white individuals, ADAMTS18 and TGFBR3 were reported as BMD candidate genes in meta-analyses [61]. Additionally, individuals with normal skeletal fractures were different to individuals with non-union skeletal fracture in the expression of both genes [61]. In two cohorts of 1,548 Caucasian American men and 1,680 Afro-Caribbean men, the rs1042725 of the HMGA2 polymorphism was reported to be associated with decreased tibia trabecular volumetric BMD [62]. In a GWAS of 1,000 unrelated Caucasians, the STAT1 gene was significantly associated with BMD variation and was upregulated in the low BMD group rather than the high BMD group variation [63]. In a study of 700 elderly Chinese Han individuals (350 with hip osteoporotic fracture and 350 healthy controls), one SNP, rs13182402, within the ALDH7A1 gene on chromosome 5q31, was significantly associated with osteoporotic fractures [64]. This was further examined in relation to the relevance of hip BMD in Caucasian and Chinese populations (n=9,962), finding a consistent association with hip BMD [64]. The Interleukin 21 receptor (IL21R) encodes a cytokine receptor for interleukin 21 that activates multiple downstream signalling molecules, including STAT1, STAT3, JAK1 and JAK3. In a GWAS of 983 unrelated white subjects, the polymorphisms of the PTH gene (rs9630182, rs2036417, and rs7125774) and the polymorphisms of the IL21R gene (rs7199138, rs8061992 and rs8057551) were associated with changed femoral-neck BMD [65]. The polymorphisms of CATSPERB (rs1298989, rs1285635) were reported to be associated with femoral-neck BMD in 1,524 European-American premenopausal women and 669 African-American premenopausal women [66]. In particular, the rs1285635 in the European-American women was consistent with that in the African-American women [66].
Furthermore, meta-analysis of GWAS has shown more candidate genes and BMD loci reaching genome-wide significance. A meta-analysis of 19,195 Northern European subjects from five GWAS revealed nine genes from 150 identified genes associated with changed BMD: TNFSF11, TNFRSF11A, TNFRSF11B, LRP4, LRP5, ESR1, SPP1, ITGA1, and SOST [67]. Additionally, 13 new BMD loci were identified and included: 1p31.3 (GPR177), 2p21 (SPTBN1), 3p22 (CTNNB1), 4q21.1 (MEPE), 5q14 (MEF2C), 7p14 (STARD3NL), 7q21.3 (FLJ42280), 11p11.2 (LRP4, ARHGAP1, F2), 11p14.1 (DCDC5), 11p15 (SOX6), 16q24 (FOXL1), 17q21 (HDAC5) and 17q12 (CRHR1) [68]. In a meta-analysis of 18,098 subjects from six European-descent populations and an Asian population, rs2273061 of the Jagged1 (JAG1) gene was identified to be associated with BMD for lumbar spine and for femoral neck. The JAG1 gene therefore becomes a new candidate gene in the regulation of BMD and a new risk factor for bone-fracture pathogenesis [69]. In a meta-analysis of GWAS based on 3,657 Caucasian men and 7,633 Caucasian women, two genes and three new loci were identified as associated with OP-related traits and BMD in women, including SOX6, GPR177 gene, 2q11.2 (TBC1D8), chromosome 1p13.2 and 18q11.2 (OSBPL1A) [70]. A meta-analysis of GWAS data from European and Chinese individuals identified further genes associated with changed BMD located at 1q21.3, 9q22, 9q33.2, 20p13, and 20q12. This significantly correlates with the development and functionality of muscle, skeleton and connective tissue [71]. In a meta-analysis of 17 GWAS based on 32,961 subjects of East-Asian and European ancestry, 32 new loci were associated with BMD at genome-wide significance and were localized in 1q24.3, 2p21, 2q13, 2q14.2, 3q13.2, 3q25.31, 4p16.3, 6p21.1, 6p22.3, 7q31.31, 7q31.31, 7q36.1, 8q13.3, 9q34.11, 10p11.23, 10q21.1, 10q22.3_1, 10q24.2, 11p14.1_1, 12p11.22, 12p13.33, 12q13.12, 12q23.3, 14q32.12, 16p13.11, 16p13.3_1, 16p13.3_2, 16q12.1, 17p13.3, 17q24.3, 18p11.21, 19q13.11 and Xp22.31 [72]. Moreover, in a meta-analysis of 27,061 individuals, two new loci were of genome-wide significance: 14q24.2 (rs227425, SMOC1) in the whole sample and 21q22.13 (rs170183, CLDN14) in the female-specific sample. These were also shown to be significant in the results of the GEnetic Factors for Osteoporosis Consortium (GEFOS, n = 32,960) [73].
Thus, GWAS has been successfully used in uncovering key genes or markers associated with OP in humans and animals. Although it has confirmed the existence of relevant SNPs associated with changed BMD and the risk of OP, GWAS still cannot be absolutely accurate in the prediction of OP.
The first large-scale genome-wide studies of copy-number variants (CNVs) in humans were performed about a decade ago, and CNVs now make a larger contribution to genome variations than SNPs [74, 75]. Recent studies have focused on CNVs that may modulate gene function and affect disease risk. CNVs are structural genetic variants in the genome that alter the number of copies of one or more sections of DNA. This corresponds to large regions of the genome with deletion or duplication on certain chromosomes, and results in phenotypic variation.
Although CNV has been reported to correlate with many complex human diseases, the contribution of CNV to OP has not been revealed yet. A Chinese study of 700 elderly patients, comprising 350 individuals with homogeneous hip osteoporostic fracture and 350 control individuals, reported that CNV 4q13.2 significantly correlated with osteoporostic fracture (P<0.0002). Additionally, a variant of UGT2B17 in CNV 4q13.2 was further proven to correlate with hip osteoporostic fracture in both white (1000 individuals) and Chinese (689 individuals), with consistently significant results (P=0.0005-0.021) [76].
Another genome-wide study of 1,000 Caucasian individuals found that a CNV in VPS13B gene, encoding a potential transmembrane protein involved in vesicle-mediated transport, was significantly associated with hip, spine and femoral-neck BMD. Interestingly, individuals with two copies of the CNV in the genome exhibited a higher level of BMD in the hip, spine and femoral neck, compared with one-copy subjects [77].
Another genome-wide CNV study tested 5,178 subjects in a prospective cohort in the Netherlands. It identified 210 kb deletion located on chromosome 6p25.1 that correlated with the risk of fracture (P=0.0000869). This deletion has geographic specificity, not affecting the populations of Australia, Canada, Poland, Iceland, Denmark, or Sweden. It has been found and is prevalent in Ireland (0.06%), England (0.15%), USA (0.23%), Scotland (0.10%), and Spain (0.33%), with insufficient significance of fracture risk. However, the role of the 6p25.1 locus in the prediction of risk of bone fracture needs to be tested in a larger and more diverse population to confirm the findings [78].
A study on 2,286 Caucasian individuals, and replicated in 1,627 Chinese individuals, identified two CNVs (CNV2580 and CNV1191) that correlated with appendicular lean mass (ALM), the main component of skeletal muscle. CNV1191 resides in the gene encoding GTPase of the immunity-associated protein family (GIMAP1), and is significantly associated with ALM (P=0.0226). CNV2580 is localized in the serine hydrolase-like protein (SERHL) gene and is also significantly associated with ALM (P=0.00334). Both genes are important for skeletal-muscle growth and may be relevant to OP. Although the two new CNVs are responsible for variation in ALM, more evidence is required to confirm their significance in relation to OP [79].
Therefore, the use of CNV-based GWAS in relation to OP is a cutting-edge technology and strongly supports the importance of CNV in the pathogenesis of OP. Although the results in this area are well established, it is necessary to focus on the association between classical genotypes, and actual experimentation is needed for validation. Additionally, high-throughput, sophisticated genotyping approaches for CNVs need to be optimized for further genetic screening.
OP is one of the most common diseases and is becoming more prevalent with the ageing of the world’s population. BMD is the hallmark of OP and exhibits high heritability; efforts to understand OP genetic determinants have therefore been increased. OP represents a paradigm where the effects of multiple genetic factors dominate the phenotype. Although monogenic approaches that identify genes by rare mutations have contributed to the understanding of OP, the genetic background of OP is characterized by polymorphisms and variations in multiple genes; more-powerful and high-throughput technologies are needed to analyse these aspects. Recent genetic studies in OP have facilitated the understanding of the aetiology of OP. The discovery of novel genetic factors through the use of genome sequencing will contribute to understanding the modulation of BMD and bone fragility with potential therapeutic targets. Combined with behavioural and environmental factors, findings in genetic studies can be validated and used in the development of clinical treatments of OP worldwide. There is no doubt that genetic tests have achieved significant progress in bone biology and are likely to become even more important within the next decade. To optimize accuracy, we should highlight elements including careful phenotyping, sophisticated study design, adequately powered cohorts, and multi-collaboration in future research.
This study was supported by the Seeding Fund of the Shandong Academy of Sciences, China, Natural Science Foundation of China (81201405, 31470904, 81472078) and the Basic Research Project of Shenzhen (JCYJ20120615125154107).
Neurological disorders are devastating diseases which usually occur in the brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves, peripheral nerves, and so on. It has reported that there are more than 600 kinds of neuropathological conditions including epilepsy, brain tumor, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and stroke. Nowadays, it is estimated that more than 1 billion people suffer from neurological disorders, seriously affecting people’s life quality [1]. These kinds of diseases are especially prevalent in developing countries at any stage of age [2, 3]. There are several factors contributing to etiology of neurological disorders such as aggravating tendency of aging population, irregular diet, and insufficient exercise [4].
\nDrug therapy is an important way for curing neurological diseases in the clinic. Nevertheless, serious neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) are usually incurable in late stages of diseases with current therapeutic intervention [5, 6]. In the meantime, drug treatment often becomes less effective and causes serious side effects due to individual differences. Taking epilepsy as example, nearly 30% of epileptic patients are unable to obtain seizure control following treatment with marketed drugs [7, 8]. In addition, they have no significant effect on the improvement of cognitive dysfunction in patients with severe epilepsy [9]. Thus, it is essential for investigation of more effective and/or less toxic CNS targeted drugs.
\nDrug repurposing, also known as drug reprofiling or drug repositioning, includes the development of new uses and dosage forms for existing drugs or drug candidates. It is regarded as an economic and practical strategy [10]. Drug repurposing avoids the defects of new drug development. Compared to the drug repurposing, development of new drugs consumes much more time and huge investments. It is roughly reported that the cost from basic research for a new drug to clinical trials is 2.6 billion US dollars [11] and it often takes an average of 13–15 years [12]. Although more and more drug candidates are developed, many cases have failed in recent years [13]. Most of new drugs are withdrawn from the market due to unsatisfactory efficacy or intolerable side effects [14, 15]. Therefore, reusing existing drugs, namely, drug repurposing, has attracted great attention, as this approach has the capacity of saving cost and expediting drug development process.
\nThe purpose of this chapter is to discuss the role of drug repurposing in human diseases especially neurological diseases and summarize repurposing candidates currently in clinical trials for neurological diseases and potential mechanisms as well as preliminary results. Subsequently we also list drug repurposing approaches and limitations and challenges in the future investigations.
\nPrior to development of repurposed drugs for neurological diseases therapeutics, it is emphasized how the drug reposition process is carried out. Generally, there are three stages in drug repurposing. First, diverse approaches including serendipitous clinical observation, cellular drug activity assays, in silico drug screens, and data mining of clinical drug interaction are employed to obtain drug candidates [16]. The detailed illustrations in grounds of methodologies are summarized as mentioned above [17]. Second, preclinical investigations including in vivo rodent models and in vitro cell lines for these drugs are conducted in neurological diseases [18]. Finally, large-scale and multicenter clinical trials are implemented for evaluating efficacy and safety of repurposed drugs [19]. Up to date, there are plenty of drugs which are repurposed in neurological diseases through the above approaches. Then, in the following section, we also cite several repurposed drugs to elaborate how they function in neurological diseases. Table 1 summarizes various repurposed drugs in the treatment of neurological disorders.
\nName of drug | \nOriginal indication | \nNovel indication | \nTarget | \nSummarization of evidence | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Verapamil | \nHypertension Angina pectoris Arrhythmia | \nIntractable epilepsy Subarachnoid hemorrhage Stroke Resistant depression | \nP-glycoprotein | \n\n
| \n
Bumetanide | \nLiver disease Heart failure Stubborn edema Acute and chronic renal failure | \nEpilepsy Autism | \nNKCC1 protein | \n\n
| \n
Minocycline | \nAntibacterial | \nEpilepsy Spinal cord injury Brain inflammation Neurodegenerative diseases | \nActivated microglia IL-6, TNF-α TrkB/BDNF PPAR-γ/NF-κB LKB1/AMPK | \n\n
| \n
Fenfluramine | \nSimple obesity Diabetes Hypertension | \nEpilepsy Parkinson’s disease | \n5-HT receptors | \n\n
| \n
Propranolol | \nHypertension Supraventricular tachycardia Prolonged Q-T interval Thyrotoxicosis | \nMigraine Traumatic brain injury Parkinson’s disease | \nIL-6 β-adrenergic | \n\n
| \n
Sunitinib | \nGastrointestinal stromal tumor Non-small-cell lung cancer Renal cell carcinoma | \nGlioma Pheochromocytoma Alzheimer’s disease’ | \nAcetylcholinesterase CGNs, SH-SY5Y | \n\n
| \n
Angiotensin receptor blockers | \nEssential hypertension Renal disease Diabetes | \nAlzheimer’s disease Episodic migraine | \nAT1 receptor Angiotensin II | \n\n
| \n
Amantadine | \nAntiviral | \nParkinson’s disease Chronic traumatic brain injury | \nN-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) Anticholinergic | \n\n
| \n
List of repurposed drugs in neurological disease.
Verapamil, a classical calcium channel blocker, is mainly used in the treatment of hypertension, angina pectoris, arrhythmia, and other diseases, especially for paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia [20]. It has been found that administration of verapamil greatly improves seizure control in drug-resistant epileptic patients via inhibiting P-glycoprotein (Pgp). Pgp is responsible for the transport of antiepileptic drug (AED) into the blood vessels through the blood–brain barrier (BBB). And there is evidence supporting that overexpression of Pgp in the brain represents a major mechanism underlying drug resistance in epileptic patients [21]. Verapamil is found to suppress Pgp expression and subsequently facilitates the entry of this drug into epileptogenic zones. As a marketed drug, verapamil treatment in patients with intractable epilepsy can doubtfully alleviate brain injury caused by repetitive seizures [22]. Actually, in clinical trials, verapamil has previously shown to exhibit great efficacy in intractable depression or mania via inhibiting the function of Pgp [23, 24]. Moreover, it is documented that verapamil has been approved to treat cerebral vasospasm secondary to subarachnoid hemorrhage due to its vasodilatory effects [25]. Intra-arterial (IA) treatment with verapamil, which was physiologically feasible, safe, and neuroprotective as a therapeutic adjunct in stroke, significantly reduces infarct volume and improved functional outcome [26], although there are still some mysteries about the mechanism.
\nAs a potent diuretic agent, bumetanide, which is mainly employed to cure liver disease, heart failure, and various kinds of stubborn edema in clinic [27], is a specific inhibitor of Na+-K+-2Cl− cotransporter isoform 1 (NKCC1) [28]. Mechanically, NKCC1 significantly modulates the content of intracellular Cl−. Upregulation of NKCC1 leads to elevation of intracellular concentration of Cl−, which is associated with pathogenesis of neurological diseases. It has been unequivocally proven that many of the available drugs have anti-seizure potential via activating GABAA-mediated hyperpolarization due to accumulation of neuronal Cl− [29]. Indeed, current investigations have confirmed that bumetanide exerts antiepileptic effect via switching the GABA-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic potential in neurons from depolarization to hyperpolarization, resulting in decreased neuronal discharge [30, 31]. In addition, previous work reinforces that bumetanide can enhance the anticonvulsant effect of phenobarbital in hypoxic rats [32]. It suggests that the combination of phenobarbital and bumetanide may provide a promising therapeutic strategy for ceasing seizures in neonatal epilepsy and may increase the neuroprotective effect of hypothermia on asphyxiated newborns [33]. Persuasively, a current clinically pilot study further demonstrated that bumetanide, as a specific NKCC1 antagonist, considerably reduced seizure frequency in adult patients with temporal lobe epilepsy [34]. Additionally, as a consequence of a randomized controlled trial, bumetanide may also be effective for treatment of autism [35]. It should be considered that there are two obstacles for bumetanide treatment in neurological disorders [31, 36]. It has been shown that the highly potent diuretic effect of bumetanide can lead to hypokalemic alkalosis and the poor penetration into brain exists. This indicates that reuse of bumetanide in neurological diseases brings about opportunities and challenges in the future.
\nMinocycline is the second generation of semisynthetic broad-spectrum antibacterial tetracycline analogues. It has immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptosis effects. Minocycline has neuroprotective effects in rodent models of ischemia, spinal cord injury, and infection [37]. It can efficiently penetrate the BBB and has a good effect on activated microglia, which indicates a possible role in the treatment of epilepsy. Minocycline may have synergistic effects with other compounds in manipulating epilepsy. Minocycline has been found to remarkably obviate epileptic conditions and reduce seizure-induced brain impairment at early stage [38]. In addition, minocycline also inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines through caspase-dependent and caspase-independent pathways, thus inhibiting cell death in kainic acid-induced status epilepticus [39]. An obvious improvement of seizure phenotype is also observed in a rat model of amygdala kindling [40]. Additionally, increasing studies have reported the neuroprotective effects of minocycline in neurologic diseases, such as ischemic stroke, multiple sclerosis (MS), and traumatic brain injury (TBI) [41, 42, 43]. In in vivo animal model, minocycline promotes M2 microglia polarization via activation of tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB)/brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF) pathway and facilitates neurogenesis after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) [44]. In the process of acute cerebral infarct, minocycline also effectively inhibits oxidative stress via elevating the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and activating the liver kinase B1 (LKB1)/adenosine 5′-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway [45]. However, repurposing of minocycline in treating neurological diseases requires to be re-evaluated as there is a clinical study showing serious neurodegeneration TBI [46].
\nFenfluramine, which has been successfully applied in obesity, diabetes, and hypertension [47], is a potent 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) releaser activating multiple 5-HT receptor subtypes. Of note, elevation of extracellular 5-HT levels inhibits focal and generalized seizures, while depletion of 5-HT lowers the threshold of epileptic seizures [48]. Therefore, 5-HT agonist fenfluramine is assessed for treatment of epilepsy. In a small-scale retrospective study, it has reported that adjuvant treatment with fenfluramine has evidently obtained seizure control in patients with Dravet syndrome. As the side effects is not serious, it does not lead to the termination of treatment [49]. This drug may have anticonvulsant effects on other severe epilepsy syndromes, especially those characterized by photosensitive or induced convulsions [50, 51]. Encouragingly, a recent investigation has unveiled that fenfluramine significantly reduces convulsive seizure frequency compared with placebo and exhibits good tolerance [52]. It indicates that fenfluramine could be functioned as a potent novel therapeutic regime for patients with Dravet syndrome. It is noteworthy that fenfluramine also alleviates L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia via stimulation of 5-HT1A receptor in PD [53].
\nPropranolol as a β-adrenoceptor antagonist (b-blocker) has been commonly used in hypertension, supraventricular tachycardia, prolonged Q-T interval, and thyrotoxicosis in clinic [54]. Since 1996, in patients who were being treated for angina pectoris, Rabkin et al. has disclosed the therapeutic effect of propranolol on migraine headache [55]. Meanwhile, further clinical studies have noted that administration of propranolol within 24 h of admission after TBI triggers lower mortality [56]. The evidence also arises from a recent study that propranolol blocks the upregulation of IL-6 and prevents neuronal cell necrosis in CA1 and CA3 hippocampus in a pig model of TBI [57]. Given that propranolol has neuroprotective potential in neuropathological conditions, it is likely to serve as a neuroprotective drug in epilepsy. Additionally, both clinical and experimental studies have demonstrated the potential of propranolol to resist dyskinesia in PD, as modulation of β-adrenergic receptors (βAR), which is abundantly, expressed in striatum, is involved L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) [58, 59].
\nSunitinib, which is an oral, small molecule receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, has been currently implemented in the treatment of various cancers such as gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST), non-small-cell lung cancer, and renal cell carcinoma [60]. Clinical evidence has revealed that oral administration of sunitinib penetrates the BBB and subsequently facilitates the entry into central nervous system [61]. Furthermore, on the basis of its potent antiangiogenic and antitumoral characteristics, it has discovered that sunitinib can alleviate glioma-induced neurodegeneration and glioma progression in vivo models [60]. Meanwhile, sunitinib has been found to exert therapeutic effects on learning and memory deficits in a mouse model of AD through inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) [62]. Additionally, sunitinib has also demonstrated to prevent neuronal death induced by neurotoxins via inhibiting NO overproduction in cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) and SH-SY5Y cells following exposure with low potassium or 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP+)-induced neuronal apoptosis [63]. It indicates that sunitinib may improve brain dysfunction via inhibition of oxidative stress.
\nIn in vitro studies, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) are generally known to treat essential hypertension by influencing the level of angiotensin II (Ang II) via two distinct pathways, namely, through interrupting the AT1 receptor and augmentation of Ang II processing which plays a critical role in cognition regulation [64]. For example, valsartan, which has previously been found to penetrate BBB and elicit antihypertensive responses in the brain, has been demonstrated to reduce Aβ accumulation and aggregation in vivo and in vitro [65]. Actually, similar situation exists in losartan and telmisartan, which are also classical ARBs [66, 67]. Overall, it indicates ARBs are potential candidates for treating AD. Significantly, several clinically epidemiological studies and RCTs certify the efficacy of ARBs in AD. A large-scale retrospective cohort study has revealed an obvious reduction of dementia in patients treated with ARBs compared with other cardiovascular agents [68]. Likewise, the further UK-based study also reports a similar trend, with a 50% reduction in AD after ARBs treatment [69]. In brief, ARBs, the conventional cardiovascular medicine, have been confirmed to exert a vital effect in AD, and it is further deserved to identify the most suitable dosage in clinic.
\nAmantadine is a classic antiviral compound which has been found to moderately ameliorate impaired motor behavior in Parkinson’s disease [70]. Intriguingly, in 1969, it was coincident that Schwab et al. found an improvement of motor symptoms in a female PD patient, who took 200 mg amantadine daily for antiviral prophylaxis [71]. Subsequently, three potential mechanisms have been proposed to explain the efficacy of amantadine in PD. Several preclinical data demonstrate an activation of the dopamine system’s both presynaptic and postsynaptic actions [72], and amantadine also inhibits the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors [72, 73]. The mild anticholinergic effect is also involved [74]. Surprisingly, PD is well known to be frequently associated with depression, and antagonism of NMDA receptors is also a promising target for new antidepressants, although there is no definite evidence to certify its efficacy in depressive disorder.
\nThere are three important stages in the field of drug repurposing: generation of candidate compounds, preclinical investigation, and clinical trial. Determination of appropriate drugs for potential indications is crucial for production of candidate compounds. At present, two approaches are widely used for drug repurposing including experimental screening approaches and molecular docking by computer. In the following items, we make a detailed description of these two methods in drug repurposing process.
\nExperimental screening approaches are usually regarded as the first stage in the process of drug discovery and drug repurposing. Proteomic techniques such as affinity chromatography and mass spectrometry have been widely employed to identify drug candidates [75]. Nowadays, drug target analysis and drug repurposing are inseparable. Drug repurposing is distinct from drug discovery in terms of alteration of drug target. Cellular thermo stability assay technique can predict the affinity of drug ligands by mapping the contact patterns of intracellular targets [76]. The molecular on and off targets have been disclosed for many clinically approved drugs via this method. Especially in the field of kinases, new targets of well-known drugs are obtained through affinity matrices [77, 78]. For example, imatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, has been successfully reused in the treatment of gastrointestinal stromal tumors [79].
\nIn addition, chemical compounds with disease-related effects can be defined in the model through phenotype screening [80]. Phenotype screening has always been more successful than target screening in the facet of drug development [81, 82]. In the case of drug repurposing, if the compounds selected through phenotypical assays are approved clinical drugs or ongoing clinical trials, they are probable to reuse. Several drugs approved for tobacco dependence have been evaluated, and it has been found that topiramate changes nicotine- or ethanol-induced behavior in zebrafish models [83]. However, there are some challenges that the efficacy of drug candidates in in vitro experiments require to be validated in human diseases [84].
\nMolecular docking by a computer is also an important method for evaluating drug target binding kinetics and drug residence times of existing drugs or drug candidates [85]. Large amounts of computational drug repositioning methods choose transcriptomic data to identify potential new indications for drugs. Furthermore, these methods have applied techniques such as comparison of gene expression profiles between a disease model and drug-treated condition [86], network integration [87], prediction of drug-protein interactions [88], and utilization of genotype–phenotype associations. Recently, a proteotranscriptomic-based computational drug repositioning method named Drug Repositioning Perturbation Score/Class (DRPS/C) for Alzheimer’s disease occurs on the basis of inverse associations between disease-induced or drug-induced gene and protein perturbation patterns [89]. Briefly, these approaches can be applicable to discovery of drug targets or biomarkers.
\nIt should be considered that for many neurological disorders, drugs require good penetration into BBB. Then, the therapeutic approaches of targeting brain have been classified as invasive and noninvasive categories [90, 91]. The invasive approaches contain the temporary increase of BBB permeability, and noninvasive approaches involve modification of drug molecule via physiological, chemical, or colloidal carrier system approach. Meanwhile, these methods are also related to computational approaches. Influx clearance into the brain (K\nin), which is the unidirectional influx constant from the blood to brain, can be used to calculate the transport of drugs in the brain. Similar computational approaches conclude the permeability surface area (PS), brain/plasma ratio (K\np), brain uptake index (BUI), and apparent permeability (P\napp) [92, 93, 94, 95]. Consequently, drug repurposing in neurological diseases covers various manners to participate in integrating the role of transporters and pathophysiological complexity of BBB to establish a suitable model for high-throughput screening.
\nDrug repurposing is a vital strategy for developing new therapeutic values of existing drugs or drug candidates due to its ability to save time and reduce cost [96]. This type of innovative concept will undoubtedly expedite the drug development process. Meanwhile, some limitations need to be considered during drug repurposing process in neurological diseases. Owing to complex molecular and cellular signaling mechanisms in neuropathological states, drug repurposing may be difficult. Additionally, drugs not only respond to a single target but also affect multiple targets [97], causing a variety of adverse reactions. A comprehensive assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of these side effects can help us understand drug repositioning from a more all-round perspective [98, 99].
\nIn order to overcome limitations faced during drug repurposing, we make proposals in the following descriptions. Firstly, it is foremost to establish a comprehensive data analysis platform to maximize data sharing. Information science services and artificial intelligence can help unlock and reanalyze the large amount of data accumulated by approved drugs or drug candidates to clinical trials. These data may be stored in a diversified way. Storage locations, formats, and types may vary, including different storage locations, formats, and types. The data obtained from clinical trials and biological databases are too large and complex that the traditional data processing methods cannot deal with it, which leads to the bottleneck in the research process [99]. Big data can significantly improve our understanding of the disease and make more accurate disease-related strategies. However, there is a big gap between generating biomedical data and data analysis [99, 100]. To ensure the efficiency of research, it takes time, energy, and expertise to find technical solutions to integrate them. Secondly, it is encouraged to provide more financial support for clinical trials of drug repurposing, including technical support. The preclinical research of drug repurposing requires financial support to obtain the data in clinical trials. In this case, drugs that can be developed to treat rare diseases are more likely to apply in clinical neurological diseases therapeutics [101]. Finally, in order to facilitate drug repurposing process, we advocate it is indispensable to solve patent restrictions and take reasonable supervision. All applications of drug repurposing should be accompanied by a risk management plan. Drug’s safety can be supported by clinical trial data or post marketing data.
\nIn conclusion, drug repurposing is a novel approach for expediting drug development process in neurological diseases. Repurposed drugs may provide an efficient avenue for improving a plethora of pathological conditions including neurological disorders. In the future, it is essential to exploit molecular mechanisms during drug repurposing processes due to the possibility that targets of repurposed drugs in neurological diseases are distinct from original targets in treating other diseases, in order to make these drugs more effective and safe.
\nThe authors apologize to all the investigators whose work cannot be cited in this paper due to space constraint. This work was partly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81974502 and 81671293).
\nThere is no potential conflict of interest.
CNS | central nervous system |
AD | Alzheimer’s disease |
PD | Parkinson’s disease |
AED | antiepileptic drug |
BBB | blood–brain barrier |
Pgp | P-glycoprotein |
NKCC1 | Na+-K+-2Cl-cotransporter isoform 1 |
GABAA | gamma-aminobutyric acid |
MS | multiple sclerosis |
TBI | traumatic brain injury |
TrkB | tyrosine kinase receptor B |
BDNF | brain-derived neurotrophic factors |
ICH | intracerebral hemorrhage |
SOD | superoxide dismutase |
LKB1 | liver kinase B1 |
AMPK | adenosine 5′-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase |
5-HT | 5-hydroxytryptamine |
LID | L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia |
βAR | β-adrenergic receptors |
AChE | acetylcholinesterase |
CGNs | cerebellar granule neurons |
ARBs | angiotensin receptor blockers |
Ang II | angiotensin II |
NMDA | N-methyl-D-aspartate |
You have been successfully unsubscribed.
",metaTitle:"Unsubscribe Successful",metaDescription:"You have been successfully unsubscribed.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/unsubscribe-successful",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":""}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:""}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10656",title:"Intellectual Property",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"135df9b403b125a6458eba971faab3f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and Dr. Suriyaprakash TNK",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10656.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10658",title:"Multilingualism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6bf171e05831c00f8687891ab1b10b5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xiaoming Jiang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10658.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:2},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5229},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1223",title:"Electro Optics",slug:"electro-optics",parent:{title:"Optics and Lasers",slug:"optics-and-lasers"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1,numberOfWosCitations:96,numberOfCrossrefCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitations:59,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"electro-optics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3648",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",bookSignature:"Nelson Costa and Adolfo Cartaxo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3648.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4669",title:"Mr.",name:"Nelson",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",slug:"nelson-costa",fullName:"Nelson Costa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"9867",doi:"10.5772/8650",title:"Holographic 3-D Displays - Electro-holography within the Grasp of Commercialization",slug:"holographic-3-d-displays-electro-holography-within-the-grasp-of-commercialization",totalDownloads:8651,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Stephan Reichelt, Ralf Haussler, Norbert Leister, Gerald Futterer, Hagen Stolle and Armin Schwerdtner",authors:null},{id:"9880",doi:"10.5772/8663",title:"The Physics of Ghost Imaging",slug:"the-physics-of-ghost-imaging",totalDownloads:4032,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Yanhua Shih",authors:null},{id:"9870",doi:"10.5772/8653",title:"Optical and Spectroscopic Properties of Polymer Layers Doped with Rare Earth Ions",slug:"optical-and-spectroscopic-properties-of-polymer-layers-doped-with-rare-earth-ions",totalDownloads:2591,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Vaclav Prajzler, Oleksiy Lyutakov, Ivan Huttel, Jiri Oswald and Vitezslav Jerabek",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"9868",title:"Beating Difraction Limit using Dark States",slug:"beating-difraction-limit-using-dark-states",totalDownloads:1858,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Hebin Li and Yuri Rostovtsev",authors:null},{id:"9878",title:"Optical, Photoluminescent, and Photoconductive Properties of Novel High-Performance Organic Semiconductors",slug:"optical-photoluminescent-and-photoconductive-properties-of-novel-high-performance-organic-semiconduc",totalDownloads:3540,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Oksana Ostroverkhova, Andrew D. Platt and Whitney E. B. Shepherd",authors:null},{id:"9867",title:"Holographic 3-D Displays - Electro-holography within the Grasp of Commercialization",slug:"holographic-3-d-displays-electro-holography-within-the-grasp-of-commercialization",totalDownloads:8649,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Stephan Reichelt, Ralf Haussler, Norbert Leister, Gerald Futterer, Hagen Stolle and Armin Schwerdtner",authors:null},{id:"9883",title:"Two-photon Fluorescence Endomicroscopy",slug:"two-photon-fluorescence-endomicroscopy",totalDownloads:3155,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Yicong Wu and Xingde Li",authors:null},{id:"9857",title:"Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Phase Conjugate Mirror and its Application to Coherent Beam Combined Laser System Producing a High Energy, High Power, High Beam Quality, and High Repetition Rate Output",slug:"stimulated-brillouin-scattering-phase-conjugate-mirror-and-its-application-to-coherent-beam-combined",totalDownloads:2904,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Hong Jin Kong, Seong Ku Lee, Jin Woo Yoon, Jae Sung Shin and Sangwoo Park",authors:null},{id:"9872",title:"Multicolor Stationary Light",slug:"multicolor-stationary-light",totalDownloads:1298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Yi Chen, Serguei Andreevich Moiseev and Byoung Seung Ham",authors:null},{id:"9876",title:"Application of Ultrafast Laser Optoperforation for Plant Pollen Walls and Endothelial Cell Membranes",slug:"application-of-ultrafast-laser-optoperforation-for-plant-pollen-walls-and-endothelial-cell-membranes",totalDownloads:1951,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Sae Chae Jeoung, Mehra Singh Sidhu, Ji Sang Yahng, Hyun Joo Shin and GuYoun Baik",authors:null},{id:"9882",title:"Two-Wave Mixing in Broad-Area Semiconductor Amplifier",slug:"two-wave-mixing-in-broad-area-semiconductor-amplifier",totalDownloads:1921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Mingjun Chi, Jean-Pierre Huignard and Paul Michael Petersen",authors:null},{id:"9866",title:"Combining Optical Coherence Tomography with Fluorescence Imaging",slug:"combining-optical-coherence-tomography-with-fluorescence-imaging",totalDownloads:3137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Shuai Yuan and Yu Chen",authors:null},{id:"9869",title:"Ultrafast Semiconductor Quantum Optics",slug:"ultrafast-semiconductor-quantum-optics",totalDownloads:2853,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics"},signatures:"Rudolf Bratschitsch and Alfred Leitenstorfer",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"electro-optics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/308995/christopher-austell",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"308995",slug:"christopher-austell"},fullPath:"/profiles/308995/christopher-austell",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()