Comparison of internet voting methods.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83768-400-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-399-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-401-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3e168136bc7435be0c6bbe1d7adec1f4",bookSignature:"Prof. Marwa Zakaria, Prof. Tamer Hassan and Prof. Laila Sherief",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12194.jpg",keywords:"Beta Thalassemia Major, Transfusion Dependent Beta-Thalassemia, Microcytic Hypochromic Anemia, Mutations, Beta Thalassemia Intermedia, Non-transfusion Dependent Thalassemia, Hb E Disease, Alpha Thalassemia, Genetic Counseling, Newborn Screening, Prenatal Diagnosis, Gene Therapy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 28th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Marwa Zakaria completed her post-graduate training in Pediatric Nutrition at Boston University School of Medicine, USA. She is an Associate Professor and senior consultant of Pediatrics in the Faculty of Medicine at Zagazig University and a member of the International Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOP), the European Hematology Association (EHA), and the Egyptian Society of Hematology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Professor at Zagazig University and an active member at EHA, SIOP, HAA, and ESPHO. Dr. Hassan is a guest speaker at numerous pediatric oncology and hematology meetings and he had over 50 international research publications in Pediatrics and Pediatric Hematology and Oncology.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Professor at Zagazig University, president of Sharkia Thalassemia Association, and member of the Egyptian national guidelines committee (NEGC) for evidence-based clinical practice. Prof. Sherief has over 50 international publications and many national publications and is an editorial board member in 17 international journals and Peer Reviewer for more than 38 international journals.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"187545",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Zakaria",slug:"marwa-zakaria",fullName:"Marwa Zakaria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187545/images/system/187545.png",biography:"Prof. Marwa Zakaria is an Associate Professor of Pediatrics and Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Pediatric Department, Zagazig University, Egypt. She is an active member of the International Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOP), European Hematology Association (EHA), and Egyptian Society of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology (ESPHO). She has participated in several professional trainings and workshops, including ICH GCP online training, EHA Master Class and Bite-size Master Class, and training from the Society of Neuro-Oncology (SNO). She completed a postgraduate training program in Pediatric Nutrition at the School of Medicine, Boston University, USA, in 2017. She completed several international preceptorships, including a thalassemia preceptorship and a hemophilia preceptorship. Dr. Zakaria is the recipient of a 2018 award from SIOP, and scholarships from EHA-HOPE in 2017 and 2018. She has participated in many international and national pediatric and hematology conferences, where she has also been a guest speaker. She has more than forty international research publications in pediatrics and pediatric hematology and oncology to her credit. She has edited three books and five book chapters. She is also a reviewer for several journals, including Medicine, Frontiers in Pediatrics, Molecular Medicine Reports, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, and others. Dr. Zakaria served as co-investigator for four hematology clinical trials and sub-investigator for five others.",institutionString:"Zagazig University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Zagazig University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"106463",title:"Prof.",name:"Tamer",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"tamer-hassan",fullName:"Tamer Hassan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/106463/images/system/106463.jpg",biography:"Tamer Hassen is a Professor of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt. He is an active member of the European Hematology Association (EHA), International Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOP), and Egyptian Society of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology (ESPHO), and has attended numerous national and international pediatric and hematology conferences held by these organizations and others. He has been a guest speaker at numerous pediatric oncology and hematology meetings and has published more than fifty international research publications in pediatrics and pediatric hematology and oncology. Dr. Hassan has edited two books and authored four book chapters. He has participated in many professional trainings and workshops. He received international scholarships from EHA-HOPE Cairo in 2017 and 2018, and an award from SIOP in 2016. He has completed several international preceptorships, including a hemophilia preceptorship at Saint Luc Hospital, Brussels, Belgium, and an immune-thrombocytopenia (ITP) preceptorship at Dmitry Rogachev National Research Center of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Immunology, Moscow, Russia. Dr. Hassan is an editor and reviewer for many journals, including Hemophilia, Medicine, Oncology Letters, Child Neurology, and more. He was a primary investigator in four international clinical trials and a sub-investigator for ten others.",institutionString:"Zagazig University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Zagazig University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"110940",title:"Prof.",name:"Laila",middleName:null,surname:"Sherief",slug:"laila-sherief",fullName:"Laila Sherief",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS1HqQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-19T09:40:38.jpg",biography:"Professor Laila Sherief has been a long-serving member of the Zagazig University community in Egypt. She first graduated with honours from the Zagazig University and then went on to do her internship and residency there before becoming a lecturer, an Associate Professor then a Professor in Paediatric in the Faculty of Medicine. Prof. Sherief has published extensively in national/international medical journals and at medical conferences. She has over 50 international publications and many national publications and acts as a Peer Reviewer for more than 38 international journals, including Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Pediatrics International, Journal of Coagulation & fibrinolysis, Medicine, BMC Endocrinal Disorders, Transfusion Medicine and Cancer Chemotherapy & Pharmacology. She is editorial board member in 17 international journals as BMC Pediatric, Frontiers in Genetics, Hematology case reports, Archives of hematology case reports and reviews, and Annals of Medical case reports. She supervised 83 master and MD thesis in Pediatric, Pediatric Hematology & Oncology and Clinical pathology\r\nProf. Sherief frequently attends national and international conferences and maintains memberships in many professional societies as International Society of Paediatric Oncology (SIOP), International Society of Haemostatis and Thrombosis (ISTH)., Egyptian Society of Pediatric Haematology & Oncology (ESPHO) and Egyptian Societies of thalassemia. She is the president of Sharkia thalassemia Association, Egypt, and member of the Egyptian national guidelines committee (NEGC) for evidence- based clinical practice. She was a member of the scientific committee for promotion of professors of pediatrics in the Supreme Council of Universities in Egypt from 2013 to 2016.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Zagazig University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. A unique name with a unique work ethic right at your service."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8450",title:"Beta Thalassemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"976f72013cd8e78d8f65bfb1f51f0146",slug:"beta-thalassemia",bookSignature:"Marwa Zakaria and Tamer Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8450.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187545",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",surname:"Zakaria",slug:"marwa-zakaria",fullName:"Marwa Zakaria"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7084",title:"Contemporary Pediatric Hematology and Oncology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"21ab490c2debd2992b2a0b45f778b785",slug:"contemporary-pediatric-hematology-and-oncology",bookSignature:"Marwa Zakaria and Tamer Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7084.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187545",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",surname:"Zakaria",slug:"marwa-zakaria",fullName:"Marwa Zakaria"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"30892",title:"In Situ Experiments in the Scanning Electron Microscope Chamber",doi:"10.5772/36433",slug:"in-situ-experiments-in-the-scanning-electron-microscope-chamber",body:'\n\t\tSince the first scanning electron microscope by Knoll (1935) and theoretical developments by von Ardenne (1938a, b) in the 30’s, this imaging technique has been widely used by generations of searchers from all the scientific domains to characterize the inner structure of matter. Even if the obtained information is essential for matter description or comprehension of matter transformation, the main constraints associated with classical electron microscopy, i.e. the necessity to work under vacuum and the necessity to prepare the sample before imaging, have always limited the possibilities to “post mortem” characterisation of samples and avoided observation of biological samples.
\n\t\t\tElectron microscopists early identified the necessity to undergo these limits. The development of a SEM chamber that is capable of maintaining a relatively high pressure and that allows imaging uncoated insulating samples began in the 70’s and has been “achieved” in the late 90’s – early 00’s (Stokes, 2008) with the commercialisation of the low-vacuum and environmental SEM. The availability of new generations of electron guns (and more particularly the field effect electron gun characterized by a very intense brightness), as well as the new generation of electronic columns that are now commonly associated with the environmental scanning electron microscopes opens new possibilities for material characterisation up to the nanometer scale. The development of this generation of microscopes have opened the door for performing real time experiments, using the electron microscope chamber as a microlab allowing direct observation of reactions at the micrometer scale. Many SEM providers or researchers have developed specific stages that can be used for the
This chapter will be split into five parts. We will first discuss the goals of
The main goal of
To achieve this goal, several requirements are necessary:
\n\t\t\tThe duration of the phenomenon to be observed must be suitable with the image recording time. If the system evolution is too fast, it will be impossible to record several images and observe this evolution. At the contrary, if the reaction kinetic is low, the time necessary for image recording will be too long and incompatible with experimentation. The high and low limits can be estimated ranging between 2 minutes and 48 hours.
The system must remain stable under the environmental conditions and/or irradiation by the electron beam during the time necessary for image recording. In the case of easily degradable samples, it is necessary to adjust the imaging conditions (high voltage, beam current, aperture, working distance, detector bias…) constantly, as the sample environmental conditions are modified during the experiment. Thus, the effect of the electron beam on the sample morphology modifications must be verified. Some authors report that it can act as an accelerator (Popma, 2002) or inhibitor (Courtois et al., 2011) of the observed reactions.
The image resolution must fit well with the size of details to be observed. Improvements in the image resolution have been achieved in the last decade thanks to the field effect emission guns. However, the presence of gas in the VP-SEM/ESEM chamber contributes to the incident electron beam scattering and subsequent degradation of the image resolution. Thus, the acquisition conditions must be adapted to the sample to be studied depending on the higher magnification to be reached.
The gaseous environmental conditions in which the studied system evolutes (or can be stabilized) must be reproduced in the SEM/LV-SEM/ESEM chamber. The development of the ESEM offers real new opportunities in term of composition of the atmosphere surrounding the sample. The large field detector and the gaseous secondary electron detector (Stokes, 2008) have been developed specifically for imaging under “high pressure” conditions (up to 300Pa and 3000Pa respectively) whatever the gas composition (air, water, He, He+H2 mixtures, O2). Other detectors have been developed for very specific applications (high temperature under vacuum (Nakamura et al., 2002), EBSD at high temperature (Fielden, 2005)).
The constraint in which the studied system evolutes (or can be stabilized) must also be reproduced in the microscope chamber. Some devices are commercialized by official sellers. Among them, we must report the Peltier stage for temperature control in the -10 to 60 °C range, hot stages for temperature control up to 1500 °C, stages for mechanical tests (Figure 1). Some authors have developed their own specific stages adapted to the problem to be treated (Fielden, 2005; Bogner et al., 2007). However, the development of miniaturized stages that can be positioned in the SEM chamber without creating perturbations on the incident electron beam can be really challenging. This will probably be a key in the development of
a) hot stage (FEI) b) Hot tension/compression stage integrated into an SEM (Kammrath & Weiss Co.) (After
The basis of
\n\t\t\t\tBoehlert (2011) have recently underlined the interest of performing
As a direct consequence of the great interest of the collected information, many different works from several scientific domains have been published for long. Thiel & Donald (1998) and Stabentheiner et al. (2010) describe the deformation of plants (carrots and leaves respectively) during room temperature tensile tests performed in the ESEM chamber. Similar tests are also reported with food (Stokes & Donald, 2000) and they are regularly performed on polymers (Poelt et al., 2010; Lin et al., 2010), composites (Schoßig et al., 2011) and metals (Boehlert et al., 2006; Gorkaya et al., 2010). Mechanical tests on metals, alloys and ceramics can also be performed at high temperature (Biallas & Maier, 2007; Chen & Boehlert, 2010). High temperature EDSB, developed by Seward et al. (2002), offers the possibility to observe phase transformations in materials as a function of temperature, as well as the direct visualization of the associated microstructural modifications (Seward et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\ta) & (b) Single cell surgery without cell bursting using Si-Ti nanoneedle, (c) Force-cell deformation curve using Ti-Si and W2 nanoneedles at three different stages, i.e. (a) before penetration, (b) after penetration and (c) touching the substrate. (
Several recently developed techniques allow characterizing materials at the nanometer scale through both technological miniaturization and advancements in imaging and small-scale mechanical testing. Ahmad et al. (2010) have developed a coupled ESEM-atomic force microscope to characterize single cells mechanical properties (Figure 2). This ESEM-nanomanipulation system allowed determining effects of internal influences (cell size and growth phases) and external influence (environmental conditions) on the cell strength. Gianola et al. (2011) reports the development of a quantitative
Combination of the use of the ESEM and a Peltier stage with the development of specific detectors allows the possibility to control both specimen temperature and water pressure around the sample (Leary & Brydson, 2010). Water can be condensed or evaporated on the demand from the sample (Figure 3). This allows performing
This technique is particularly well adapted for the observation or experimentation on biological samples (Muscariello et al., 2005). Images of small and highly hydrated samples such as liposomes have been obtained by several authors (Perrie et al., 2007 ; Ruozi et al;, 2011) without any particular sample preparation. Perrie et al. (2007) have also been able to dynamically follow the hydration of lipid films and changes in liposome suspensions as water condenses onto, or evaporates from, the sample in real-time. The data obtained provides an insight into the resistance of liposomes to coalescence during dehydration, thereby providing an alternative assay for liposome formulation and stability (Perrie et al., 2010). However, Kirk et al. (2009) report that ESEM imaging of biological samples must remain combined with the classical techniques for sample preparation. Several works are specifically dedicated to
a) Simplified phase diagram for water indicating the ESEM domain (dot zone) and schemes to understand how isothermal or isobar experiments are performed. (b) Solubilisation and crystallization of NaCl directly observed in the ESEM chamber.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Several works have been performed in order to study the reactivity of cement materials versus humidity. Hydration or dehydration (Sorgi & De Gennaro, 2007; Fonseca & Jennings, 2010; Camacho-Bragado et al., 2011) of phases have been followed and used to extract kinetic parameters (Montes-Hernandez, 2002 ; Montes & Swelling, 2005 ; Maison et al., 2009), as reported on Figure 5. In this work, the author uses ESEM image series to determine a three-step mechanism for bentonite aggregates evolution with relative humidity corresponding to an arrangement of particles followed by a particle swelling and a full destructuration. In SEM experiments are also used to characterize chemical reactivity (Camacho-Bragado et al., 2011). It has been recently used to characterize reaction of fly ash activated by sodium silicate by Duchene et al. (2010). These authors have determined very accurately the different steps of the reaction determining that the sodium silicate activator dissolves rapidly and begins to bond fly ash particles. Open porosity was observed and it was rapidly filled with gel as soon as the liquid phase is able to reach the ash particle. The importance of the liquid phase is underlined as a fluid transport medium permitting the activator to reach and react with the fly ash particles. The reaction products had a gel like morphology and no crystallized phase was observed.
\n\t\t\tAs previously reported for liposomes, new opportunities for the study of polyelectrolyte microcapsules versus their resistance to relative humidity and temperature modifications are opened and under consideration. The image series reported on Figure 6 clearly illustrate the possibility to image the native soft capsule at high relative humidity without any deformation. When decreasing the water pressure near the capsule, the object is deformed and do not shrink as observed when it is heated in water at temperature higher than 25 °C (Basset et al., 2010). Thus, the walls of the object do not rearrange but collapse when submitted to a relative humidity decrease.
\n\t\t\t\tSimilar tests have been performed on self-organized metal-organic framework compounds (Bonnefond, 2011). According to the image series reported on Figure 7, when the water pressure decreases, the size of sample remains constant up to a given water pressure (i.e. relative humidity) and for a transition pressure, the sample size decreases regularly. This can be associated to a local reorganisation in the sample that corresponds to a water loss associated to the sample collapsing The enthalpy of water ordering in the sample can be derived from the recorded image series as reported by Sievers et al.
\n\t\t\t\tSwelling kinetics of raw bentonite aggregates scale using ESEM-digital image analyses coupling (after Montes & Swelling, 2005).
ESEM micrographs of polyelectrolyte microcapsules suspended in double distilled water. Microcapsules were subjected to controlled dehydration in the ESEM sample chamber at T=5 °C. At an operating pressure of 800Pa, vesicles appeared as spherical structures. (a) Gradual decrease of the operating pressure to 350 Pa showed regular deformation of the microcaspsules (b to h)
Dehydration experiments performed on self-assembled organo-metallic compounds at T=22 °C and corresponding size modification
The effect of dehydration on lamellar bones was also studied by
An original work on the heterogeneous ice nucleation on synthetic silver iodide, natural kaolinite and montmorillonite particles has been performed using the “increasing water pressure at constant temperature” (Zimmermann et al., 2007) in the temperature range of 250–270 K. Ice formation was related to the chemical composition of the particles. The obtained data are in very good agreement with previous ones obtained by diffusion chamber measurements (Figure 8).
\n\t\t\tCharacterization of the wetting properties of surfaces through the formation of microdroplets or nanodroplets is another important investigation field that can be explored using the ESEM. A recent review by Mendez-Vilas et al. (2009) has highlighted the main fundamental and applied results. Several strategies for the contact angle between water and the surface determination are reported (Stelmashenko et al., 2001; Stokes, 2001; Lau et al., 2003; Wei, 2004; Yu et al., 2006; Jung & Bhushan, 2008; Rykaczewski & Scott, 2011). The investigation of the hydrophobicity and/or hydrophilicity of a catalyst layer have been performed using ESEM for the first time by Yu et al. (2006). These authors have determined the micro-contact angle distribution as a function of the catalyst microstructure. Microdroplets growing and merging process was observed directly in the ESEM chamber by Lau et al. (2003).
\n\t\t\t\tSupersaturation
Microdroplets growing and merging process under ESEM during increasing condensation by decreasing temperature. (After
The development of the Wet-STEM by Bogner et al. (2005, 2007) allows observing samples in the transmission mode in the ESEM chamber, and more particularly, it offers the possibility to image directly nanoparticles dispersed in a few micrometer thin water film (Bogner et al., 2008), emulsions or vesicles (Maraloiu et al., 2010), without removing the liquid surrounding the objects of interest. One must keep in mind that images with soft matter, and more generally sample sensitive to the electron beam are very hard to obtain. Nevertheless, this technique also opens new research fields using
Bright field image of 100 nm polystyrene latex spheres. Insert is the calibrated intensity corresponding to the dark line in the image (After
~40 nm NaCl particles as the RH was increased past the deliquescence point. Water uptake [(a) →(b)] prior to full deliquescence (c) is clearly observed. (After Wise et al., 2008)
Several specific devices have been developed to characterize specific properties or reactions. Two of them will be shortly described below.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tChen et al. (2011) have developed an experimental platform that can be used to investigate chemical reaction pathways, to monitor phase changes in electrodes or to investigate degradation effects in batteries. They have performed
Direct imaging of micro ink jets inside the ESEM chamber has been achieved using a specific device developed by Deponte et al. (2009), using a two-fluid stream consisting of a water inner core and a co-flowing outer gas sheath. ESEM images of water jets down to 700 nm diameter have been recorded. Details of the jet structure (the point of jet breakup, size and shape of the jet cone) can be measured. The authors conclude that ESEM imaging of liquid jets offers a valuable research tool for the study of aerosol production, combustion processes, ink-jet generation, and many other attributes of micro- and nanojet systems.
\n\t\t\tSpecific stages (and associated detectors) have been developed to heat samples up to 1500 °C directly in the microscope chamber (Knowles & Evans, 1997; Gregori et al., 2002). The environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) equipped with this heating stage is an excellent tool for the
Even if numerous researchers are invested in HT-ESEM, only few of them have been successful in pursuing dynamic experiments at temperatures higher than 1100 °C. Two recent studies report experiments performed at T=1350 °C (Subramaniam, 2006) and 1450 °C (Gregori et al., 2002). However, the resolution of the images remains poor (more than 1µm) mainly due to water cooling induced vibrations. Furthermore, the precision on the measure of the sample temperature remains poor (temperature differences up to 150 °C with the expected temperature are sometimes measured). A recent device has been proposed by Podor et al. (2011) to overcome this difficulty.
\n\t\t\t\tA complete review specifically dedicated to
The crystal growth and morphology during isothermal heating of glass melts can be directly observed using the hot stage associated with the ESEM. The image series reported on Figure 12 have been recorded during 10 minutes while heating the borosilicate melt sample isothermally at T=740 °C. The development of large crystals in the melt rapidly yields to the complete crystallization of the melt. The crystal morphology presents cells filled with a second phase and the crystal formation yields to the deformation of the sample surface. Hillers et al. (2007) have used such data to quantify the variation of crystal length with time. They have established that the growth is only linear during the first minutes; afterward the growth rate decreases progressively with time.
\n\t\t\t\tThis technique can also be used to determine the temperature of formation of the first crystals at the melt surface and to observe their formation. In the case of glass-ceramics, the density of nuclei as well as their size and shape development can be directly observed and used for crystallization kinetic determination (Vigouroux et al., 2011, in prep).
\n\t\t\t\tGrowth of crystals in a borosilicate melt during 10 minutes isothermal heat treatment at 740 °C observed using the hot stage associated with the ESEM.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Decomposition of a uranium-cerium mixed oxalate observed during
Several studies are relative to the sintering and grain growth processes in metals and ceramics. Depending on the system, the experiments have been performed in the temperature range 300-1450 °C. The main interest of these studies is the possibility of direct observation of the individual grain behaviour during heat treatment. The example that is reported on Figure 14a corresponds to the heat treatment of the grain decomposed
The effect of the electron beam on sintering is controversy. Indeed, Popma (2002) noted that a local sintering stop was achieved by focusing the electron beam at a certain position during the
a) Sintering and grain growth of a uranium-cerium mixed oxide observed
\n\t\t\t\t
The authors want to thank all the co-workers of the studies cited in this chapter, and more particularly F. Bonnefond, H. Boucetta, C. Dejugnat, T. Demars, A. Monteiro and L. Claparède for providing the samples and challenging projects.
\n\t\tDemocracy has formed the foundation of governance in the world, with every voter willing to express his/her views on the ballot [1, 2]. Elections have been held manually and electronically in both the developed and developing nations, some results have ended in contestations and wars erupting after the elections. Covid-19 has had a devastating effect on the political, social, and economic spheres in the world [3]. The way of running elections was also affected by this pandemic as nations sought to find ways of halting the spread of the disease. In developed nations countries like Estonia and other American states have been implementing Internet voting.
Africa is constituted by 54 countries with diversified democracies [4]. Eritrea is the only country that does not hold regular elections as has continuously postponed elections citing security threat from its neighbors Ethiopia and Djibouti. The African nations have diversified electoral systems, with some countries like Zimbabwe implementing first past the post and proportional representation, and South Africa, the proportional representation in their polls [5]. Most of the African countries hold regular manual elections as demanded by the United Nations Universal Declarations on elections.
The prospects for the growth of democracy in the 21st century in Africa depend on how the continent positions itself for value-adding services such as Internet voting. Covid −19 has forced the world to quickly develop and implement Information Communication Technologies (ICT) opportunities previously unimaginable. For Africa to take advantage of this, an effective enabling environment and use of ICTs is a particularly important contributor to modern democracy.
Internet voting is where a ballot is cast by the voter through the Internet [6]. The use of Internet voting gained popularity in Estonia since 2001. Estonia is the first country to carry out a successful pilot project in municipal elections in 2005. Estonia went on further to first use Internet voting in the 2007 parliamentary elections [7].
The four kinds of Internet voting are kiosk Internet voting, polling-place Internet voting, precinct Internet voting, and remote Internet voting (Canada-Europe Transatlantic [8]). Kiosk Internet voting involves the use of a computer at a specific location (an authorized internet polling station) that is controlled by election officials. This differs from a standalone electronic voting machine because the ballot is immediately transmitted over the Internet to the central vote-counting site. Polling-place Internet voting is conducted through the use of a computer at any polling station and is supervised by the usual election officials. Precinct Internet voting is very similar to polling-place voting except that it must occur at the voter’s designated precinct polling station (voters are only allowed to cast their ballots at polling stations where they are registered). Remote Internet voting is where a voter cast the ballot from the comfort of their homes or where the is Internet provision [9]. The advantages, disadvantages, and countries that are implementing Internet voting are shown in Table 1.
Internet Voting type | Advantages | Disadvantages | Countries implementing the system |
---|---|---|---|
|
|
| Australia (for military and persons with disabilities only), Austria, Canada, Estonia, Netherlands, Switzerland, USA (for the military-), UK (project canceled) |
|
|
| France |
|
|
| Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States of America |
|
|
| |
|
|
| Netherlands, United Kingdom |
As shown in Table 1, Internet voting is necessitated by the demographics of a country especially people living abroad who would want to exercise their democratic right but will not be residing within the citizenry country during an election. Chisinau [11] argues that Internet voting will allow voters to cast their ballots at the comfort of their homes or convenient places. Voting through the Internet is easier as voters can cast ballots using their own devices and there is no time wasted in long queues. Voters do not travel long distances, thus reducing transportation costs and can do other business chores. It allows for inclusivity as people living with disabilities or serious medical conditions can exercise their democratic rights. Internet voting will also allow those people who will be traveling or will be on duty during election day to cast their ballots anywhere in the world [12].
The disadvantage of Internet voting is that it consists of a large complex network which makes it difficult to monitor the entire network, thus posing a serious security threat. The monitoring of the network is very expensive of which there is no 100 percent guarantee that the network will be secure. Hackers could use malware to rig the outcome of the elections, by tampering with the way votes are submitted and counted or even casting votes for people who did not vote. Internet voting may be a source of conflict between political parties if one party considers that Internet voting might be beneficial to the other party/parties [12].
The critical socio-technical analysis [10] which is premised on analyzing an information system during the systems development life cycle was used to identify key factors in the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. By finding key factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa, it is expected that decision-makers would come up with strategies that support the successful implementation of such systems.
African Electoral Management Bodies (EMBs) have been using manual systems in general elections for the past decades which has resulted in disputed elections, high operating costs affecting the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) because of systems and processes inefficiency. Only two countries, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Namibia have used polling stationed-based electronic voting machines which do not have Internet connectivity [13]. Covid-19 has not helped the situation either as countries have been forced into lockdowns, compelling nations to postpone elections. The introduction of Internet voting especially casting a ballot outside a polling station is the most difficult technological upgrade for an Electoral Management Body (EMB) as it involves the core of the entire electoral process [14]. This chapter investigated ‘why’ and ‘what’ factors were affecting the applicability of Internet voting in African general elections.
In this study, desktop research was used to collect data from 30 journals and other documentation about factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. The critical socio-technical analysis was then used to guide this study in the search and analysis of factors such as political, social, technical, legal, security, privacy, trust, and transparency affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. These factors were selected after critically analyzing contemporary issues in developing and developed countries successfully implementing, on trials or have abandoned the implementation of Internet voting.
While the benefits from Internet voting will guarantee the rights of citizens to exercise their democratic rights, the study discovered that no country in Africa is implementing Internet voting in general elections. The factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa are political, legal, social, technical, security, privacy, transparency, and trust.
Africa has the most number of people that flee their countries seeking greater opportunities from developing and developed nations [15]. Citizens from African countries migrate to other countries due to the effects of climatic changes, such as droughts, storms, and flooding. Other factors such as economic and political stability (wars) also force nationals to migrate to other countries seeking better opportunities [16]. The migration of people allows African countries to offer their citizens their democratic rights by allowing them to vote through the Internet. Some African governments also tend Internet shutdowns citing national security or curbing the spread of fake news during elections, for example, the Ugandan, Libya, Malawi, and Sudan Presidential elections [17] which makes it difficult to implement Internet voting.
The legal framework allows voters to exercise their rights during an election or absentee voting through the Internet [18]. For African citizens living abroad or who will be committed during election day to exercise their democratic right, there must be legislation that supports Internet voting. The legal framework empowers the EMB and other stakeholders to remove the element of mistrust, as the voting process is done within the confines of the law. At the moment no country in Africa is exploring the use of Internet voting rendering the introduction of such legislation a futile exercise.
African countries are still facing challenges in the implementation of mobile communication and Internet technologies [19]. Countries like Somalia, South Sudan, and Mozambique have often been affected by ravaging wars, which destroys infrastructure and forcing these countries into retarded economic growth. As shown in Table 1, the limitation in the Internet penetration factor is that the network service providers do not provide 100% service coverage. This makes it practically impossible to offer Internet voting within the country for national general elections as some other communities will be disadvantaged by failing to access the service to cast their ballots. The penetration of internet communication in Africa is very low at 43% as shown in Table 2. Countries like Kenya, Libya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Morocco, Seychelles, and Tunisia have a higher national Internet penetration factor. These countries can partially implement Internet voting in some of their regions. Other African nations especially that are below 50% like Eretria, Togo, Western Sahara, South Sudan, Sierra Leone, and Somalia will have difficulties in implementing Internet voting nationally.
Country | Estimated Population | Estimated Registered Voters | Estimated Voter population | Internet Users 31 December 2020 | Penetration (% Population) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
44,616,624 | 24,474,161 | 27,992,084 | 25,428,159 | 57.0% | |
33,933,610 | 4,992,399 | 5,967,849 | 8,980,670 | 26.5% | |
12,451,040 | 4,802,303 | 5,378,554 | 3,801,758 | 30.5% | |
2,397,241 | 924,709 | 1,444,142 | 1,139,000 | 47.5% | |
21, 497,096 | 2,395,226 | 2,497,500 | 4,594,625 | 21.4% | |
12,255,433 | 5,113,418 | 5,863,257 | 1,606,122 | 13.1% | |
561,898 | 392,731 | N/A | 352,120 | 62.7% | |
27,224,265 | 6,900,928 | 13,001,295 | 7,878,422 | 28.9% | |
4,919,981 | 1,954,433 | 2,005,942 | 557,085 | 11.3% | |
16,914,985 | 6,252,548 | 5,809,346 | 2,237,932 | 13.2% | |
888,451 | 313,647 | 474,387 | 193,700 | 21.8% | |
5,657,013 | 2,221,596 | 2,617,983 | 833,200 | 14.7% | |
92,377,993 | 40,371,439 | 44,138,661 | 16,355,917 | 17.7% | |
27,053,629 | 7,359,399 | 15,503,401 | 12,253,653 | 45.3% | |
1,002,187 | 215,687 | 609,344 | 548,832 | 54.8% | |
104,258,327 | 63,157,351 | 63,705,978 | 54,741,493 | 52.5% | |
1,449,896 | 325,555 | 417,365 | 362,891 | 25.0% | |
3,601,467 | N/A | N/A | 248,199 | 6.9% | |
1,172,362 | 546,784 | N/A | 665,245 | 56.7% | |
117,876,227 | 36,851,461 | 49,011,364 | 21,147,255 | 17.9% | |
2,278,825 | 680,194 | 1,177,350 | 1,367,641 | 60.0% | |
2,486,945 | 886,578 | 1,151,645 | 442,050 | 19.0% | |
31,732,129 | 17,027,641 | N/A | 14,767,818 | 46.5% | |
13,497,244 | 5,410,089 | 6,556,813 | 2,551,672 | 18.9% | |
2,015,494 | 645,085 | 935,920 | 250,000 | 12.4% | |
54,985,698 | 15,590,236 | 25,374,082 | 46,870,422 | 85.2% | |
2,159,079 | 1,254,506 | N/A | 682,990 | 31.6% | |
5,180,203 | 2,183,629 | 2,319,382 | 760,994 | 14.7% | |
6,958,532 | 1,509,218 | 4,029,365 | 5,857,000 | 84.2% | |
28,427,328 | 10,302,194 | 14,291,036 | 2,864,000 | 10.1% | |
19,647,684 | 6,859,570 | 10,030,988 | 2,717,243 | 13.8% | |
20,855,735 | 7,663,464 | 8,920,714 | 12,480,176 | 59.8% | |
4,775,119 | 1,417,823 | 2,125,242 | 969,519 | 20.3% | |
1,273,433 | 941,719 | 1,044,325 | 919,000 | 72.2% | |
279,515 | N/A | N/A | 107,940 | 38.6% | |
37,344,795 | 15,702,592 | 23,126,996 | 25,589,581 | 68.5% | |
32,163,047 | 13,153,088 | 13,554,684 | 6,523,613 | 20.3% | |
2,587,344 | 1,358,468 | 1,479,603 | 1,347,418 | 52.11% | |
25,130,817 | 7,446,556 | 9,623,301 | 3,363,848 | 13.4% | |
211,400,708 | 82,344,107 | 106,490,312 | 154,301,195 | 73.0% | |
901,686 | 110,968 | N/A | 608,000 | 67.4% | |
13,276,513 | 7,172,612 | N/A | 5,981,638 | 45.1% | |
6,086 | 2,309 | N/A | 2,300 | 37.8% | |
223,368 | 97,274 | 105,318 | 63,684 | 28.6% | |
17,196,301 | 6,683,043 | 8,071,074 | 9,749,527 | 56.7% | |
98,908 | 74,634 | N/A | 71,300 | 72.1% | |
8,141,343 | 3,178,663 | 3,284,182 | 1,043,725 | 12.8% | |
16,359,504 | 4,220,466 | N/A | 2,089,900 | 12.8% | |
60,041,994 | 25,809,443 | 37,372,792 | 34,545,165 | 57.5% | |
11,381,378 | 4,800,000 | N/A | 900,716 | 7.9% | |
44,909,353 | 13,126,989 | 19,667,400 | 13,124,100 | 29.2% | |
61,498,437 | 29,754,699 | 29,480,237 | 23,142,960 | 37.6% | |
8,478,437 | 3,738,786 | 4,645,140 | 1,011,837 | 11.9% | |
11,935,766 | 7,065,885 | 8,219,612 | 8,170,000 | 68.4% | |
47,123,531 | 8,219,612 | 8,219,612 | 18,502,166 | 39.3% | |
611,875 | N/A | N/A | 28,000 | 4.6% | |
18,920,651 | 6,698,372 | 7,331,669 | 9,870,427 | 52.2% | |
15,092,171 | 5,695,706 | 7,650,931 | 8,400,000 | 55.7% | |
1,373,486,514 | 590,296,163 | 43.0% | |||
6,502,279,070 | N/A | N/A | 4,463,594,959 | 68.6% | |
7,875,765,584 | 5,053,891,122 | 64.2% |
Internet users statistics for Africa.
There is a wide gap between the digital divide within the African nations especially between the urban and the rural community, the elderly, and the young generations [20]. The young generations have embraced technology as they use smartphones and laptops as communication and business tools. A large population in African countries live in rural communities. Some of these people cannot afford to buy gadgets, power, and data used for Internet services. There is also a lack of digital skills and literacy among the communities both in urban and rural setups especially among the elderly. The content or language used on the Internet makes it difficult for some African communities to comprehend the importance of using such services. Hence the use of Internet voting in African countries will be difficult because of the digital divide.
Internet voting should be secure for the results to be credible [21]. Key factors such as freedom, and equality during an election are important aspects of security requirements for Internet voting. The transmission of all voting data to servers or tabulation centers must be secure. All voting which is done whether on the Internet or otherwise should be granted the same status as any other vote cast in the same election. This means that each vote should be given the same weight as it also determines the outcome of an election [22]. Various encryption methods have been suggested for use with Internet voting including the blockchain [23]. African countries should have networks that can encrypt ballots cast over the Internet without the network being compromised, overloaded, or due to other disruptions like shutdowns.
With the use of Internet voting, an EMB has to ensure that each vote cast remains a secret. A free election means that the voter must not be coerced by public or private pressure. After voting through the Internet, the voters should have an acknowledgment for the candidate that they have voted for. All ballots cast through the Internet should be accorded the same secrecy as in manual systems [24]. If a ballot is cast, the voter’s identification details must be able to be authenticated and not linked to the ballot. The vote cast should also be accounted for in the outcome without identifying the voter. In Africa voter intimidation remains a serious challenge [25], thus through Internet voting, voters may be coerced to vote for undeserving candidates.
Trust in Internet voting can only be accepted if the results from this service are credible. The EMB should assure voters that their votes are secure and secret. To build trust voters should also be able to verify that all collected ballots were from eligible voters and that they have been accurately counted [26]. If Internet voting is to be implemented in African countries pilot testing has to be undertaken to allow voters to test the system before being fully implemented in a general election. To build trust among stakeholders (voters, activists, and media) an EMB should be transparent in all the activities involved with Internet voting. To avoid mistrust from the public, the stakeholders should be educated on how Internet voting works and also made to appreciate the qualities of the system. Relevant information should be availed in a language that can easily be understood by the public. The information should include full technical documentation of how the system is designed functionally and technically, all levels of software documentation, source code, and the technical and organizational environments where the system is hosted.
With the advent of the Covid-19 pandemic causing deaths, and unavoidable shutdowns, elections cannot be suspended indefinitely, decision-makers have to find alternative ways of conducting elections without compromising the health and safety of the electorate. Internet voting is one such method that may guarantee the health and safety of the electorate where voters can vote in the comfort of their homes. Decision-makers have to take note of the following during feasibility studies and implementation of Internet voting:
Politically, it is fundamental to foster a broad consensus among political parties for the implementation of Internet voting. This involves transparency where the relevant actors have a voice. Internet voting should be seen as politically neutral that is the new procedure should not benefit disproportionally given factions of the political spectrum [27]. For electoral results to be accepted by voters, Internet voting must produce an outcome that reflects the will of the people in an environment that establishes transparency and trust [14].
Technological and security concerns are often pointed to as the main concern of Internet voting [28]. To validate and verify the technological voting system the set of technological requirements have to be consulted systematically. In Africa, some voters live in remote areas but may also want to cast their ballots using the Internet. African countries have limited Internet infrastructure which should prompt governments to improve this area if its citizens are to benefit from Internet voting. The improvement on the infrastructure would also benefit an EMB during the voter registration process, as voters will be able to register through the Internet.
There have been numerous attacks of electronic voting systems over the Internet with the 2016 American Presidential election being the most contentious election of the decade [29]. The stakes of any general election are always high, which may create interests chief among them malicious actors-particularly in countries with specific geopolitical adversaries who may specifically create and deploy attacks or malware designed to manipulate the vote. In Africa, the use of Internet voting which has got limited transparency and audit trail may lead to manipulation and voter fraud. It will be very difficult to monitor votes cast over the Internet, to build trust among the citizens an EMB has to be trusted in pursuing its mandate.
Most electronic voting systems are now being developed with blockchain encryption [30, 31]. Blockchain technology is an end-to-end encryption method that secures ballots transmitted from voters’ private devices to a centralized tabulation facility. However, it has been observed that most serious vulnerabilities threatening integrity and secrecy of voting happen before ballots ever reach the blockchain. Voters may be coerced by family members or other pressure groups to vote in a certain way that does not reflect their will. It is also difficult to validate if the voter is the real one casting the ballot which is crucial to the credibility of an election. Estonia, for instance, has resolved this issue without blockchain by using e-ID cards. Blockchain technology also does not protect against -denial-of-service attacks that make servers unable to operate, does not protect information as it travels on the Internet, and does not make servers and infrastructure more resistant to advanced persistent threats. Despite improvements in encryption techniques, security will always remain a challenge for Internet voting.
The major social challenge is the digital divide as some parts of the population remain excluded from Internet voting and that gap exists in African countries regarding computer literacy and household Internet usage and availability. The ‘Digital transformation Strategy’ adopted by African countries in February 2020 should be pursued to narrow the gap between the digital divide in urban and rural communities and also narrow the ‘gender digital divide’ [32].
Currently, most African countries do not have any legislation that supports Internet voting. The legal framework should be put in place to allow for Internet voting, which should clearly state who is eligible and the reasons that support eligibility.
Despite low usage in Internet voting around the world, Estonia is the only country that has fully utilized this service in general elections. Table 3 highlights countries that have fully, partially, piloting and discontinued the use of Internet voting.
Internet voting used in General Elections | Partial use of Internet voting and Special cases | Planned to be piloted or Piloted but Discontinued or Never Used |
---|---|---|
Out-of-country residents also voted online in the 2016 Republican party primaries. | ||
In 2004, the | ||
One of the first experiments to introduce Internet voting was conducted by the Electoral Commission of the Volgograd Region during voting in Uryupinsk in 2009, and the Odintsovo district in 2010. | ||
Countries that use internet voting (use of internet voting outside of polling stations in politically binding elections).
The success of Internet voting depends largely on how it is perceived by the people meant to use it: citizens. For example, Internet voting is difficult to be transparent as compared to manual systems. The transparency and reliability of Internet voting have been questioned, as this is electronically done. Therefore, it is fundamental to know what their attitudes towards the implementation of Internet voting would affect them.
The applicability of Internet voting in Africa largely depends on how the nation’s willingness to adapt to new technology in the face of challenges such as political, legal, security, privacy, trust and transparency, the digital divide, and limited infrastructure. The successful experience of countries such as Estonia highlights the importance of a gradual, step-by-step design and implementation of Internet voting which may be used for benchmarking. It is also recommended that the perception of the citizens should be taken into consideration. African nations should also make an effort to improve the internal coverage of Internet services within their territories.
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