\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7110",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Opioids - From Analgesic Use to Addiction",title:"Opioids",subtitle:"From Analgesic Use to Addiction",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Morphine and other opioids are potent analgesic drugs, but their use can lead to complications. Being familiar with the use of this kind of drug can make the difference between obtaining the expected benefit of applied therapy or magnifying the risks to intolerable levels for the patient. Therefore, it is essential for practitioners to achieve adequate training in the management of these drugs based on criteria endorsed by scientific evidence that allows the proper use of these drugs and guarantees the best professional practice every time. Written by expert authors in the field, the purpose of this book is to offer an overview of opioid drugs, from their therapeutic use to the consequences associated.",isbn:"978-1-83880-953-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-958-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-954-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73905",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"opioids-from-analgesic-use-to-addiction",numberOfPages:106,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8bd70b93e5c8ff9ea766159555eb63da",bookSignature:"Pilar Almela Rojo",publishedDate:"June 10th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7110.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5379,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 23rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"98258",title:"Dr.",name:"Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Almela Rojo",slug:"pilar-almela-rojo",fullName:"Pilar Almela Rojo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/98258/images/system/98258.png",biography:"After completing her studies in Pharmacy at the University of Granada, Pilar Almela joined a PhD program in Experimental Biomedical Sciences at the University of Murcia in the Department of Pharmacology, under Professor Laorden’s supervision, where she studied different pathway involvement in the adaptive changes observed during morphine dependence. Her training was completed with stays at research centers in USA, France, United Kingdom and Spain.\nResults from her laboratory have given rise to numerous international publications. These findings can improve the knowledge of mechanisms involved in addiction and establish new prevention and treatment strategies.\nIn 2019, she became an Associate Professor at the Department of Pharmacology, focusing her current research on the design of new nanoparticulate systems for morphine administration.",institutionString:"University of Murcia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1197",title:"Pharmaceutical Drug",slug:"pharmaceutical-drug"}],chapters:[{id:"72068",title:"Introductory Chapter: Opioid Analgesics - History, Uses and Risks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92401",slug:"introductory-chapter-opioid-analgesics-history-uses-and-risks",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Pilar Almela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72068",authors:[{id:"98258",title:"Dr.",name:"Pilar",surname:"Almela Rojo",slug:"pilar-almela-rojo",fullName:"Pilar Almela Rojo"}],corrections:null},{id:"66275",title:"A New Paradigm: Prevention of Central Sensitization in Pain Management through Minimizing Opioid Exposure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85192",slug:"a-new-paradigm-prevention-of-central-sensitization-in-pain-management-through-minimizing-opioid-expo",totalDownloads:865,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Current exacerbations of chronic pain cannot be understood in isolation from how past incidents impact pain and its experience. Patients who frequent the Emergency Room or hospital for a pain crisis or intensification of their pain without new findings on X-rays or scans are often seen as ‘drug seekers.’ Yet, to the patient the pain is agonizing, and the suffering real. It is this type of patient that prompted an ongoing improvement project in our local hospital, our Multiple Visit Patient Complex Care Program. The goal was to determine the similarities between this type of ‘complex’ patient—who frequents the hospital despite no new radiographic change—and other patients. Understanding this ‘complex’ pattern in terms of central intractable pain can change the trajectory of treatment. Results of our program described here reveal that a better understanding of central pain and central sensitization can result in better patient care.",signatures:"Pamela Bolyanatz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66275",authors:[{id:"269060",title:"Mrs.",name:"Pamela",surname:"Bolyanatz",slug:"pamela-bolyanatz",fullName:"Pamela Bolyanatz"}],corrections:null},{id:"69169",title:"Other Uses of Morphine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85165",slug:"other-uses-of-morphine",totalDownloads:859,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Worldwide many different strong opioids and their formulations are available to control pain. Of which, morphine is considered as global opioid of choice and is widely used to control moderate to severe pain. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended morphine as one of the essential drug. Apart from analgesic use, research has proven its effectiveness for relief and treatment of various debilitating and distressing conditions like breathlessness, mucositis (oral and vaginal) and cough. However, its role in diarrhea and opioid substitution therapy (OST) is still nonconfirmatory. This chapter illustrates all available literature supporting effectiveness of morphine in above conditions and its impact on quality of life.",signatures:"Shrenik Ostwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69169",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69169",authors:[{id:"267116",title:"Dr.",name:"Shrenik",surname:"Ostwal",slug:"shrenik-ostwal",fullName:"Shrenik Ostwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"70790",title:"Role of Glucocorticoid Receptor in the Relation between Stress and Opiate Addiction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90839",slug:"role-of-glucocorticoid-receptor-in-the-relation-between-stress-and-opiate-addiction",totalDownloads:694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stressful situations can result in relapse in dependent or abstinent causing reinstatement of drug-seeking. In fact, it has been suggested that activation of the brain stress system results in glucocorticoid release that affects the dopaminergic pathways. Also, the noradrenergic system innervates the extrahypothalamic BSS from the nucleus of tractus solitarius (NTS), resulting in a feedforward loop between the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and noradrenaline (NA) crucial in drug addiction and relapses. Glucocorticoids interact with two receptors: mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) which bind to a GRE site located in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), resulting in the upregulation of TH synthesis and, finally, increasing dopamine (DA) release in the nucleus accumbens. TH upregulation depends on the phosphorylation of serine 31 and/or serine 40. Previous research has shown that protein kinase C (PKC) activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway and in turn phosphorylates serine 31 in the NTS. Besides, cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) is regulated by PKA and PKC. The results shown after pretreating morphine-withdrawn rats with mifepristone and spironolactone (GR and MR antagonists, respectively) suggest that glucocorticoids have a prominent role in addiction because GR would activate ERK and CREB in the NTS, phosphorylating serine 31 and activating TH and indeed noradrenergic release in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN).",signatures:"Javier Navarro-Zaragoza, María Victoria Milanés and María Luisa Laorden",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70790",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70790",authors:[{id:"98255",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Luisa",surname:"Laorden",slug:"m.-luisa-laorden",fullName:"M. Luisa Laorden"},{id:"255965",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Navarro-Zaragoza",slug:"javier-navarro-zaragoza",fullName:"Javier Navarro-Zaragoza"},{id:"314578",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Victoria",surname:"Milanés",slug:"m.-victoria-milanes",fullName:"M. Victoria Milanés"}],corrections:null},{id:"63223",title:"Corticotrophin-Releasing Factor (CRF) through CRF1 Receptor Facilitates the Expression of Morphine-Related Positive and Aversive Memory in Mice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80504",slug:"corticotrophin-releasing-factor-crf-through-crf1-receptor-facilitates-the-expression-of-morphine-rel",totalDownloads:970,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Different studies have elucidated the mechanisms underlying the formation and expression of drug-related cue memories; corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) plays a critical role in reward- and aversion-driven associative learning. In the present chapter, we have evaluated whether CP-154,526, a selective CRF1 receptor (CRF1R) antagonist, or genetic deletion of CRF1R (KO mice) have comparable effects on conditioned place preference (CPP) and conditioned place aversion (CPA) learning. We also investigated CP-154,526 effects on morphine-induced CPP activation of CRF, CREB phosphorylation, and thioredoxin (Trx1) expression in dentate gyrus (DG), a brain region involved in memory consolidation, and the role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis in CPA expression and extinction. The CRF1R antagonist abolished the acquisition of morphine CPP, Trx-1 and BDNF increased expression, and pCREB/Trx-1 co-localization in the DG. The increase in adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) plasma levels observed after CPA expression was attenuated in CRF1R KO mice, suggesting a role of HPA axis in aversive memories. Altogether, these results suggest a critical role of CRF, through CRF1R, in molecular changes involved in memory formation and consolidation and may facilitate the development of effective treatments for opioid addiction.",signatures:"Pilar Almela, Juan A. García-Carmona, Elena Martínez-Laorden, María V. Milanés and María L. Laorden",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63223",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63223",authors:[{id:"98258",title:"Dr.",name:"Pilar",surname:"Almela Rojo",slug:"pilar-almela-rojo",fullName:"Pilar Almela Rojo"},{id:"98255",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Luisa",surname:"Laorden",slug:"m.-luisa-laorden",fullName:"M. Luisa Laorden"},{id:"210633",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Antonio",surname:"García-Carmona",slug:"juan-antonio-garcia-carmona",fullName:"Juan Antonio García-Carmona"},{id:"210634",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Martínez-Laorden",slug:"elena-martinez-laorden",fullName:"Elena Martínez-Laorden"},{id:"210635",title:"Prof.",name:"María Victoria",surname:"Milanés",slug:"maria-victoria-milanes",fullName:"María Victoria Milanés"}],corrections:null},{id:"65505",title:"Present and Future Pharmacological Treatments for Opioid Addiction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82443",slug:"present-and-future-pharmacological-treatments-for-opioid-addiction",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"When treating opioid addiction, multidisciplinary treatment is highly recommended, but pharmacotherapy plays a key role. Although the ideal goal is to achieve complete abstinence, an elevated percentage of opioid addicts requires maintenance substitution therapy. In the first section of this chapter, we will focus on the current pharmacological interventions to treat opioid addiction, such as methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone. Thanks to these medications, people are able to go back to their normal lives, by preventing withdrawal symptoms, reducing craving, and increasing their adherence to psychotherapy. In the second section, based on the evidence that addiction induces neuroadaptive changes in several neurotransmission systems, we focus on the wide range of possible pharmacological developments at the preclinical and clinical levels, which in recent years have increased considerably.",signatures:"Maria Carmen Blanco-Gandía, Sandra Montagud-Romero and Marta Rodríguez-Arias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65505",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65505",authors:[{id:"101721",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Rodriguez-Arias",slug:"marta-rodriguez-arias",fullName:"Marta Rodriguez-Arias"},{id:"260048",title:"Dr.",name:"M Carmen",surname:"Blanco-Gandia",slug:"m-carmen-blanco-gandia",fullName:"M Carmen Blanco-Gandia"},{id:"260049",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Montagud-Romero",slug:"sandra-montagud-romero",fullName:"Sandra Montagud-Romero"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2509",title:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"57c10c8e0b4bb01a815f2c42db01956e",slug:"recent-advances-in-novel-drug-carrier-systems",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2509.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5525",title:"Pain Relief",subtitle:"From Analgesics to Alternative Therapies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ffdba8a1f402fe1b279cf05e2fa0aae",slug:"pain-relief-from-analgesics-to-alternative-therapies",bookSignature:"Cecilia Maldonado",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5525.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73432",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Maldonado",slug:"cecilia-maldonado",fullName:"Cecilia Maldonado"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9086",title:"Drug Repurposing",subtitle:"Hypothesis, Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5b13e06123db7a16dcdae682eb47ac66",slug:"drug-repurposing-hypothesis-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Farid A. 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Park",authors:[{id:"20431",title:"Dr.",name:"Kee-Su",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"Kee-Su Park",slug:"kee-su-park"}]},{id:"14455",title:"Physics of Triangular Graphene",slug:"physics-of-triangular-graphene",signatures:"Motohiko Ezawa",authors:[{id:"17685",title:"Prof.",name:"Motohiko",middleName:null,surname:"Ezawa",fullName:"Motohiko Ezawa",slug:"motohiko-ezawa"}]},{id:"14441",title:"Graphene Nano-Flakes and Nano-Dots: Theory, Experiment and Applications",slug:"graphene-nano-flakes-and-nano-dots-theory-experiment-and-applications",signatures:"Ian Snook and Amanda Barnard",authors:[{id:"21166",title:"Prof.",name:"Ian",middleName:null,surname:"Snook",fullName:"Ian Snook",slug:"ian-snook"},{id:"21272",title:"Dr.",name:"Amanda",middleName:null,surname:"Barnard",fullName:"Amanda Barnard",slug:"amanda-barnard"}]},{id:"14442",title:"Finite-Size Effects in Graphene Nanostructures",slug:"finite-size-effects-in-graphene-nanostructures",signatures:"Antonio Monari and Stefano Evangelisti",authors:[{id:"17244",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Monari",fullName:"Antonio Monari",slug:"antonio-monari"},{id:"19080",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Evangelisti",fullName:"Stefano Evangelisti",slug:"stefano-evangelisti"}]},{id:"14443",title:"Quantum Computation with Graphene Nanostructure",slug:"quantum-computation-with-graphene-nanostructure",signatures:"Zhi-Rong Lin, Guo-Ping Guo, Tao Tu, Qiong Ma and Guang-Can Guo",authors:[{id:"19709",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Tu",fullName:"Tao Tu",slug:"tao-tu"},{id:"20267",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhi-Rong",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",fullName:"Zhi-Rong Lin",slug:"zhi-rong-lin"},{id:"20268",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Guo-Ping Guo",slug:"guo-ping-guo"},{id:"20269",title:"Ms.",name:"Qiong",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Qiong Ma",slug:"qiong-ma"},{id:"20270",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Can",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Guang-Can Guo",slug:"guang-can-guo"}]},{id:"14444",title:"Graphene Nanoribbons: Geometric, Electronic, and Magnetic Properties",slug:"graphene-nanoribbons-geometric-electronic-and-magnetic-properties",signatures:"Erjun Kan, Zhenyu Li and Jinlong Yang",authors:[{id:"16844",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinlong",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Jinlong Yang",slug:"jinlong-yang"},{id:"20242",title:"Dr.",name:"Erjun",middleName:null,surname:"Kan",fullName:"Erjun Kan",slug:"erjun-kan"},{id:"20243",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhenyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Zhenyu Li",slug:"zhenyu-li"}]},{id:"14445",title:"Mechanical and Electronic Properties of Graphene Nanostructures",slug:"mechanical-and-electronic-properties-of-graphene-nanostructures",signatures:"Ricardo Faccio, Luciana Fernández-Werner, Helena Pardo, Cecilia Goyenola, Pablo A. 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Gillespie Jr.",authors:[{id:"19255",title:"Dr.",name:"Jia-Run",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",fullName:"Jia-Run Xiao",slug:"jia-run-xiao"},{id:"19997",title:"Dr.",name:"John W.",middleName:null,surname:"Gillespie, Jr.",fullName:"John W. Gillespie, Jr.",slug:"john-w.-gillespie-jr."}]},{id:"14447",title:"Orbital Magnetism of Graphenes",slug:"orbital-magnetism-of-graphenes",signatures:"Mikito Koshino",authors:[{id:"20107",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikito",middleName:null,surname:"Koshino",fullName:"Mikito Koshino",slug:"mikito-koshino"}]},{id:"14448",title:"Electronic and Transport Properties of Defected Graphene Nanoribbons",slug:"electronic-and-transport-properties-of-defected-graphene-nanoribbons",signatures:"Narjes Gorjizadeh, Yoshiyuki Kawazoe and Amir A. Farajian",authors:[{id:"18167",title:"Dr.",name:"Narjes",middleName:null,surname:"Gorjizadeh",fullName:"Narjes Gorjizadeh",slug:"narjes-gorjizadeh"},{id:"20496",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kawazoe",fullName:"Yoshiyuki Kawazoe",slug:"yoshiyuki-kawazoe"},{id:"24058",title:"Prof.",name:"Amir A.",middleName:null,surname:"Farajian",fullName:"Amir A. Farajian",slug:"amir-a.-farajian"}]},{id:"14449",title:"Propagation of Electron Waves in Monolayer Graphene and Optical Simulations with Negative-Zero-Positive Index Metamaterials",slug:"propagation-of-electron-waves-in-monolayer-graphene-and-optical-simulations-with-negative-zero-posit",signatures:"Xi Chen and Li-Gang Wang",authors:[{id:"15886",title:"PhD.",name:"Xi",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Xi Chen",slug:"xi-chen"},{id:"20185",title:"Dr.",name:"Li-Gang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Li-Gang Wang",slug:"li-gang-wang"}]},{id:"14450",title:"Wave Packet Dynamics in a Monolayer Graphene",slug:"wave-packet-dynamics-in-a-monolayer-graphene",signatures:"G. M. Maksimova, V. Ya. Demikhovskii, and E. V. Frolova",authors:[{id:"17060",title:"Dr.",name:"Valery Ya.",middleName:null,surname:"Demikhovskii",fullName:"Valery Ya. Demikhovskii",slug:"valery-ya.-demikhovskii"},{id:"20495",title:"Dr.",name:"Galina M.",middleName:null,surname:"Maksimova",fullName:"Galina M. Maksimova",slug:"galina-m.-maksimova"},{id:"28762",title:"Ms.",name:"Elena V.",middleName:null,surname:"Frolova",fullName:"Elena V. Frolova",slug:"elena-v.-frolova"}]},{id:"14451",title:"Graphene Field Effect Transistors: Diffusion-Drift Theory",slug:"graphene-field-effect-transistors-diffusion-drift-theory",signatures:"G.I. Zebrev",authors:[{id:"17161",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennady I.",middleName:null,surname:"Zebrev",fullName:"Gennady I. Zebrev",slug:"gennady-i.-zebrev"}]},{id:"14456",title:"Photo-Induced Carrier Density, Optical Conductance and Transmittance in Graphene in the Presence of Optic-Phonon Scattering",slug:"photo-induced-carrier-density-optical-conductance-and-transmittance-in-graphene-in-the-presence-of-o",signatures:"W. Xu and H.M. Dong",authors:[{id:"17489",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Wen Xu",slug:"wen-xu"},{id:"23674",title:"Dr.",name:"H.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",fullName:"H.M. 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Although primarily associated with teeth, the field of dentistry is not limited to teeth but includes other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and other supporting, muscular, lymphatic, nervous, vascular, and anatomical structures.
Virtually, every phenomenon in nature; whether biological, geological or mechanical, can be described with the aid of law of physics, in terms of algebraic, differential or integral equations relating various quantities of interest. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or Finite Element Method (FEM) is a computer-based numerical method to analyze the structure based on the principle of dividing a structure into a finite number of small elements that are connected with each other at the corner points called nodes. For each element, its mechanical behaviour can be written as the function of displacement of the nodes. These nodes when subjected to certain loading conditions results in behaviour of the model similar to the structure it represents. When a computer analysis is performed on this, a system of simultaneous equations can be solved to relate all forces and displacement of the nodes. From this, stress and strain can be established in each element and the whole structure can be evaluated [1].
There were many articles published before on FEA and their uses, this chapter mainly focus on the brief application of FEA in dentistry, apart from the historical perspective, planning of analysis, workflow of FE study, merits, shortcomings, and future of FEA.
The first researcher who developed this technique was Richard Courant, a mathematician with the main goal of minimizing the calculative procedures in gaining absolute solution to bio-mechanical system in early 1940’s. Turner et al
In this stage, the material properties are assigned (Figure 1) [1, 2].
Planning of analysis.
It is specifying the name of the problem. This is optional but very useful, especially if a number of design iterations to be completed on the same base model.
In this, the type of analysis that is going to be used is done. Eg: structural, fluid, thermal or electromagnetic etc.
The model is drawn in 1-D (dimensional), 2-D, or 3-D space in the appropriate units (M, mm, inch etc.).
This may be 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D.
Mesh generation is the process of dividing the analysis continuum into a number of discrete parts or finite elements. The finer the mesh, the better is the result but longer the analysis time.
Material properties (Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, density and if applicable coefficient of expansion, friction, thermal conductivity, damping effect, specific heat etc.) have to be defined in this step. In addition, element properties may need to be set.
Usually, some type of load is applied to the analysis model. The loading may be in the form of a point load, a pressure or a displacement in a stress (displacement) analysis. The loads may be applied to a point, an edge, a surface or even a complete body.
When applying a load to the model, in order to stop accelerating infinitely through the computer’s virtual ether, at least one constraint or boundary condition must be applied. A boundary condition may be specified to act in all directions - axes (x, y, z) or in certain directions only. They can be placed on nodes, key points, areas or on lines.
This part is fully automatic and it can be logically divided into three main parts: the pre-solver, the mathematical engine and the post-solver. The pre-solver reads the model created by the pre-processor and formulates the mathematical representation of the model. The results are returned to the solver and the post-solver is used to calculate strains, stresses, etc., for each node within the component or continuum.
Here the results of the analysis are read and interpreted. They can be presented in the form of a contour plot, a table, deformed shape of the component or the mode shapes and natural frequencies if frequency analysis is involved. Most post-processors provide an animation service, which produces an animation and brings the model to life. All post-processors now include the calculation of stress and strains in any of the x, y or z directions or indeed in a direction at an angle to the co-ordinate axes. The principal stresses and strains may also be plotted or if required the yield stresses and strains according to the main theories of failure.
In brief, the FE is a mathematical method for solving differential equations. It has the ability to solve complex problems that can be represented in differential equation form that occur naturally, in virtually all fields of the physical sciences. Accurate modeling is essential to ensure the relevance of the result for the corresponding FEA. The results solely depend on the model that has been created. Workflow of the entire finite element study is shown in Figure 2.
Workflow of FE analysis.
Oral and maxillofacial radiology is the specialty of dentistry concerned with performance and interpretation of diagnostic imaging used in examining the dental, craniofacial, and adjacent structures. Use of FEA in this specialty helps for proper diagnosis and possibility of knowing iatrogenic effects.
Szücs et al
Oenning et al
Kihara et al
Restorative dentistry refers to the diagnosis and integrated management of diseases of the teeth and their supporting structures and rehabilitation of the dentition for functional and esthetic requirements of an individual. Restorative dentistry. It is a broader term encompasses the dental specialties of endodontics, prosthodontics, and periodontics.
Many newer materials have been developed owing to the increasing interest in the field of esthetic dental restorations. In order to minimize the stress concentration of the restorative materials and to decrease the incidence of restorative failure; physical properties like modulus of elasticity should be near or equal to that of the natural dental tissue. Due to the lack of proper understanding on the biomechanical principles of the materials involved in restorative procedure, lead too many detrimental effects causing a restorative failure. Therefore, in order to know the behaviour of materials and dental tissue, biomechanical studies are very crucial [6, 7].
Goel et al
Rees in 2002 examined the effect of varying position of an occlusal load on the stress contour in the cervical region of a lower second premolar using a 2-D plane strain FEM. A 500 N load was applied vertically to either of the cusp tips or in various positions along the cuspal inclines. He found that, loads applied to the inner aspects of the buccal or the lingual cuspal inclines produced maximum principal stress values of up to 358 MPa, which is exceeding the known failure stresses for enamel [9].
Ausiello et al
Ausiello et al
Magne et al., in 2006 described a rapid method of generating FE models of dental structures and restorations. They evaluated five models: natural tooth, mesial-occlusal (MO), and mesial-occlusal-distal (MOD) cavities, MO, and MOD endodontic access preparations and found a progressive loss of cuspal stiffness in MO to MOD to endodontic access, as there is loss of tooth structure with these type of restorations. The natural tooth and the tooth with the MOD ceramic inlay retained 100% cuspal stiffness [7].
Ichim et al., in 2007 investigated the influence of the elastic modulus (
Asmussen et al., in 2008 analyzed the stresses generated in tooth and restoration by occlusal loading of Class-I and Class-II restorations restored with resin composite; suggested that the occlusal restorations of resin composite should have a high modulus of elasticity in order to reduce the risk of marginal deterioration [12].
Coelho et al
Magne and Oganesyan in 2009 measured cuspal flexure of intact and restored maxillary premolars with MOD porcelain, and composite-inlay restorations and occlusal contacts (in enamel, at restoration margin, or in restorative material). They found a relatively small cuspal deformation in all the models and an increased cusp-stabilizing effect of ceramic inlays compared with composite ones [9].
Composites are the resin restorative materials developed to overcome the disadvantages of amalgam restorations, which are unaesthetic and toxic. Composites are filled resins, exhibit high compressive strength, abrasion resistance, ease of application, and high translucency. FEA has been in use to analyze stresses generated in teeth and restorations. It is a proven useful tool in understanding biomechanics of tooth and the biomimetic approach in restorative dentistry [14].
Lee et al
Choi et al
Jongsma et al
Dental ceramics are in-organic, non-metallic, and brittle restorative materials producing dental prosthesis that are used to replace missing or damaged dental structures which has high compressive strength and low tensile strength. FEM provides a mathematic analysis to predict strength values without the potential for errors in dental ceramics [18].
Tensile stresses tend to be more critical than compressive stresses for ceramic materials. The strength of ceramic restorations is significantly affected by the presence of flaws or other microscopic defects. Tensile stress concentration at cementation surface of the ceramic layer suggested as the predominant factor controlling ceramic failure [6].
Belli et al. in 2005 evaluated the effect of hybrid layer on distribution and amount of stress formed under occlusal loading in a premolar tooth restored with composite or ceramic inlay. They concluded that the hybrid layer has an effect on stress distribution under loading in restored premolar tooth model with composite or ceramic inlay [19].
Rezaei et al
Thompson et al
Matson et al
Endodontology/Endodontics is the branch of dental sciences concerned with the form, function, health, injuries to and the diseases of the dental pulp and periradicular region, and their relationship with systemic health and well-being. Endodontic therapy involves either root canal filling techniques by conventional methods; or endodontic surgery with the use of biocompatible restorative materials, instruments, and techniques performed. The objective of endodontic instrumentation is to produce a tapered continuous preparation that should preserve the anatomy of root canal and maintain a good apical seal and foramen as small as possible, without any deviation from the original canal curvature [23].
During canal instrumentation, pressure is generated against the dentinal walls that may lead to inappropriate canal preparation or microcracks. These microcracks may lead to vertical fracture - one of the cause for tooth loss. During instrumentation, nickel-titanium (NiTi) are the commonly used for shaping the root canal. So, in order to perform well and avoid instrument breakage inside the canal, the material used and the technique performed should be followed meticulously. FEA helps to analyze and predict the treatment outcome [24].
Satappan et al
Hong et al
Subramaniam et al
Kim et al
Lee et al
Belli et al
A considerable amount of tooth structure lost due to caries, endodontic therapy, and placement of previous restorations will compromise the tooth structure to resume its full function to serve satisfactorily. The type of the tooth restoring and the amount of remaining coronal tooth structure are the two factors that influence the choice of technique. The second factor is probably the key important indicator in determining the prognosis a tooth that is restored. If a substantial amount of coronal structure is missing, a cast post and core is indicated [30].
The method of restoring a structurally weakened tooth is post and core system, which is most common and widely used. This system can be categorized into two; custom cast metal posts and cores that are single piece, and a two component design comprising a prefabricated post to which other core materials is subsequently adapted. While fabricating a custom post and core, the difference in the elastic modulus of dentine and post material may be a source for root structure because of stress and debonding of posts due to stress contraction of the cement. Design of the post also effects the stress distribution, which was found as the most common mode of failure. Ferrule preparation creates a positive effect in reducing the stress concentration in an endodontically treated tooth. FEM can be used in various types of materials like carbon, metal, glass fiber, and zirconia ceramic and different configurations of dowel like smooth and serrated on the stress distribution of the teeth [6, 7].
Studies have showed that the increase in elastic modulus of post material cause decrease in the stress in dentin. However, Boschian et al., in 2006 have reported that higher the elastic modulus of post material than dentin can cause a dangerous, non-homogenous stress in root dentin. Also Silva et al., in 2009 reported that the stress distribution is more related to endodontically treated teeth restored with a post than the post’s external configuration. Therefore, whenever the clinician is planning to use a post he has to choose a post material, which has the stiffness similar to dentin. They evaluated the stress distribution in maxillary central incisor, which is endodontically treated and restored with fiberglass and metallic prefabricated posts [7].
Necchi et al
The use of glass fiber dowels showed less stress than the metal, carbon, and ceramic posts which few researchers found. However, there are some differences in the material properties, boundaries and loading conditions. A study by Eraslan et al., in 2009 showed a reduction in VM stress in an endodontically treated tooth restored with all-ceramic post and core than with zirconium oxide ceramic post and fiber post at the dentin wall and within the post [32].
In a study by Zhou et al
For fixation of post and core to the remaining tooth structure cements like zinc-phosphate, glass ionomer, resin-modified glass ionomer, and resin cement are used. The difference in elastic modulus of these cements, post materials and dentin results in stress concentration under function. In 2010, Soares et al., found zinc-phosphate and conventional glass ionomer cement producing high stress concentrations at dentin-cement interface. They also demonstrated that resin cement recorded higher fracture resistance values than other cements, which was in accordance with the study done by Suzuki et al., in 2008 [7].
A systematic review in 2010 by Al-Omiri et al
Al-Omiri et al
The branch of dentistry pertaining to the restoration and maintenance of oral function, comfort, appearance, and health of the patient by the restoration of natural teeth and/or the replacement of missing teeth and craniofacial tissues with artificial substitutes. FEA helps in studying the stress patterns and their distribution between the tooth and the material used in restoring the natural or missing tooth/teeth structure and predicting the favorable outcome with least chance of failure.
Zarone et al
FEA has been extensively used in implant dentistry to predict the biomechanical behaviour of various dental implant designs, as well as the effect of clinical factors for predicting the clinical success. Stress patterns in implant components and surrounding bone are well studied. The achievement of any FE study depends on the accuracy of simulating structures used. They are the material properties of implant and bone, surface characteristics and geometry of the implant and its components, loading method and support conditions, and the biomechanical behaviour of implant-bone interface. The prime difficulty in simulating the living tissues and the responses to the applied load can be successfully achieved with the use of advanced imaging techniques [36].
FEA gives an in-depth idea about the patterns of stress in the implant and more importantly in the peri-implant bone and this helps in the betterment of the implant design and implant insertion techniques. Several studies had been put forward on the effect of material properties of implant, implant number, size (length and diameter), thread profile, and on the quality and quantity of surrounding bone on stress distribution. The stresses of various kinds such as von Mises stress, maximum shear stress, maximum and minimum principal stress are used to assess the mechanical stress on the bone, implant, and bone-implant interface. Amongst, von Mises stress is most frequently and mainly used scalar-valued stress invariant to evaluate the yielding, and or failure behavior of dental materials. While minimum principal stress gives an idea on the compressive stress, maximum principal stress gives on tensile stress. Principal stress is used to study both ductile and brittle properties of a bone [36].
Siegele and Soltesz in 1989 conducted a study using implants of various shapes to evaluate the patterns of stress generation in the jawbone found that different shapes produced different stress patterns and conical implant showed higher stress than screw shaped and cylindrical implants [2].
Mailath et al
Geng et al
Chun et al., in 2002 found that the square thread shape filleted with a small radius was more effective in stress distribution than other dental implants used in the analyses also maximum effective stress decreased not only as screw pitch decreased gradually but also as implant length increased [38].
Himmlova et al
Ding et al., in 2009 conducted a study on immediate loading implants showed that the masticatory force around the implant neck was decreased with increased diameter of an implant. Several studies found higher risk of bone resorption occurring in the implant neck region. By using FEM, authors could able to compare the elastic modulus and deformation with different types of bone, and implant materials which helps clinicians to better understand the process of bone remodeling, and for further improvements in surgical techniques [40].
Eraslan et al., in 2009 evaluated the effects of different implant thread designs on stress distribution characteristics at supporting structures. Four different thread-form configurations for a solid screw implant was prepared with supporting bone structure. V-thread, buttress, reverse buttress, and square thread designs with a 100-N static axial occlusal load applied to occlusal surface of abutment to calculate the stress distribution. They found that the implant thread forms has no effect on von Mises stress distribution in the supporting bone, but produced dissimilar compressive stress intensities in the bone [7].
Dos Santos et al
Demenko et al
The increase risk of mechanical failure can occur with the increase in crown to implant ratio, which was substantiated by many FE studies. A study by Verri et al
FEA is important in predicting the success of implant supported prosthetic rehabilitation of maxillectomy patients. In case of maxillary or partial mandibular resection patients, FE models can be used to simulate the resection areas and biomechanics of maxillary obturator or mandibular partial or implant supported prosthesis can be studied. de Sousa and Mattos in 2014 conducted a study to evaluate the stability and functional stress caused by implanted-supported obturator prostheses in simulated maxillary resections of an edentulous maxilla corresponding to Okay Classes Ib, II, and III, with no surgical reconstruction. They found that the implant-supported obturator prostheses tended to rotate toward the surgical resection site, the region where there is no osseous support. As the osseous support and the numbers of implants and clips diminished, the tensile and compressive stresses in the gingival mucosa and in the cortical bone increased. They concluded that the osseous tensile and compressive stresses resulting from the bar-clip retention system for Okay Classes Ib, II, and III maxillectomy may not be favorable to the survival rate of implants [36].
Oral and maxillofacial surgery is one branch of dentistry, which has always been associated with biomechanics. Trauma surgery, orthognathic surgery, reconstructive surgery are the subdivisions where understanding the mechanism of fractures and its biological response to the biomechanical change are worth knowing for optimal treatment method and outcome [43].
When present technology was not available in the past, cadaveric studies were the only way of information and it is not possible to carry out designing and executing which at present times have ethical issues often challenging to have valid and reliable results. Furthermore, post mortem alterations and the age do not match in a typical facial trauma cadaver. One such example was René Le Fort, a French army surgeon, conducted a series of thorough experiments on the heads of cadavers. His work gave rise to a system of classifying facial fractures, now known as Le Fort types I, II and III [36, 43].
Since the maxillofacial region has vital anatomical structures, intervention in this region needs precise work to be carried out in restoring function and esthetics of the tissues in obtaining predictable and favorable long-term outcomes. In the field of trauma surgery, to identify the craniofacial region that are potential prone to fracture, FEA enables precise mapping of the maxillofacial region to know the biomechanics and stress pattern distribution of trauma that helps in evaluation of patient and optimizing the surgical protocol for treating the fractures [43].
Today, with the help of FEA mechanical properties of facial hard and soft tissues, osteosynthesis materials, implant components for fixing the fractured parts, and various biological and synthetic bone substitutes can be easily generated and determined due to the advancement in the computing and virtual analysis. It allows the testing of various fixation system to prevent the future failure due to its improper selection or inappropriate positioning. It made us possible to know the impact in biomechanical behaviour of testing materials on the biological responses of the bone tested as well as adjacent anatomical structures more accurate, repeatable, time saving, and cost-effective way regardless of their complexity [43].
Isolated orbital floor fracture (IOFF), zygomatic bone fracture are the examples of more complex traumas occurring frequently in contact sports and their pathomechanism were also studied with the aid of FEA. In relatively rare facial traumas like in case of blast or gunshot wounds, FEA helps in exploring, analyzing and determining the mechanism of anatomical structures damaged and ways in reconstructing them. The pathomechanism underlying the type and method of fracture is exceptionally important as it may help in designing the helmets, other protecting devices. Rigid fixation is one of the key element in determining the long-term success for osseointegration. Inappropriate selection of an osteosynthesis component for the biological tissues can cause complication in fusion of bone. Therefore, FEA helps in determining and designing various fixation systems and methods [44, 45].
Osteosynthesis of condylar fracture and fixing the element is a challenging aspect for a maxillofacial surgeon due to its specific anatomy and surgical access. Through FEA, it has become possible for the researchers to find the better way and an exceptionally handy, easy mountable and durable element for optimal stabilizing and fixing the fractured fragments. A new type of “A-shape condylar plate” was designed for all levels of neck fractures and it can be used for stabilization of existed coronoid process fracture. FEA has proved to be a useful tool in investing and thorough evaluation of newer materials and solutions, which are more optimized, durable and light weight components before they can be used in the clinical situations [46].
Bujtár et al
Huempfner-Hierl et al
Murakami et al
Santos et al
Orthodontics is a specialty of dentistry, which deals with the diagnosis, prevention and correction of malpositioned teeth and jaws. It also focuses on determining and modifying the facial growth, known as dentofacial orthopedics. Abnormal alignment of the teeth and jaws is common. In the field of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, FEM has proved to be a reliable and valid procedure in evaluating the applied orthodontic forces.
Tanne et al
Many researchers have developed various FE models in order to understand the interaction between tooth mobility and periodontal ligament. Jones et al., in 2001 validated an FE model and found PDL as the main mediator for orthodontic tooth movement and the material properties of PDL are difficult to quantify [7].
The use of the lingual orthodontic technique has increased over time, as adults dislike the visibility of orthodontic appliances. Sung et al
Cattaneo et al., in 2009 studied on Orthodontic tooth movement (OTM) which occurs when an orthodontic force is applied to the brackets. The modeling and remodeling process of the supporting structures occurs by alteration in the distribution of stress/strain in the periodontium. As per the classical OTM theories, symmetric zones of compression and tension are present in the periodontium. However, they did not consider the complex mechanical properties of the PDL, the morphology of alveolar structures’, and magnitude of the applied force. The authors could not confirm the classical ideal of symmetrical compressive and tensile areas in periodontium as per the OTM scenarios. They found light continuous orthodontics forces will be perceived as intermittent by the periodontium. They expressed that, as the roots and alveolar bone morphology are patient-specific, FEA should not be based on general models [51].
Lingual orthodontics has developed rapidly in recent years; however, research on torque control variance of the maxillary incisors in both lingual and labial orthodontics is still limited. Liang et al
Field et al
Orthognathic surgery also known as corrective jaw surgery or simply jaw surgery is aimed to correct the conditions of jaw and face. They relate to correct the structure, growth modification, disorders of TMJ, sleep apnea, malocclusion problems owing to skeletal disharmonies, or other orthodontic problems that cannot be treated with orthodontic braces. It involves the surgical manipulation of the structures of the facial skeleton in restoring the suitable anatomy and their functional relationship with dentofacial skeletal abnormalities for the patient’s sense of self and well-being. Successful outcome depend on meticulous preoperative planning until finalization of occlusion. Virtual planning promotes a more accurate analysis of dentofacial deformity and preoperative planning with the help of computer-based technique like FEA, an invaluable tool in providing comprehensive patient education. Today’s orthognathic treatment consists of standard orthognathic procedure in correcting jaw deformities like maxillary and mandibular prognathism, open bite, difficulty in chewing and swallowing, TMJ dysfunction pain, excessive wear of the teeth, and receding chins. It includes adjunctive procedures like genioplasty, septorhinoplasty, and lipectomy of the neck to improve hard and soft tissue contours [53].
Chabanas et al
Erkmen et al
For successful outcome in any orthognathic surgeries, selection of an appropriate bridging element is a key determinant, corrective mandibular surgery like bilateral sagittal split osteotomy (BSSO) is not an exception to stabilize the bony segments with different fixing elements and FEA is an important tool [43].
Stróżyk et al
Surgically Assisted Palatal Expansion (SARPE) is an orthognathic surgical procedure that is performed frequently in the patients with narrower maxilla. De Assis et al
A more complex surgery involving correction of deformation of both the jaws simulating the maxillary and mandibular jaw osteotomy using FEA was also executed. Fujii et al
Knoops et al
The FEM technique can also be used in oncosurgeries and reconstructive surgery where an extensive resection is needed and reconstruction of jawbones are done. The crucial parameter form the postoperative point of view is the amount of bone segment removed from the surgical site, which includes size, shape, and location. The aim of reconstructing the bone defect should result in restoration of the integrity, its anatomy and the functionality of stomatognathic system. With the aid of digital technology; modeling, simulation and analysis, it is possible to know and compare the stress levels and distribution on and at the bone-graft interface and predictable behaviour of the reconstructed site to identify the most suitable transplant for a given clinical situation and to find the appropriate bone fusion under favorable conditions in the reconstructed area [43].
Moiduddin et al
Hu et al
PDL is a highly specialized soft connective tissue that is present between the tooth root and the alveolar bone. The primary function is to support the tooth and is the most important component of periodontium. Various studies included and investigated on its biomechanics and stress distribution under normal, masticatory, and traumatic loads. PDL is the crucial aspect in designing as it influences the properties of a 3-D model, though it is difficult in modeling and not a concern for the study. Ignoring the PDL may result in inaccurate values of stress and strain distribution [36].
Tuna et al
Results can be easily interpreted in physical terms as well as it has a strong mathematical base.
Non-homogenous structures also can be dealt by merely assigning different properties to different elements.
It is even possible to vary the properties to different elements and within an element according to the polynomial applied.
It minimizes the requirement for laboratory testing, but not replaces entirely.
Applicable to linear and non-linear as well as solid and fluid structural interactions.
Any problems can be split into smaller number of problems.
It is very easy to simulate any biological condition in pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative stages for more accurate and reliable results.
Reproducibility of the results does not affect the physical properties of the materials involved.
It can replace stereo lithographic models for pre-surgical planning.
With FEA, static and dynamic analysis is possible.
It is less time consuming even with the complex structures.
No extensive instrumentation is required.
The study can be repeated as many times as the operator wants.
The systematic generality of finite element procedure makes it a powerful and versatile tool for a wide range of problems.
The solution obtained from FEM can be realistic if and only if the material properties are known precisely [1, 2, 9, 62].
The major drawback is sensitivity of the solution on the geometry of the element such as type, size, number, shape and orientation of element used.
FEM programs yield a large amount of numerical data as results and it is very difficult to separate out the required results from the pile of numbers.
Inability to simulate the biological dynamics of the tooth and its supporting structure accurately. For example, in non-carious cervical lesions, due to the exposure to oral environment the structure of dentin (tertiary or reparative dentin) undergoes variable amount of changes such as attrition, erosion or abrasion, which has formed as a response to stimulus.
Misguided results due to inaccurate data or information or interpretation.
Due to their complex anatomy and lack of complete knowledge about the mechanical behaviour, modeling of human structures are extremely difficult.
The results depend on the personnel involved in the process due to assumptions.
Until well-defined physical properties of enamel, dentin, PDL, cancellous, and cortical bone are available, the progress and the process in the FEA will be limited.
Early FE models had the difficulty in allocating physical characteristics to the different constituent parts of the tooth, as they were considered as isotropic which in real are not [1, 2, 9, 62].
The non-linear simulation and dynamic behaviour of PDL and other soft tissue properties has become an increasingly powerful approach that provides precision and reliability in calculating stress and strain with a wide range of tooth movements.
The transient and residual stresses in dental materials are also included in non-linear FEM calculations also include. Residual stresses in ceramic and metal restorations, contraction stresses in composites, and permanent deformation prediction of materials are some to mention for non-linear application to be applied and investigated.
The phenomena of sliding and friction critically affect the stress and strain created on the contact surfaces between teeth that play a major role in the mechanical behaviour. This non-linear property can be solved by contact analysis depend various factors like region of contact, load, material, and environment that are highly unpredictable. The frictional response depends on the pair of surfaces in contact, temperature, and humidity.
Research is also going on polyhedral meshing and mesh-less (or mesh-free) analysis for reducing the meshing time. Advantages of polyhedral meshing being; less meshing time, high accuracy, and too less number of degrees of freedom (DOF).
Hybrid meshing (hex-pyram-tetra) is a very special option but not all software supports its application.
The power of the Finite Element Method is its versatility. It is a well-established numerical analysis used not only in aerospace, automotive industry and civil engineering, but also in health care. It addresses the biomedical problems that are challenging due to structural complexity. The structure analyzed may have arbitrary shape, arbitrary support, and arbitrary loads therefore; it is ideally suited for the analysis of bibliographical structures, which are non-homogeneous. The modeling and simulation of the structures and or materials saves time and money in conducting the experiment. Therefore, this tool has been successfully employed in various areas of dentistry.
A finite element analysis does not produce formula as a solution, nor does it solve a class of problems. This method is a way of getting a numerical solution to a specific problem. Finite element analysis is an accurate tool in assessing stress distribution, only of the given set of values are effective. However, it varies from person to person as the situation and biomechanical properties of living structures interpretation differs. Hence, the obvious shortcomings should be kept in mind before any decision making procedure in experimental as well as clinical dentistry. The experiments done are repeatable with no ethical concern and study designs can be modified as per the requirement. Certain limitations of FEA do exist. Keeping in mind the limitations, FEA research should be accompanied with clinical evaluation.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"55",title:"Immunology",slug:"immunology",parent:{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:103,numberOfWosCitations:65,numberOfCrossrefCitations:55,numberOfDimensionsCitations:120,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"55",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6243",title:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b5642d13358449f5e7bb5eaec28ead9",slug:"autoantibodies-and-cytokines",bookSignature:"Wahid Ali Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64042",title:"Dr.",name:"Wahid Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"wahid-ali-khan",fullName:"Wahid Ali Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7248",title:"Dendritic Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ce3caba88847e8b12beb992e7a63e1dc",slug:"dendritic-cells",bookSignature:"Svetlana P. 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As a high number of molecules are available, synthesis of the most important cytokines, including tumor factor necrosis, interferons and interleukins will be presented. Here we also describe the relationships between those cytokines with some autoimmune diseases that are promoted by them.",book:{id:"6243",slug:"autoantibodies-and-cytokines",title:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines",fullTitle:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines"},signatures:"Vinicius L. Ferreira, Helena H.L. Borba, Aline de F. Bonetti, Leticia P.\nLeonart and Roberto Pontarolo",authors:null},{id:"30339",doi:"10.5772/33108",title:"Immunoelectron Microscopy: A Reliable Tool for the Analysis of Cellular Processes",slug:"immunoelectron-microscopy-a-reliable-tool-for-the-analysis-of-biological-processes",totalDownloads:7717,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"1436",slug:"applications-of-immunocytochemistry",title:"Applications of Immunocytochemistry",fullTitle:"Applications of Immunocytochemistry"},signatures:"Ana L. De Paul, Jorge H. Mukdsi, Juan P. Petiti, Silvina Gutiérrez, Amado A. Quintar, Cristina A. Maldonado and Alicia I. Torres",authors:[{id:"94062",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:"LucÃa",surname:"De Paul",slug:"ana-de-paul",fullName:"Ana De Paul"},{id:"107542",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Mukdsi",slug:"jorge-mukdsi",fullName:"Jorge Mukdsi"},{id:"107544",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Petiti",slug:"juan-pablo-petiti",fullName:"Juan Pablo Petiti"},{id:"107545",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvina",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez",slug:"silvina-gutierrez",fullName:"Silvina Gutiérrez"},{id:"107546",title:"Dr.",name:"Amado",middleName:null,surname:"Quintar",slug:"amado-quintar",fullName:"Amado Quintar"},{id:"107548",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Maldonado",slug:"cristina-maldonado",fullName:"Cristina Maldonado"},{id:"107551",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",slug:"alicia-torres",fullName:"Alicia Torres"}]},{id:"62204",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78804",title:"Highlighting the Role of DC-NK Cell Interplay in Immunobiology and Immunotherapy",slug:"highlighting-the-role-of-dc-nk-cell-interplay-in-immunobiology-and-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) and natural killer (NK) cells are both part of the innate immune system, also playing crucial functions in the regulation of adaptive immune responses. In recent years, numerous works have demonstrated that DCs and NK cells mutually influence each other with major consequences in the type and effectiveness of elicited immune responses. Among other effects, DC-NK crosstalk can result in NK cell activation and DC maturation or deletion, depending on its activation status. In this chapter and after a brief overview of DCs and NK immunobiology, we focus on the process of DC-NK crosstalk, highlighting the relevance of rationally exploring this interplay in the development of more effective cancer immunotherapies.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"João Calmeiro, Mylene Carrascal, Célia Gomes, Amílcar Falcão,\nMaria Teresa Cruz and Bruno Miguel Neves",authors:[{id:"114266",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",middleName:"Miguel",surname:"Neves",slug:"bruno-neves",fullName:"Bruno Neves"},{id:"115592",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"maria-teresa-cruz",fullName:"Maria Teresa Cruz"},{id:"233883",title:"Prof.",name:"Amílcar",middleName:null,surname:"Falcão",slug:"amilcar-falcao",fullName:"Amílcar Falcão"},{id:"243998",title:"MSc.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Calmeiro",slug:"joao-calmeiro",fullName:"João Calmeiro"},{id:"244001",title:"Dr.",name:"Mylene",middleName:null,surname:"Carrascal",slug:"mylene-carrascal",fullName:"Mylene Carrascal"},{id:"244004",title:"Dr.",name:"Célia",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"celia-gomes",fullName:"Célia Gomes"}]},{id:"62945",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79926",title:"Dendritic Cell Subsets, Maturation and Function",slug:"dendritic-cell-subsets-maturation-and-function",totalDownloads:2322,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most efficient and professional antigen-presenting cells of the immune system required for induction and dispersion of immune responses. DCs also have an important role in the induction and maintenance of tolerance. In response to infections, DCs drive the production of effector CD4+ T helper 1 (Th1) and CD8+ T cell-dominated immune responses. DCs can be designated to become tolerogenic and enhance regulatory T cells (Tregs) that regulate effector T cell responses, a process that is essential for the maintenance of immune homeostasis and control of autoimmune diseases and hypersensitivities. DCs can exist in three states: immature, semi-mature, and mature DCs. The difference between immature and mature DCs is distinctly based on variations occurring on a phenotypic level and functional level. Immature dendritic cells manifested characteristics of primitive cells, defined by expression of classical dendritic cell surface markers CD11c, CD11b and major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II). Phenotypic maturation is accomplished when DCs upregulate surface maturation markers such as CD80, CD83, and CD86.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"Ghada Mohammad Zaki Al-Ashmawy",authors:[{id:"255240",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ashmawy",slug:"ghada-al-ashmawy",fullName:"Ghada Al-Ashmawy"}]},{id:"63198",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79273",title:"Dendritic Cells: The Tools for Cancer Treatment",slug:"dendritic-cells-the-tools-for-cancer-treatment",totalDownloads:1217,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"During cancer immune editing, the immune system shapes tumor fate in three phases through the activation of innate and adaptive immune mechanisms. After the elimination and equilibrium phase, the escape phase represents the final phase in which immunologically sculpted tumors begin to grow progressively. In this chapter, we will discuss which efforts are made to restore the balance in favor of the immune system making use of dendritic cells (DCs). The first approach is adoptive cell transfer, in which autologous DCs are generated and activated ex vivo. Secondly, we will discuss attempts in which pro-inflammatory or pro-migratory factors are delivered to attract and activate DCs in situ. Both strategies have the general goal to activate and mature DCs able to induce a robust tumor-specific T cell response. In addition, this chapter will discuss the clinical impact of DC-based therapies in cancer treatment focusing on the safety, feasibility, immunological responses, and clinical outcome.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"Hanne Locy, Sarah Melhaoui, Sarah K. Maenhout and Kris\nThielemans",authors:[{id:"253469",title:"Prof.",name:"Kris",middleName:null,surname:"Thielemans",slug:"kris-thielemans",fullName:"Kris Thielemans"},{id:"260847",title:"Mrs.",name:"Hanne",middleName:null,surname:"Locy",slug:"hanne-locy",fullName:"Hanne Locy"},{id:"260848",title:"MSc.",name:"Sarah",middleName:null,surname:"Melhaoui",slug:"sarah-melhaoui",fullName:"Sarah Melhaoui"},{id:"260849",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Maenhout",slug:"sarah-karen-maenhout",fullName:"Sarah Karen Maenhout"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59914",title:"Cytokines and Interferons: Types and Functions",slug:"cytokines-and-interferons-types-and-functions",totalDownloads:5599,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"This chapter aims to describe and review the main important cytokines types (notably interferons), including their biological activities, functions and structures. As a high number of molecules are available, synthesis of the most important cytokines, including tumor factor necrosis, interferons and interleukins will be presented. Here we also describe the relationships between those cytokines with some autoimmune diseases that are promoted by them.",book:{id:"6243",slug:"autoantibodies-and-cytokines",title:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines",fullTitle:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines"},signatures:"Vinicius L. Ferreira, Helena H.L. Borba, Aline de F. Bonetti, Leticia P.\nLeonart and Roberto Pontarolo",authors:null},{id:"62945",title:"Dendritic Cell Subsets, Maturation and Function",slug:"dendritic-cell-subsets-maturation-and-function",totalDownloads:2321,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most efficient and professional antigen-presenting cells of the immune system required for induction and dispersion of immune responses. DCs also have an important role in the induction and maintenance of tolerance. In response to infections, DCs drive the production of effector CD4+ T helper 1 (Th1) and CD8+ T cell-dominated immune responses. DCs can be designated to become tolerogenic and enhance regulatory T cells (Tregs) that regulate effector T cell responses, a process that is essential for the maintenance of immune homeostasis and control of autoimmune diseases and hypersensitivities. DCs can exist in three states: immature, semi-mature, and mature DCs. The difference between immature and mature DCs is distinctly based on variations occurring on a phenotypic level and functional level. Immature dendritic cells manifested characteristics of primitive cells, defined by expression of classical dendritic cell surface markers CD11c, CD11b and major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II). Phenotypic maturation is accomplished when DCs upregulate surface maturation markers such as CD80, CD83, and CD86.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"Ghada Mohammad Zaki Al-Ashmawy",authors:[{id:"255240",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ashmawy",slug:"ghada-al-ashmawy",fullName:"Ghada Al-Ashmawy"}]},{id:"64077",title:"Role of Dendritic Cells in Parasitic Infections",slug:"role-of-dendritic-cells-in-parasitic-infections",totalDownloads:1459,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Dendritic cells comprise a complex array of cell populations that play a leading role in immune defense. In an immature state, they have the capacity to sense and uptake different antigens. Upon capturing antigens, they become activated, mature, and migrate to lymph nodes where they present antigen-derived peptides to naïve T cells. Due to these excellent surveillance properties, dendritic cells play an important role against parasitic infections. Also, dendritic cells are an important source of IL-12, which is a fundamental proinflammatory cytokine in the control of intracellular parasites. The aim of this chapter is to review the most important characteristics and functions of dendritic cells and their role in the control of infection by parasites.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"Laila Gutiérrez-Kobeh, Jorge Rodríguez-González, Jesús Argueta-\nDonohué, Rosalino Vázquez-López and Arturo A. Wilkins-\nRodríguez",authors:[{id:"233494",title:"Dr.",name:"Laila",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Kobeh",slug:"laila-gutierrez-kobeh",fullName:"Laila Gutiérrez-Kobeh"},{id:"239829",title:"BSc.",name:"Arturo A.",middleName:null,surname:"Wilkins-Rodriguez",slug:"arturo-a.-wilkins-rodriguez",fullName:"Arturo A. Wilkins-Rodriguez"},{id:"241093",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-González",slug:"jorge-rodriguez-gonzalez",fullName:"Jorge Rodríguez-González"},{id:"241094",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalino",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez-López",slug:"rosalino-vazquez-lopez",fullName:"Rosalino Vázquez-López"},{id:"259995",title:"MSc.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Argueta-Donohué",slug:"jesus-argueta-donohue",fullName:"Jesús Argueta-Donohué"}]},{id:"60035",title:"Autoantibody-Based Diagnostic Biomarkers: Technological Approaches to Discovery and Validation",slug:"autoantibody-based-diagnostic-biomarkers-technological-approaches-to-discovery-and-validation",totalDownloads:1513,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Autoantibodies produced against self-antigens, or ‘autoantigens’, result from a loss of self-tolerance triggered by genetic and/or environmental factors which induce the immune system to attack the host’s own cells, resulting in a condition referred to as autoimmunity. In classic autoimmune diseases, it is well established that the pathology relates directly to the autoantibodies. However, it is increasingly recognised that autoantibodies are also found in many other disease areas, including cancers, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, as well infectious diseases such as malaria, albeit in such diseases it is unclear whether the autoantibodies play a direct role in the pathology or whether they are merely symptomatic of disease. Irrespective of whether they are causative or symptomatic of specific diseases though, there is increasing interest globally in exploring the clinical potential of circulating autoantibodies as diagnostic biomarkers. This chapter provides an overview of the diagnostic utility of autoantibody biomarkers in a range of disease areas and discusses their potential utility in disease staging, treatment monitoring and in prediction of immune-related adverse events. It also provides an overview of traditional and contemporary technological approaches to autoantibody biomarker discovery and validation, focusing on protein microarrays that are ideally suited to this important area of research.",book:{id:"6243",slug:"autoantibodies-and-cytokines",title:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines",fullTitle:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines"},signatures:"Farhanah Aziz, Muneera Smith and Jonathan M Blackburn",authors:null},{id:"62204",title:"Highlighting the Role of DC-NK Cell Interplay in Immunobiology and Immunotherapy",slug:"highlighting-the-role-of-dc-nk-cell-interplay-in-immunobiology-and-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) and natural killer (NK) cells are both part of the innate immune system, also playing crucial functions in the regulation of adaptive immune responses. In recent years, numerous works have demonstrated that DCs and NK cells mutually influence each other with major consequences in the type and effectiveness of elicited immune responses. Among other effects, DC-NK crosstalk can result in NK cell activation and DC maturation or deletion, depending on its activation status. In this chapter and after a brief overview of DCs and NK immunobiology, we focus on the process of DC-NK crosstalk, highlighting the relevance of rationally exploring this interplay in the development of more effective cancer immunotherapies.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"João Calmeiro, Mylene Carrascal, Célia Gomes, Amílcar Falcão,\nMaria Teresa Cruz and Bruno Miguel Neves",authors:[{id:"114266",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",middleName:"Miguel",surname:"Neves",slug:"bruno-neves",fullName:"Bruno Neves"},{id:"115592",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"maria-teresa-cruz",fullName:"Maria Teresa Cruz"},{id:"233883",title:"Prof.",name:"Amílcar",middleName:null,surname:"Falcão",slug:"amilcar-falcao",fullName:"Amílcar Falcão"},{id:"243998",title:"MSc.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Calmeiro",slug:"joao-calmeiro",fullName:"João Calmeiro"},{id:"244001",title:"Dr.",name:"Mylene",middleName:null,surname:"Carrascal",slug:"mylene-carrascal",fullName:"Mylene Carrascal"},{id:"244004",title:"Dr.",name:"Célia",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"celia-gomes",fullName:"Célia Gomes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"55",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 16th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa is a Full Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Alicante, Spain, and has been the vice president of International Relations and Development Cooperation at this university since 2010. She created the research group in applied biochemistry in 2017 (https://web.ua.es/en/appbiochem/), and from 1999 to the present has made more than 200 contributions to Spanish and international conferences. Furthermore, she has around seventy-five scientific publications in indexed journals, eighty book chapters, and one patent to her credit. Her research work focuses on microbial metabolism (particularly on extremophile microorganisms), purification and characterization of enzymes with potential industrial and biotechnological applications, protocol optimization for genetically manipulating microorganisms, gene regulation characterization, carotenoid (pigment) production, and design and development of contaminated water and soil bioremediation processes by means of microorganisms. This research has received competitive public grants from the European Commission, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, the Valencia Region Government, and the University of Alicante.",institutionString:"University of Alicante",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"83122",title:"New Perspectives on the Application of Chito-Oligosaccharides Derived from Chitin and Chitosan: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106501",signatures:"Paul Edgardo Regalado-Infante, Norma Gabriela Rojas-Avelizapa, Rosalía Núñez-Pastrana, Daniel Tapia-Maruri, Andrea Margarita Rivas-Castillo, Régulo Carlos Llarena-Hernández and Luz Irene Rojas-Avelizapa",slug:"new-perspectives-on-the-application-of-chito-oligosaccharides-derived-from-chitin-and-chitosan-a-rev",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"83015",title:"Acute Changes in Lipoprotein-Associated Oxidative Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106489",signatures:"Ngoc-Anh Le",slug:"acute-changes-in-lipoprotein-associated-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:[{name:"Anh",surname:"Le"}],book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"83041",title:"Responses of Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plant Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106590",signatures:"Vishwa Jyoti Baruah, Bhaswati Sarmah, Manny Saluja and Elizabeth H. Mahood",slug:"responses-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-to-plant-stress",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of 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