\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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This promising discipline has enabled us to study proteins from a massive and comprehensive point of view. The book Recent Advances in Proteomics Research describes in five sections some of the applications of proteomics. This fine research has been written by leading experts worldwide. This book is aimed mainly at those interested in proteins and in the field of proteins, particularly biochemists, biologists, pharmacists, advanced graduate students and postgraduate researchers.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2201-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5412-9",doi:"10.5772/59739",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-advances-in-proteomics-research",numberOfPages:166,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"859400536370791c6bcb3e464b0c5835",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",publishedDate:"November 11th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4726.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9830,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:26,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 5th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 2nd 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 31st 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 30th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/123648/images/475_n.jpg",biography:"Sameh Magdeldin is senior researcher in the Medical School,\nNiigata University, Japan, and academic associate professor in\nthe Physiology Department, Suez Canal University (SCU), Egypt.\nHe received his M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. in Physiology and his second\nPh.D. in Proteomics in July 2012. He has expertise in shotgun proteomics analysis, reversed-phase chromatography and label-free comparative proteomics\napproaches. Dr. Magdeldin has published outstanding articles on aquaporin research using proteomics technology. He also created the outstanding “All and\nNone” methodology for analyzing large-throughput proteomics data published\nin a highly respected proteomics journal. He currently serves as a guest editor,\nassociate editor and peer reviewer for several international journals. Dr. Magdeldin received several grants and awards, such as the national encouraging prize,\n8th HUPO congress young investigator award, JSN award, grant-in-aid for young\nscientists and young researcher overseas grant from the Japan Society for the\nPromotion of Science (JSPS).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Niigata University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"49432",title:"Quantitative Mass Spectrometry-based Proteomics",doi:"10.5772/61756",slug:"quantitative-mass-spectrometry-based-proteomics",totalDownloads:2664,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mass spectrometry-based proteomics, the large-scale analysis of proteins by mass spectrometry, has emerged as a powerful technology over the past decade and has become an indispensable tool in many biomedical laboratories. Many strategies for differential proteomics have been developed in recent years, which involve either the incorporation of heavy stable isotopes or are based on label-free comparisons and their statistical assessment, and each of these has specific strengths and limitations. This chapter gives an overview of the current state-of-the-art in quantitative or differential proteomics and will be illustrated by several examples.",signatures:"Lennart van der Wal and Jeroen A. A. Demmers",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49432",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49432",authors:[{id:"91709",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeroen",surname:"Demmers",slug:"jeroen-demmers",fullName:"Jeroen Demmers"},{id:"175487",title:"MSc.",name:"Lennart",surname:"Van Der Wal",slug:"lennart-van-der-wal",fullName:"Lennart Van Der Wal"}],corrections:null},{id:"49501",title:"Proteome Dynamics with Heavy Water — Instrumentations, Data Analysis, and Biological Applications",doi:"10.5772/61776",slug:"proteome-dynamics-with-heavy-water-instrumentations-data-analysis-and-biological-applications",totalDownloads:1679,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The quantitative assessment of the synthesis of individual proteins has been greatly hindered by the lack of a high-throughput nonradioactive method. We recently developed a method that we call “proteome dynamics” and software that enables high-throughput kinetic analyses of peptides on a proteome-wide scale. Previous studies established that oral administration of heavy water (2H2O or deuterium oxide, D2O) is safe and well tolerated in humans. Briefly, a loading dose of 2H2O, a nonradioactive isotope, is administered in drinking water. 2H2O rapidly labels body water and transfers 2H from 2H2O to 2H-labeled amino acids, which incorporates into proteins dependent upon the rate of synthesis of the specific protein. Proteins are analyzed by high-resolution mass spectrometry and protein synthesis is calculated using specialized software. We have established the effectiveness of this method for plasma and mitochondrial proteins. We demonstrated that fasting has a differential effect on the synthesis rates of proteins. We also applied this method to assess the effect of heart failure on the stability of mitochondrial proteins. In this review, we describe the study design, instrumentation, data analysis, and biological application of heavy water-based proteome turnover studies. We summarize this chapter with the challenges in the field and future directions.",signatures:"T. Kasumov, B. Willard, L. Li, R.G. Sadygov and S. Previs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49501",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49501",authors:[{id:"87914",title:"Dr.",name:"Takhar",surname:"Kasumov",slug:"takhar-kasumov",fullName:"Takhar Kasumov"}],corrections:null},{id:"49296",title:"Neuroproteomics — LC-MS Quantitative Approaches",doi:"10.5772/61298",slug:"neuroproteomics-lc-ms-quantitative-approaches",totalDownloads:1951,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuroproteomics is a scientific field that aims to study all the proteins of the central nervous system, their expression, function, and interactions. The central nervous system is intricate and heterogeneous, and the study of its proteome is consequently complex, with many biological questions still requiring deep investigation. For this, mass spectrometry approaches, most often coupled with liquid chromatography (LC-MS), have been the number one choice in proteomics, and over the years it has added many important findings to the field. At this point it is important that proteomics turns to the quantitative expression of proteins instead of only identifying which proteins are present in a given sample, much because the most important alterations may be slight alterations in the quantity of a protein in a given situation. Therefore, many LC-MS quantitative approaches have been developed relying on the labeling of the proteins or even by using label-free techniques.",signatures:"Cátia Santa, Sandra I. Anjo, Vera M. Mendes and Bruno Manadas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49296",authors:[{id:"79586",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Manadas",slug:"bruno-manadas",fullName:"Bruno Manadas"},{id:"175039",title:"MSc.",name:"Cátia",surname:"Santa",slug:"catia-santa",fullName:"Cátia Santa"},{id:"175040",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Anjo",slug:"sandra-anjo",fullName:"Sandra Anjo"},{id:"175041",title:"MSc.",name:"Vera",surname:"Mendes",slug:"vera-mendes",fullName:"Vera Mendes"}],corrections:null},{id:"49337",title:"Symbiotic Proteomics — State of the Art in Plant–Mycorrhizal Fungi Interactions",doi:"10.5772/61331",slug:"symbiotic-proteomics-state-of-the-art-in-plant-mycorrhizal-fungi-interactions",totalDownloads:1647,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between soil fungi belonging to diverse taxa and the roots of about 90% of all terrestrial plant species. The mutualistic nature of these symbioses is based on the nutritional exchanges between the partners. However, the benefits to the plant partner are not limited to an improved mineral nutrition because they also include a general increase in stress tolerance and health. Because of these benefits, mycorrhizae are of great interest in sustainable agriculture and forestry. In the past few years, the development of high-throughput molecular tools, in addition to the advancements in microscopy techniques, has allowed us to gain a deeper insight on the molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment and functioning of these symbioses. In this chapter, we focus on the use of proteomic tools to better understand the molecular bases of cell communication and the regulation of developmental and metabolic pathways in mycorrhizal associations.",signatures:"Marco Chiapello, Silvia Perotto and Raffaella Balestrini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49337",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49337",authors:[{id:"83271",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaella",surname:"Balestrini",slug:"raffaella-balestrini",fullName:"Raffaella Balestrini"},{id:"174942",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Chiapello",slug:"marco-chiapello",fullName:"Marco Chiapello"},{id:"175771",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Perotto",slug:"silvia-perotto",fullName:"Silvia Perotto"}],corrections:null},{id:"49378",title:"Targeted Proteomics in Translational and Clinical Studies",doi:"10.5772/61710",slug:"targeted-proteomics-in-translational-and-clinical-studies",totalDownloads:1894,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides a concise overview on the methods and applications of targeted proteomics in the context of translational and clinical studies. Mass spectrometry-based targeted proteomics has emerged as a promising technique for protein and peptide quantification, presenting a great potential for clinical applications. While significant amount of discovery works have been carried out in both genomics and proteomics for an assortment of diseases, it has been challenging in further characterizing individual protein targets for their biological significance and clinical value due to the lack of effective and “universal” techniques. The development of targeted proteomics approach opened a unique avenue to bridge the discovery-based genomics and proteomics with candidate-based protein analysis, which is clinically highly relevant. Targeted proteomics analysis has been implemented on a variety of instrument platforms, and applied for a wide range of studies, from blood biomarker detection to pathway-driven mechanistic investigations, with the triple quadrupole-based selected reaction monitoring (SRM) technique being the most widely used method. With a right combination of calibration approach, internal standards, and sample preparation strategies, mass spectrometry-based targeted analysis has proven to be of inter-laboratory reproducibility and sensitivity in analyzing many clinical specimens. More recently, the advent of mass spectrometry with high frequencies and resolutions yielded the data independent acquisition (DIA) techniques, such as sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ion spectra (SWATH). The unbiased nature of DIA methods would enable a wider analytical scope and a greater robustness in targeted analysis, representing a paradigm shift in targeted proteomics.",signatures:"Eslam Nouri-Nigjeh, Ru Chen and Sheng Pan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49378",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49378",authors:[{id:"174949",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheng",surname:"Pan",slug:"sheng-pan",fullName:"Sheng Pan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1490",title:"Affinity Chromatography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b605cd690ec61005a6b6b27c934de321",slug:"affinity-chromatography",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1490.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1770",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Principles and Basics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"279701f6c802cf02deef45103e0611ff",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1770.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2303",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Advanced Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b6af88dfcbe43d82dc7293184207c1",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-advanced-techniques",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2303.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2529",title:"State of the Art of Therapeutic Endocrinology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dceb40f2949b5ab959e7353030595761",slug:"state-of-the-art-of-therapeutic-endocrinology",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2529.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2553",title:"Lipid Peroxidation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b39734aa940b2d63ae5e8773d3dd5280",slug:"lipid-peroxidation",bookSignature:"Angel Catala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2553.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2323",title:"Carbohydrates",subtitle:"Comprehensive Studies on Glycobiology and Glycotechnology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f7c2e6a3566eee14c9884ad0820a6416",slug:"carbohydrates-comprehensive-studies-on-glycobiology-and-glycotechnology",bookSignature:"Chuan-Fa Chang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145728",title:"Prof.",name:"Chuan-Fa",surname:"Chang",slug:"chuan-fa-chang",fullName:"Chuan-Fa Chang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"372",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Molecular Biology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7f7359995dc5ee04e12df282495f77e",slug:"aflatoxins-biochemistry-and-molecular-biology",bookSignature:"Ramón Gerardo Guevara-González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/372.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62559",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramon G.",surname:"Guevara-Gonzalez",slug:"ramon-g.-guevara-gonzalez",fullName:"Ramon G. 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\r\n\tRenewable energy is playing an important role in today’s energy system. Moreover, the storage of renewable energy is becoming a very critical issue. This book aims to present a review of the latest advances in renewable energy resources, devices, and technologies. The different energy resources including solar energy, wind energy, biomass energy, water energy, and hydro energy resources will be presented as well as the different devices used for collecting renewable energy. Storage systems used for storing renewable energy will be discussed including compressed air storage systems, flywheel storage systems, electrochemical storage systems, and chemical storage systems, as well as different types of batteries used for collecting renewable energy. We hope to cover new topics and issues related to renewable energy, new regulations of renewable energy for different countries, and the simulation related to energy storage systems and devices. The goal of this book is to include also experimental work related to renewable energy.
\r\n\t
Our goal in this chapter is to describe how young children build from their natural curiosity about their world to having the skills for systematically observing, predicting, and understanding that world. We suggest that scientific reasoning is a specific type of intentional information seeking, one that shares basic reasoning mechanisms and motivation with other types of information seeking (Kuhn, 2011a). For example, curiosity is a critical motivational component that underlies information seeking (Jirout & Klahr, 2012), yet only in scientific reasoning is curiosity sated by deliberate data collection and formal analysis of evidence. In this way, scientific reasoning differs from other types of information seeking in that it requires additional cognitive resources as well as an integration of cultural tools. To that end, we provide an overview of how scientific reasoning emerges from the interaction between internal factors (e.g., cognitive and metacognitive development) and cultural and contextual factors.
The current state of empirical research on scientific reasoning presents seemingly contradictory conclusions. Young children are sometimes deemed “little scientists” because they appear to have abilities that are used in formal scientific reasoning (e.g., causal reasoning; Gopnik et al., 2004). At the same time, many studies show that older children (and sometimes adults) have difficulties with scientific reasoning. For example, children have difficulty in systematically designing controlled experiments, in drawing appropriate conclusions based on evidence, and in interpreting evidence (e.g., Croker, 2012; Chen & Klahr, 1999; Kuhn, 1989; Zimmerman, 2007).
In the following account, we suggest that despite the early emergence of many of the precursors of skilled scientific reasoning, its developmental trajectory is slow and requires instruction, support, and practice. In Section 2of the chapter, we discuss cognitive and metacognitive factors. We focus on two mechanisms that play a critical role in all cognitive processes (i.e., encoding and strategy acquisition/selection).
Effective scientific reasoning requires both deductive and inductive skills. Individuals must understand how to assess what is currently known or believed, develop testable questions, test hypotheses, and draw appropriate conclusions by coordinating empirical evidence and theory. Such reasoning also requires the ability to attend to information systematically and draw reasonable inferences from patterns that are observed. Further, it requires the ability to assess one’s reasoning at each stage in the process. Here, we describe some of the key issues in developing these cognitive and metacognitive scientific reasoning skills.
The main task for developmental researchers is to explain how children build on their intuitive curiosity about the world to become skilled scientific reasoners.
A mechanistic account of the development of scientific reasoning includes information about the processes by which this change occurs, and how these processes lead to change over time (Klahr, 2001). Mechanisms can be described at varying levels (e.g., neurological, cognitive, interpersonal) and over different time scales. For example, neurological mechanisms (e.g., inhibition) operate at millisecond time scales (Burlea, Vidala, Tandonneta, & Hasbroucq, 2004) while learning mechanisms may operate over the course of minutes (e.g., inhibiting irrelevant information during problem solving; Becker, 2010). Many of the cognitive processes and mechanisms that account for learning and for problem solving across a variety of domains are important to the development of scientific reasoning skills and science knowledge acquisition. Many cognitive mechanisms have been identified as underlying scientific reasoning and other high-level cognition (e.g., analogy, statistical learning, categorization, imitation, inhibition; Goswami, 2008). However, due to space limitations we focus on what we argue are the two most critical mechanisms –
Encoding is the process of representing information and its context in memory as a result of attention to stimuli (Chen, 2007; Siegler, 1989). As such, it is a central mechanism in scientific reasoning because we must represent information before we can reason about it, and the quality and process of representation can affect reasoning. Importantly, there are significant developmental changes in the ability to encode the relevant features that will lead to sound reasoning and problem solving (Siegler, 1983; 1985). Encoding abilities improve with the acquisition of
Effective encoding is dependent on directing attention to
Strategies are sequences of procedural actions used to achieve a goal (Siegler, 1996). In the context of scientific reasoning, strategies are the steps that guide children from their initial state (e.g., a question about the effects of weight and distance in balancing a scale) to a goal state (e.g., understanding the nature of the relationship between variables). We will briefly examine two components of strategy development:
New strategies are added to the repertoire of possible strategies through discovery, instruction, or other social interactions (Chen, 2007; Gauvain, 2001; Siegler, 1996). There is evidence that children can discover strategies on their own (Chen, 2007). Children often discover new strategies when they experience an insight into a new way of solving a familiar problem. For example, 10- and 11-year-olds discovered new strategies for evaluating causal relations between variables in a computerized task only after creating different cars (e.g., comparing the effects of engine size) and testing them (Schauble, 1990). Similarly, when asked to determine the cause of a chemical reaction, children discovered new experimentation strategies only after several weeks (Kuhn & Phelps, 1982). Over time, existing strategies may be modified to reduce time and complexity of implementation (e.g., eliminating redundant steps in a problem solving sequence; Klahr, 1984). For example, determining causal relations among variables requires more time when experimentation is unsystematic. In order to identify which variables resulted in the fastest car, children often constructed up to 25 cars, whereas an adult scientist identified the fastest car after constructing only seven cars (Schauble, 1990).
Children also gain new strategies through social interaction, by being explicitly taught a strategy, imitating a strategy, or by collaborating in problem solving (Gauvain, 2001). For example, when a parent asks a child questions about events in a photograph, the parent evokes memories of the event and helps to structure the child’s understanding of the depicted event, a process called conversational remembering (Middleton, 1997). Conversational remembering improves children’s recall of events and often leads to children spontaneously using this strategy. Parent conversations about event structures improved children’s memory for these structures; for example, questions about a child’s day at school help to structure this event and improved recall (Nelson, 1996). Children also learn new strategies by solving problems cooperatively with adults. In a sorting task, preschool children were more likely to improve their classification strategies after working with their mothers (Freund, 1990). Further, children who worked with their parents on a hypothesis-testing task were more likely to identify causal variables than children who worked alone because parents helped children construct valid experiments, keep data records, and repeat experiments (Gleason & Schauble, 2000).
Children also acquire strategies by interacting with an adult modeling a novel strategy. Middle-school children acquired a reading comprehension strategy (e.g., anticipating the ending of a story) after seeing it modeled by their teacher (Palinscar, Brown, & Campione, 1993). Additionally, children can acquire new strategies from interactions with other children. Monitoring other children during problem solving improves a child’s understanding of the task and appears to improve how they evaluate their own performance (Brownell & Carriger, 1991). Elementary school children who collaborated with other students to solve the balance-scale task outperformed students who worked alone (Pine & Messer, 1998). Ten-year-olds working in dyads were more likely to discuss their strategies than children working alone and these discussions were associated with generating better hypotheses than children working alone (Teasley, 1995).
More than one strategy may be useful for solving a problem, which requires a means to select among candidate strategies. One suggestion is that this process occurs by adaptive selection. In adaptive selection, strategies that match features of the problem are candidates for selection. One component of selection is that newer strategies tend to have a slightly higher priority for use when compared to older strategies (Siegler, 1996). Successful selection is made on the basis of the effectiveness of the strategy and its cost (e.g., speed), and children tend to choose the fastest, most accurate strategy available (i.e., the most adaptive strategy).
Cognitive mechanisms provide the basic investigation and inferential tools used in scientific reasoning. The ability to reason about knowledge and the means for obtaining and evaluating knowledge provide powerful tools that augment children’s reasoning.
Sodian, Zaitchik, and Carey (1991) argue that two basic skills related to early metacognitive acquisitions are needed for scientific reasoning. First, children need to understand that inferences can be drawn from evidence. The theory of mind literature (e.g., Wellman, Cross, & Watson, 2001) suggests that it is not until the age of 4 that children understand that beliefs and knowledge are based on perceptual experience (i.e., evidence). As noted earlier, experimental work demonstrates that preschoolers can use evidence to make judgments about simple causal relationships (Gopnik, Sobel, Schulz, & Glymour, 2001; Schulz & Bonawitz, 2007; Schulz & Gopnik, 2004; Schulz, Gopnik,& Glymour, 2007). Similarly, several classic studies show that children as young as 6 can succeed in simple scientific reasoning tasks. Children between 6 and 9 can discriminate between a conclusive and an inclusive test of a simple hypothesis (Sodian et al., 1991). Children as young as 5 can form a causal hypothesis based on a pattern of evidence, and even 4-year-olds seem to understand some of the principles of causal reasoning (Ruffman, Perner, Olson, & Doherty, 1993).
Second, according to Sodian et al. (1991), children need to understand that inference is itself a mechanism with which further knowledge can be acquired. Four-year-olds base their knowledge on perceptual experiences, whereas 6-year-olds understand that the testimony of others can also be used in making inferences (Sodian & Wimmer, 1987). Other research suggests that children younger than 6 can make inferences based on testimony, but in very limited circumstances (Koenig, Clément, & Harris, 2004). These findings may explain why, by the age of 6, children are able to succeed on
Research with older children, however, has revealed that 8- to 12-year-olds have limitations in their abilities to (a) generate unconfounded experiments, (b) disconfirm hypotheses, (c) keep accurate and systematic records, and (d) evaluate evidence (Klahr, Fay, & Dunbar, 1993; Kuhn, Garcia-Mila, Zohar, & Andersen, 1995; Schauble, 1990, 1996; Zimmerman, Raghavan, & Sartoris, 2003). For example, Schauble (1990) presented children aged 9-11 with a computerized task in which they had to determine which of five factors affect the speed of racing cars. Children often varied several factors at once (only 22% of the experiments were classified as valid) and they often drew conclusions consistent with belief rather than the evidence generated. They used a positive test strategy, testing variables believed to influence speed (e.g., engine size) and not testing those believed to be non-causal (e.g., color). Some children recorded features without outcomes, or outcomes without features, but most wrote down nothing at all, relying on memory for details of experiments carried out over an eight-week period.
Although the performance differences between younger and older children may be interpreted as potentially contradictory, the differing cognitive and metacognitive demands of tasks used to study scientific reasoning at different ages may account for some of the disconnect in conclusions. Even though the simple tasks given to preschoolers and young children require them to understand evidence as a source of knowledge, such tasks require the cognitive abilities of induction and pattern recognition, but only limited metacognitive abilities. In contrast, the tasks used to study the development of scientific reasoning in older children (and adults) are more demanding and focused on hypothetico-deductive reasoning; they include more variables, involve more complex causal structures, require varying levels of domain knowledge, and are negotiated across much longer time scales. Moreover, the tasks given to older children and adults involve the acquisition, selection, and coordination of investigation strategies, combining background knowledge with empirical evidence. The results of investigation activities are then used in the acquisition, selection, and coordinationof evidence evaluation and inference strategies. With respect to encoding, increases in task complexity require attending to more information and making judgments about which features are relevant. This encoding happens in the context of prior knowledge and, in many cases, it is also necessary to inhibit prior knowledge (Zimmerman & Croker, in press).
Sodian and Bullock (2008) also argue that mature scientific reasoning involves the metastrategic process of being able to think explicitly about hypotheses and evidence, and that this skill is not fully mastered until adolescence at the very earliest. According to Amsel et al. (2008), metacognitive competence is important for hypothetical reasoning. These conclusions are consistent with Kuhn’s (1989, 2005, 2011a) argument that the defining feature of scientific thinking is the set of cognitive and metacognitive skills involved in differentiating and coordinating theory and evidence. Kuhn argues that the effective coordination of theory and evidence depends on three metacognitive abilities: (a) The ability to encode and represent evidence and theory separately, so that relations between them can be recognized; (b) the ability to treat theories as independent objects of thought (i.e., rather than a representation of “the way things are”); and (c) the ability to recognize that theories can be false, setting aside the acceptance of a theory so evidence can be assessed to determine the veridicality of a theory. When we consider these cognitive and metacognitive abilities in the larger social context, it is clear that skills that are highly valued by the scientific community may be at odds with the cultural and intuitive views of the individual reasoner (Lemke, 2001). Thus, it often takes time for conceptual change to occur; evidence is not just evaluated in the context of the science investigation and science classroom, but within personal and community values. Conceptual change also takes place in the context of an individual’s personal epistemology, which can undergo developmental transitions (e.g., Sandoval, 2005).
Returning to the encoding and retrieval of information relevant to scientific reasoning tasks, many studies demonstrate that both children and adults are not always aware of their memory limitations while engaged in investigation tasks (e.g., Carey, Evans, Honda, Jay, & Unger, 1989; Dunbar & Klahr, 1989; Garcia-Mila & Andersen, 2007; Gleason & Schauble, 2000; Siegler & Liebert, 1975; Trafton & Trickett, 2001). Kanari and Millar (2004) found that children differentially recorded the results of experiments, depending on familiarity or strength of prior beliefs. For example, 10- to 14-year-olds recorded more data points when experimenting with unfamiliar items (e.g., using a force-meter to determine the factors affecting the force produced by the weight and surface area of boxes) than with familiar items (e.g., using a stopwatch to experiment with pendulums). Overall, children are less likely than adults to record experimental designs and outcomes, or to review notes they do keep, despite task demands that clearly necessitate a reliance on external memory aids.
Children are often asked to judge their memory abilities, and memory plays an important role in scientific reasoning. Children’s understanding of memory as a fallible process develops over middle childhood (Jaswal & Dodson, 2009; Kreuzer, Leonard, & Flavell, 1975). Young children view all strategies on memory tasks as equally effective, whereas 8- to 10-year-olds start to discriminate between strategies, and 12-year-olds know which strategies work best (Justice, 1986; Schneider, 1986). The development of metamemory continues through adolescence (Schneider, 2008), so there may not be a particular age that memory and metamemory limitations are no longer a consideration for children and adolescents engaged in complex scientific reasoning tasks. However, it seems likely that metamemory limitations are more profound for children under 10-12 years.
Likewise, the acquisition of other metacognitive and metastrategic skills is a gradual process. Early strategies for coordinating theory and evidence are replaced with better ones, but there is not a stage-like change from using an older strategy to a newer one. Multiple strategies are concurrently available so the process of change is very much like Siegler’s (1996) overlapping waves model (Kuhn et al., 1995). However,
Similarly, Zohar and Peled (2008) focused instruction in the control-of-variables strategy (CVS) on metastrategic competence. Fifth-graders were given a computerized task in which they had to determine the effects of five variables on seed germination. Students in the control group were taught about seed germination, and students in the experimental group were given a metastrategic knowledge intervention over several sessions. The intervention consisted of describing CVS, discussing when it should be used, and discussing what features of a task indicate that CVS should be used. A second computerized task on potato growth was used to assess near transfer. A physical task in which participants had to determine which factors affect the distance a ball will roll was used to assess far transfer. The experimental group showed gains on both the strategic and the metastrategic level. The latter was measured by asking participants to explain what they had done. These gains were still apparent on the near and far transfer tasks when they were administered three months later. Moreover, low-academic achievers showed the largest gains. It is clear from these studies that although meta-level competencies may not develop routinely, they can certainly be learned via explicit instruction.
Metacognitive abilities are necessary precursors to sophisticated scientific thinking, and represent one of the ways in which children, adults, and professional scientists differ. In order for children’s behavior to go beyond demonstrating the correctness of one’s existing beliefs (e.g., Dunbar & Klahr, 1989) it is necessary for meta-level competencies to be developed and practiced (Kuhn, 2005). With metacognitive control over the processes involved, children (and adults) can change what they believe based on evidence and, in doing so, are aware not only that they are changing a belief, but also know
Much of the existing laboratory work on the development of scientific thinking has not
Our goal in this section is to re-examine our two focal mechanisms (i.e., encoding and strategy) and show how the development of these cognitive acquisitions and metastrategic control of them are facilitated by both the social and physical environment.
Children must learn to encode effectively, by knowing what information is critical to pay attention to. They do so in part with the aid of their teachers, parents, and peers. Once school begins, teachers play a clear role in children’s cognitive development. An ongoing debate in the field of science education concerns the relative value of having children learn and discover how the world works on their own (often called “discovery learning”) and having an instructor guide the learning more directly (often called “direct instruction”). Different researchers interpret these labels in divergent ways, which adds fuel to the debate (see e.g., Bonawitz et al., 2011; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Kirshner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr, 2010; Mayer, 2004; Schmidt, Loyens, van Gog, & Paas, 2007). Regardless of definitions, though, this issue illustrates the core idea that learning takes place in a social context, with guidance that varies from minimal to didactic.
Specifically, this debate is about the ideal role for adults in helping children to encode information. In direct instruction, there is a clear role for a teacher, often actively pointing out effective examples as compared to ineffective ones, or directly teaching a strategy to apply to new examples. And, indeed, there is evidence that more direct guidance to test variables systematically can help students in learning, particularly in the ability to apply their knowledge to new contexts (e.g., Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Lorch et al., 2010; Strand-Cary & Klahr, 2008). There is also evidence that scaffolded discovery learning can be effective (e.g., Alfieri, Brooks, Adrich, & Tenenbaum, 2011). Those who argue for discovery learning often do so because they note that pedagogical approaches commonly labeled as “discovery learning,” such as problem-based learning and inquiry learning, are in fact highly scaffolded, providing students with a structure in which to explore (Alfieri et al., 2011; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Schmidt et al., 2007). Even in microgenetic studies in which children are described as engaged in “self-directed learning,” researchers ask participants questions along that way that serve as prompts, hints, dialogue, and scaffolds that facilitate learning (Klahr & Carver, 1995). What there appears to be little evidence for is “pure discovery learning” in which students are given little or no guidance and expected to discover rules of problem solving or other skills on their own (Alfieri et al., 2011; Mayer, 2004). Thus, it is clear that formal education includes a critical role for a teacher to scaffold children’s scientific reasoning.
A common goal in science education is to correct the many misconceptions students bring to the classroom. Chinn and Malhotra (2002) examined the role of encoding evidence, interpreting evidence, generalization, and retention as possible impediments to correcting misconceptions. Over four experiments, they concluded that the key difficulty faced by children is in making accurate observations or properly encoding evidence that does not match prior beliefs. However, interventions involving an explanation of what scientists expected to happen (and why) were very effective in mediating conceptual change when encountering counterintuitive evidence. That is, with scaffolds, children made observations independent of theory, and changed their beliefs based on observed evidence. For example, the initial belief that a thermometer placed inside a sweater would display a higher temperature than a thermometer outside a sweater was revised after seeing evidence that disconfirmed this belief and hearing a scientist’s explanation that the temperature would be the same unless there was something warm inside the sweater. Instructional supports can play a crucial role in improving the encoding and observational skills required for reasoning about science.
In laboratory studies of reasoning, there is direct evidence of the role of adult scaffolding. Butler and Markman (2012a) demonstrate that in complex tasks in which children need to find and use evidence, causal verbal framing (i.e., asking whether one event caused another) led young children to more effectively extract patterns from scenes they observed, which in turn led to more effective reasoning. In further work demonstrating the value of adult scaffolding in children’s encoding, Butler and Markman (2012b) found that by age 4, children are much more likely to explore and make inductive inferences when adults intentionally try to teach something than when they are shown an “accidental” effect.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, learning which strategies are available and useful is a fundamental part of developing scientific thinking skills. Much research has looked at the role of adults in teaching strategies to children in both formal (i.e., school) and informal settings (e.g., museums, home; Fender & Crowley, 2007; Tenenbaum, Rappolt-Schlichtmann, & Zanger, 2004).
A central task in scientific reasoning involves the ability to design controlled experiments. Chen and Klahr (1999) found that directly instructing 7- to 10-year-old children in the strategies for designing unconfounded experiments led to learning in a short time frame. More impressively, the effectiveness of the training was shown seven months later, when older students given the strategy training were much better at correctly distinguishing confounded and unconfounded designs than those not explicitly trained in the strategy. In another study exploring the role of scaffolded strategy instruction, Kuhn and Dean (2005) worked with sixth graders on a task to evaluate the contribution of different factors to earthquake risk. All students given the suggestion to focus attention on just one variable were able to design unconfounded experiments, compared to only 11% in the control group given their typical science instruction. This ability to design unconfounded experiments increased the number of valid inferences in the intervention group, both immediately and three months later. Extended engagement alone resulted in minimal progress, confirming that even minor prompts and suggestions represent potentially powerful scaffolds. In yet another example, when taught to control variables either with or without metacognitive supports, 11-year-old children learned more when guided in thinking about how to approach each problem and evaluate the outcome (Dejonckheere, Van de Keere, & Tallir, 2011). Slightly younger children did not benefit from the same manipulation, but 4- to 6-year-olds given an adapted version of the metacognitive instruction were able to reason more effectively about simpler physical science tasks than those who had no metacognitive supports (Dejonckheere, Van de Keere, & Mestdagh, 2010).
Clearly, even with the number of studies that have focused on individual cognition, a picture is beginning to emerge to illustrate the importance of social and cultural factors in the development of scientific reasoning. Many of the studies we describe highlight that even “controlled laboratory studies” are actually scientific reasoning in context. To illustrate, early work by Siegler and Liebert (1975) includes both an instructional context (a control condition plus two types of instruction:
The sociocultural perspective highlights the role that language, speech, symbols, signs, number systems, objects, and tools play in individual cognitive development (Lemke, 2001). As highlighted in previous examples, adult and peer collaboration, dialogue, and other elements of the social environment are important mediators. In this section, we highlight some of the verbal, visual, and numerical elements of the physical context that support the emergence of scientific reasoning.
Most studies of scientific reasoning include some type of
Panel A illustrates the type of pictorial support that accompanies the verbal description of a hypothesis-testing task (from
Various elements of
Although language, symbols, and number systems are used as canonical examples of cultural tools and resources within the socio-cultural tradition (Lemke, 2001), recent advances in
Computer simulations allow visualization of phenomena that are not directly observable in the classroom (e.g., atomic structure, planetary motion). Other advantages include that they are less prone to measurement error in apparatus set up, and that they can be programmed to record all actions taken (and their latencies). Moreover, many systems include a scaffolded method for participants to keep and consult records and notes. Importantly, there is evidence that simulated environments provide the same advantages as isomorphic “hands on” apparatus (Klahr, Triona, & Williams, 2007; Triona & Klahr, 2007).
New lines of research are taking advantage of advances in computing and intelligent computer systems. Kuhn (2011b) recently examined how to facilitate reasoning about multivariable causality, and the problems associated with the visualization of outcomes resulting from multiple causes (e.g., the causes for different cancer rates by geographical area). Participants had access to software that produces a visual display of data points that represent main effects and their interactions. Similarly, Klahr and colleagues (Siler, Mowery, Magaro, Willows, & Klahr, 2010) have developed an intelligent tutor to teach experimentation strategies (see Figure 1, panel C). The use of intelligent tutors provides the unique opportunity of personally tailored learning and feedback experiences, dependent on each student’s pattern of errors. This immediate feedback can be particularly useful in helping develop metacognitive skills (e.g., Roll, Alaven, McLaren, & Koedinger, 2011) and facilitate effective student collaboration (Diziol, Walker, Rummel, & Koedinger, 2010).
Tweney, Doherty, and Mynatt (1981) noted some time ago that most tasks used to study scientific thinking were artificial because real investigations require
Determining the developmental trajectory of scientific reasoning has been challenging, in part because
There is far more to a complete account of scientific reasoning than has been discussed here, including other cognitive mechanisms such as formal hypothesis testing, retrieval, and other reasoning processes. There are also relevant non-cognitive factors such as motivation, disposition, personality, argumentation skills, and personal epistemology, to name a few (see Feist, 2006). These additional considerations do not detract from our assertion that encoding and strategy use are critical to the development of scientific reasoning, and that we must consider cognitive and metacognitive skills within a social and physical context when seeking to understand the development of scientific reasoning. Scientific knowledge acquisition and, importantly, scientific knowledge
All authors contributed equally to the manuscript. The authors thank Eric Amsel, Deanna Kuhn, and Jamie Jirout for comments on a previous version of this chapter.
Malnutrition is commonly referred to as under-nutrition [1]. Stunting, wasting, and being underweight in children under the age of five are all signs of malnutrition [2]. Malnutrition refers to any shortage, surplus, or volatility in energy and/or nutritional demands, and includes both under and over-nutrition [3, 4]. 165 million children under the age of five suffer from malnutrition across the world. India (46.6 million), Nigeria (13.9 million), and Pakistan (10.7 million) have the world’s least stunted children, according to the 2018 Global Nutrition Report [5]. Malnutrition is responsible for at least half of all child deaths globally [6, 7]. Children’s malnutrition is mostly a problem in developing and disadvantaged countries [8]. The leading cause of sickness and death among children is malnutrition [9]. Malnutrition is among the world’s most serious health problems, affecting around 2 billion people. Malnutrition in all forms (appetite, undernourishment, vitamin deficiencies, overweight, and obesity) appears to be a severe concern for both emerging and industrialized countries, according to the World Committee on Food Security. Hunger may be characterized in many different ways, including individual experiences and behavioral reactions in the home, food shortages, and national food balance sheets [10]. Approximately 151 million children under the age of five are stunted, over 50 million are wasted, and nearly 17 million are seriously wasted, according to UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Group estimates [11, 12]. Although the total rate of stunting in Asia has decreased from 38 percent to 23 percent between 2000 and 2017, it is still the highest [13].
Pakistan is now experiencing a complicated malnutrition problem that affects people of all ages, especially newborns, children, adolescents, and pregnant and nursing mothers. As per UN Worldometer statistics, Pakistan’s population is now predicted to be about 219.1 million, with a potential increase to >260 million by 2030 [14]. Malnutrition is predicted to cost emerging nations between 2 and 3% of their GDP (GDP). Malnutrition is estimated to cost a person one-tenth of their lifetime wages [15]. Pakistan has a high rate of malnutrition. As a result, nearly a quarter of the population of a low-middle-income, fifth nation is unable to meet an adult’s dietary needs (2350 calories per day) [16, 17, 18]. According to a recent global report on child malnutrition, The majority of households in low and middle-income countries are facing dual-faced malnutrition as a result of a dietary shift, which is defined as a home with an obese mother and an undernourished child. On the other hand, stunting is declining relatively slow, whereas excess weight continues to rise globally [19]. As a result, while establishing policies, programs, and interventions to prevent undernutrition, food insecurity and dietary variety should be considered [20].
Stunting develops in children as a result of a regular caloric intake and nutrients that are insufficient to meet their needs. A lack of linear development, or a modest stature or height in one’s age, is referred to as stunting. This is evaluated by dividing a child’s height for his or her age to either a comparison group of well-fed and healthy children (Z score of 2 or less). Stunting refers to excess or inequality in a person’s energy or calorie consumption that is linked to stunted physical and psychological development [21]. Stunting is associated with the phrase “small for gestational age” (SGA) globally [22]. If pregnant women’s nutritional demands are not addressed sufficiently, they might not be able to provide the fetus with the nourishment it needs during pregnancy. Malnourishment in pregnancy is a big issue in Pakistan since it can inhibit a baby’s development and raise the risk of certain diseases later in life [23]. According to the United Nations Children’s Fund, almost 10 million Pakistani children are stunted (UNICEF). For the first 6 months of their lives, just 38% of newborns are exclusively breastfed. As a result, more than half of children under the age of five are deficient in vitamin A, 40% are zinc and vitamin D deficient, and 62% are anemic. In Pakistan, 4 out of every 10 children under the age of five are stunted, with 40.2 percent wasting and 17.7% stunting. According to the 2018 national nutritional survey, more than one-third of children (28.9%) are underweight, with a high prevalence of overweight (9.5%) in the same age range shown in Figure 1.
National nutrition survey malnutrition report.
The nutritional challenges of their children are linked to the moms’ diet and wellness during adolescence, gestation, and breastfeeding periods. As a result, expectant moms must receive appropriate and balanced nourishment. Maternal micronutrient supplementation (MMS) during pregnancy improved gestation, birth weight, and fetal development in Tanzanian infants, as evidenced by their 6-week mortality rate, which was only quantifiable in females but not males newborns [24]. Due to compromised immune systems, malnutrition and infection combined to raise the risk of childhood morbidity and death. More than half of all children under the age of five are expected to die from malnutrition. Immunological changes have been associated with decreased intestinal activities, the inadequate release of protective material from exocrine glands, and decreased participation of the signaling pathway in serum proteins, albeit the underlying processes are unknown [25]. Children’s intrinsic and innate immune responses are also influenced by protein and micronutrient deficits [26]. In children, changes in the gut microbiota can limit growth, disrupt inflammatory immunological processes, reduce functional brain connections, and also delay psychomotor and intellectual abilities [27, 28].
Other geriatric syndromes have been associated with depressive symptoms and malnutrition, both of which are modifiable risk factors for 30-day readmission in hospitalized older people [29]. The prevalence of malnutrition, as measured by the CONUT score, was high in older people undergoing elective surgery for colon cancer patients. Malnutrition has been related to a prolonged stay in the hospital as well as a higher chance of negative outcomes. Both death and readmissions to the intensive care unit are on the rise. CONUT is a quick and easy nutritional screening test that has previously been used to assess nutritional status in people who have had CRC surgery. A longer hospital stay is linked to a lower nutritional state. It’s more likely that difficulties may occur. as well as a higher mortality risk [30]. Sarcopenia, cachexia, diminished sensory function, and alterations in the gastrointestinal system are some of the factors linked to old age [31].
In South Asian nations, the primary factors of malnutrition and stunting are remarkably similar. The key categories include food insecurity and insufficient nutritional intake, social status and inequality, maternity and environmental factors, poverty, and water sanitation hygiene.
Poverty and food insecurity are the two most persistent and major variables that cause stunting. Food insecurity affects children’s nutrition, growth, and cognition and is a serious problem in developing nations. Food insecurity and diet variation should be considered while establishing strategies, plans, and interventions to address the problem of undernutrition [20]. The potential for economic growth of a country can impact food insecurity and, subsequently, the frequency of child stunting [32]. In Pakistani children, food insecurity is a major contributor to their low nutritional condition. In Pakistan, about two-thirds of families with nearly 80% of children lack adequate access to good and nutritional foods [33]. Insufficient diet, anemia, and nutrient deficits in pregnant mothers have been linked with lower childbirth weights in Pakistan. Even though Pakistan is a significant producer of rice and wheat becoming a food supply state, the nation’s economic insecurity has exacerbated the nutritional inequality among children and babies. According to the Pakistan Economic Survey 2018–2019, Pakistan’s overall food output and accessibility to basic food items are sufficient to meet the population’s nutritional needs [34].
According to the Journal of the American Dietetic Association 3, in 2025, the supply of calories from key food groups per person would climb to 2530 calories. As per the Pakistan Cost of Diet Analysis, 67% of Pakistani families cannot afford a scientifically appropriate meal, while around 5% cannot afford a diet that fulfills even the necessities of energy needs [35]. Despite rising per capita wealth, increased food production and accessibility, and better intakes of gross energy (calories from food), Pakistan’s current child stunting incidence is 40.2%. Nevertheless, over 60% of the people themselves are affected by food insecurity, with the lowest and perhaps most susceptible individuals in particular unable to buy sufficient healthy food [36]. Despite this, little is known about the non-nutritional repercussions of food insecurity, such as its implications on brain development and cognitive impairments, especially in developing countries [37]. The likelihood of baby undernourishment has also been connected to poor maternal mental health. Women with prenatal indicators of distress who lived in rural parts of Pakistan, and they had smaller amounts, larger family debts, and were food insecure, exhibited severe depression than women in high-income nations [38]. Young children are going through a phase of rapid growth and development, which necessitates more energy consumption. Humans and caretakers, on the other hand, meet their nutritional and dietary requirements. As a result, they are more likely to become malnourished [39]. Long-term exposure to natural disasters like landslides causes a decrease in the food supply, a lack of access to safe and nutritious food, a decrease in the quantity and quality of food consumed, and a lack of access to health, safe water, and sanitation facilities, all of which contribute to child malnutrition [40]. Long-term exposure to natural disasters, such as landslides, causes a decrease in the food supply, a lack of access to safe and nutritious food, a decrease in the quantity and quality of food consumed, and a lack of access to health, safe water, and sanitation facilities, all of which contribute to child malnutrition [41].
There is a strong relationship between several indicators of socioeconomic status (SES) and child stunting in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Children’s stunting is said to be impacted by socioeconomic inequity. Children in rural regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) were found to have a greater frequency of stunting than those in city environments. Boy stunting was much higher than girl stunting, especially among boys from low-income families. Breastfeeding, along with other nutrition treatments, must be given prompt attention to prevent stunting, they said [42]. Parents’ educational levels, particularly mothers’, mothers’ health and nutritional status during pregnancy and lactation, children’s vaccinations, family income level, and the current system were all socioeconomic factors affecting the nutritional health of children under the age of five in Nigeria [43, 44].
Stunting and thinness in Pakistani primary school kids (5–12 years) in Lahore, Pakistan, were studied for frequency and socioeconomic determinants. Researchers discovered that 8% of children were stunted and 10% were underweight, with no gender differences. Both boys and girls showed signs of stunting as they grew older, but only males were skinny. Stunting and thinness were found to be influenced by age, socioeconomic status, parental education, the number of siblings, overcrowding, and living in a smoky environment. Children from poorer, less qualified families who lived in low-income neighborhoods and in cramped residences with a smoking culture were considerably more likely to be stunted and skinny. Programs aiming at the disadvantaged and socially marginalized should be prioritized [45]. Stunting, underweight, and waste were identified in 44.4%, 29.4%, and 10.7% of Pakistani children (0–59 months), respectively. Mothers of children were under the age of 18 at the time of marriage, resided in rural regions, and attended a maternity clinic at least 3 times during pregnancy had a low risk of being stunted. Underweight in children was strongly linked to the mother’s level of education, height, BMI, and birth weight. Investigators concluded that the majority of the variables that cause malnutrition in Pakistani children may be avoided [46]. A higher amount of income or wealth, on the other hand, has been linked to a lower incidence of malnutrition in children. As a consequence, Pakistani women’s empowerment can help improve people’s health, which is key for the country’s future progress [47]. Parents with a lower degree of education have a lower household income and are more likely to live in poverty. They spend less money on appropriate nutrition because of a shortage of food, basic health care services, and exposure to terrible living conditions and diseases, and their children are more prone to growth failure [48].
Many of us associate poverty with pictures of starvation or children dying from avoidable diseases on television from the poor world [49, 50]. Poverty is a multifaceted issue in Pakistan. It is firmly embedded in the social, economic, and political systems of the country. The lack of good economic and political governance is the greatest obstacle to poverty reduction. Poverty was once associated with the severe types of malnutrition, particularly in children, that were common during times of famine and starvation. As indicated in Figure 2, the World Bank utilized the lower-middle-income poverty rate ($3.2 per day) to predict that Pakistan’s poverty rate stood at 39.3% in 2020–2021, is expected to continue at 39.2% in 2021–2022, and may drop to 37.9% by 2022–2023. Impoverished individuals are more susceptible to natural dangers (lack of sanitation, inadequate food, crime, and natural disasters), are far less aware of the benefits of good health, and get less access to quality health care. As a result, individuals seem to be more prone to disease and disability [51]. When girls reach reproductive age, they are more likely to give birth to low-birth-weight babies, who have a worse chance of survival than typical babies. Undernutrition is one of the most frequent diseases, the major cause of inadequate healthy development, and by far the most important component inhibiting a country’s progress [52].
Poverty rate from 2020 to 2023.
Malnutrition and stunting in children are generally induced by several factors, namely maternal health, ecological and home circumstances, poverty, socioeconomic disparities, low birth weight, dirty water, sanitation, proper hygiene, infections, and diarrhea [53, 54]. Gastrointestinal tract damage, immune suppression, including liver illness across both mothers and infants, as well as stunting in children, are all linked to aflatoxin and mycotoxin exposure from contaminated food [55]. Children who grow up in agricultural areas tend to have development problems throughout pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence [56]. The use of polluted water and the early introduction of supplemental feeding raises the risk of infections and water-borne illnesses including diarrhea and cholera, which impairs children’s food intake and nutrient utilization, causing stunting and wasting [57].
Poverty, poor sanitary conditions, and dirty water are the causative factors of child retardation in Pakistan, by a World Bank study. In Pakistan, open latrines are widely used, and the country is ranked third in the world for open defecation. Many nutritional and health issues are linked to open latrines, including intestinal infection and disease transmission. In Sindh, water and soil polluted with
Consequences of undernutrition.
Inadequate toilet facilities, inadequately treated water supplies, underprivileged healthcare access in remote regions, diarrhea and diseases, and food insecurity are among the most powerful factors of malnutrition and stunting in children in the developing world, according to the above-mentioned data.
The eradication of child malnutrition is crucial for people’s and society’s development. To achieve zero stunting, thorough nutritional therapy regimens must be implemented, particularly during the first 2 years of life. Multi-targeted intervention strategies with a focus on growth and anthropometric parameters are advised. Reduced child stunting is a crucial aim in reaching zero hunger, according to the Global Nutrition Targets for 2025 [62]. Scaling Up (SUN) The need to include stunting prevention in all future sustainable development efforts undertaken by member nations is highlighted by nutrition. Poor nursing habits and dietary deficiencies are thought to be the primary health issues of child stunting and bad health. Pakistan should promote supplementary feeding services for kids above the age of 6 months in addition to exclusive breastfeeding. To boost the nutritional impact of supplementary feeding habits and enhance children’s nutritional status, recommendations on their entry timing and frequency must be created and executed. It is necessary to develop and deliver suitable, low-cost fortified supplemental nutritious meals that are compatible with unique cultural foods, especially to homes at risk of potential poverty. According to the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition, the leading causes of stunting in children are premature marriages and breastfeeding females more than boys. Boys are often given more food than girls, resulting in stunting and malnutrition in the female population. Not only are they unable to compete in many sectors with males, but malnourished moms are also unable to give birth to healthy kids [63].
Cooperative efforts to improve maternal nutrition and to eliminate child stunting, focusing on a variety of actions in areas such as agriculture, the environment, water, sanitation and hygiene, schooling, poverty alleviation, and social welfare, including the implementation of specific laws and policies. In Pakistan, malnutrition must be seen through an ideological lens, with implications for overall growth [64]. Cross strategies including all dietary and micronutrient techniques, to eliminate hunger and childhood stunting in Pakistan, strong political will must be formed and enforced. Deprivation, food shortages, bad sanitation, and hygienic practices, disease infection and vulnerability, maternity care, inequalities gender issues, poor diet patterns, and poor diets, as well as a high population growth rate, increasing urbanization, sensitivity to protection and wellbeing situations, or an absence of adequate ideological would all add to the quality of Pakistan’s dietary difficulties. According to the findings of a recent study, the majority of these variables are avoidable. On the other hand, integrated solutions for addressing these concerns should be developed in the framework of society’s academic and nutritional efforts [46]. Nutritional therapies can reduce stunting in general. Stunting is a significant danger for children living in urban slums. When creating dietary approaches to reduce low birth weight and child retardation in these kinds of circumstances, the diversity of such conditions in terms of physiological, social, and economic elements should be acknowledged [65]. It’s vital to create well-designed coordinated multistakeholder intervention strategies which use rational ways to fulfill the requirements of the most desperate individuals that are more prone to stunting as poverty [66]. As a result, appropriate recommendations initiatives should not only aim to reduce poverty, undernourishment, and climate difficulties but also improve and maintain a lengthy economic growth goal within the native culture. Because nutritional deficiencies, like iron and iodine, can harm children’s brain growth early in life, nutritional supplementation throughout pregnancy and childbirth is crucial for preventing cognitive deficits in infants and children [67]. Stunting and malnutrition can be reduced by food adjustments such as food supplements and micronutrient replacement, in combination with diet therapies [68, 69]. Niazi concluded that governmental and non-governmental institutions’ nutritious prevention efforts in Pakistan failed to deliver their aimed nutrition outcomes because they did not take an incorporated way of tackling the important principles of malnutrition such as lack of education, economic hardship, and sociocultural deprivation [70]. Every year, stunting among children causes Pakistan to lose 3% of its GDP. It is projected that every rupee spent to combat malnutrition will provide a return of 16 rupees. Well-fed children have a 33 percent higher chance of escaping poverty as adults [71, 72]. If adequate intervention programs and policies are adopted, Pakistan may likewise address the problem of malnutrition and stunting.
The link between economic advancement and improved nutrition can be either positive or negative. As per Wang and Taniguchi, good nutrition is beneficial to protracted income progress, although the benefits could be hidden by a current rapid population surge [73]. Headey investigated the effects of economic growth on dietary stunting in middle- and low-income nations across three continents. Increased food availability, poverty alleviation, and enhanced maternal and child health care, he claims, are all positives [74]. Nonetheless, even within areas, the nutritional impacts of economic expansion vary greatly. Thus according to conventional anthropometric measures, the incidence of malnutrition declined little in Sub-Saharan Africa despite decades of Economic growth faster than the overall. She also noted substantial differences in the distribution of child nutrition increases among demographic categories (such as urban vs. rural) [75].
Despite having multiple primary goals, nutrition-sensitive programs could have a similar impact on the underlying cause of child malnutrition as ‘micronutrient’ initiatives, not only as they are more diverse and larger in scale. Nursing and parental leave laws, free iron and folic acid for pregnant women, and vitamin A for early children are all examples of national programs [76]. Farming, healthcare, social welfare, early education, schooling, irrigation, and cleanliness are among the numerous sectors participating in nutrition-sensitive initiatives [77]. Conditional cash transfers are currently one of the most researched & examined types of planned action [76]. A sort of dietary approach provides financial assistance to individuals and households in need, often in exchange for a reciprocal activity like school attendance or completing a vaccination regimen. Although its main objective is to eliminate misery, such as in an emergency, there is increasing support that they have huge development influence [78].
Figure 4 depicts interventions that would reduce child malnutrition. Various organizations are collaborating with the UN to combat hunger, malnutrition, food insecurity, and other problems. WHO (World Food Organization), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), SUN (Scaling up Nutrition), UNHCR (United Nations High Commission for Refugees), and others are among these bodies. Each group devised its strategy to address the issue of malnutrition, which we will examine below. More Money for Nutrition and more nutrition for money (according to SUN Movement Strategy 2021–2025).
Bringing together the efforts of several groups
Providing food helps developing and underprivileged nations
Developed policies for displaced and refugee populations who are particularly prone to hunger
Checking and balancing the consequences for governance operations (according to SUN Movement Strategy 2021–2025)
Make wheat, which is Pakistan’s key food item, available to all of the country’s citizens.
Tracking Tools to assist nations in determining and monitoring their national objectives (FAO strategy)
Breastfeeding should be encouraged to avoid nutritional deficits in newborns.
Strategies for child malnutrition.
Malnutrition is one of the world’s most serious health problems, affecting about 2 billion people. UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Group estimates that 151 million children under the age of five are stunted, 50 million are wasted, and 17 million are severely wasted, according to UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Group estimates. Malnutrition is prevalent in Pakistan. Food insecurity, poverty, sanitation, hygiene, maternal and environmental variables, education, stunting, and other factors all contribute to malnutrition. This might be due to inadequate or ineffective intervention policies and programs, which have tended to focus on a single issue at a time rather than employing multi-sectoral methods to address the various factors that contribute to stunting. Cost-effective multitier interventions must be administered during the preconception, prenatal, and especially early postoperative periods to prevent malnutrition, stunting, and wasting in children. It is suggested that a comprehensive plan be devised and implemented to address the problem of malnutrition and stunting, which includes nutrition and WASH treatments, as well as activities to improve socioeconomic status. To guarantee that particular projects are created, performed, and sustained promptly, legislators, government and non-government agencies, other parties, and, most importantly, individual contributions and support are required.
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
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\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. 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Beneficial treatment effects of cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-intoxicating compound isolated from the cannabis plant, have been shown in multiple states of cognitive impairment, including neurodegenerative (Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease), neuroinflammatory (sepsis-induced encephalopathy) and neurological disorders (ischemic brain injury). CBD can also treat some of the symptoms of schizophrenia, including cognitive deficits (impairments in learning and memory), which is a major symptom domain of the illness that is largely resistant to existing antipsychotic medications. However, empirical evidence suggests the presence of an ‘entourage effect’ in cannabis; that is, observations that medicinal cannabis seems to work better in some instances when administered as a whole-plant extract. While scientific evidence highlights isolated CBD as a strong candidate for treating cognitive impairment, the entourage effect suggests that the co-operation of other plant molecules could provide further benefits. This chapter explores the scientific evidence surrounding the benefits of CBD and other specific key phytochemicals in cannabis: linalool, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, flavonoids and anthocyanin, on brain health and cognition.",book:{id:"7040",slug:"recent-advances-in-cannabinoid-research",title:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research"},signatures:"Katrina Weston-Green",authors:null},{id:"64031",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81224",title:"Trends of Protein Aggregation in Neurodegenerative Diseases",slug:"trends-of-protein-aggregation-in-neurodegenerative-diseases",totalDownloads:1631,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Protein aggregation trends in neurodegenerative diseases are largely unmapped due to the complex nature of protein-protein interactions and their regulatory machineries such as protein proteolytic systems. Since the protein aggregation process in humans is a slow process, early determination of the patients that will develop neurodegenerative diseases later in life is critical in terms of starting effective treatment, which will reduce the expensive health care. In this chapter, I will discuss the nature of protein aggregation of signature proteins and the status of protein proteolytic systems such as proteasome and autophagosome in Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, Huntington’s disease, and prion disease under the light of recent studies including our new findings.",book:{id:"7480",slug:"neurochemical-basis-of-brain-function-and-dysfunction",title:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction"},signatures:"Abdulbaki Agbas",authors:[{id:"250609",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdulbaki",middleName:null,surname:"Agbas",slug:"abdulbaki-agbas",fullName:"Abdulbaki Agbas"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3565,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"58817",title:"Clinical Application of MR Spectroscopy in Identifying Biochemical Composition of the Intracranial Pathologies",slug:"clinical-application-of-mr-spectroscopy-in-identifying-biochemical-composition-of-the-intracranial-p",totalDownloads:2097,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) provides useful information regarding metabolic composition in the tissues, and advanced spectroscopic methods are used to quantify markers of tumor membrane turnover and proliferation (e.g., choline (Cho)), energy homoeostasis (e.g., creatine (Cr)), intact glioneuronal structures (e.g., N-acetylaspartate (NAA)), and necrosis (e.g., lactate (Lac) or lipids). Results are usually expressed as metabolite ratios rather than absolute metabolite concentrations. Because glial tumors have some specific metabolic characteristics that differ according to the grade of tumor, there is a potential for MR spectroscopy to increase the sensitivity of routinely used diagnostic imaging. MRS also has many diagnostic applications in neurosciences to support the diagnosis in conditions like demyelination, infections, and dementia and in postradiotherapy cases. Biochemical changes in the metabolism of tumor cells related to malignant transformation are reflected in changes of particular metabolite concentration in the tumor tissue. Our prospective study aimed to analyze the usefulness of proton MR spectroscopy in grading of glioma and to correlate various metabolite ratios like choline/creatine, choline/N-acetylaspartate, N-acetylaspartate/creatine, and lactate/creatine with the histopathological grades of glioma.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"B C Hamsini, Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy, Sankar Neelakantan\nand Sunitha Palasamudram Kumaran",authors:[{id:"211054",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunitha",middleName:null,surname:"P Kumaran",slug:"sunitha-p-kumaran",fullName:"Sunitha P Kumaran"},{id:"221485",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankar",middleName:null,surname:"Neelakantan",slug:"sankar-neelakantan",fullName:"Sankar Neelakantan"},{id:"398223",title:"Dr.",name:"B C",middleName:null,surname:"Hamsini",slug:"b-c-hamsini",fullName:"B C Hamsini"},{id:"398224",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhavana",middleName:null,surname:"Nagabhushana Reddy",slug:"bhavana-nagabhushana-reddy",fullName:"Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy"}]},{id:"62431",title:"The United Chemicals of Cannabis: Beneficial Effects of Cannabis Phytochemicals on the Brain and Cognition",slug:"the-united-chemicals-of-cannabis-beneficial-effects-of-cannabis-phytochemicals-on-the-brain-and-cogn",totalDownloads:1845,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"‘Medicinal cannabis’ can be defined as pharmaceutical grade cannabis-based products used for the treatment of illness. Beneficial treatment effects of cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-intoxicating compound isolated from the cannabis plant, have been shown in multiple states of cognitive impairment, including neurodegenerative (Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease), neuroinflammatory (sepsis-induced encephalopathy) and neurological disorders (ischemic brain injury). CBD can also treat some of the symptoms of schizophrenia, including cognitive deficits (impairments in learning and memory), which is a major symptom domain of the illness that is largely resistant to existing antipsychotic medications. However, empirical evidence suggests the presence of an ‘entourage effect’ in cannabis; that is, observations that medicinal cannabis seems to work better in some instances when administered as a whole-plant extract. While scientific evidence highlights isolated CBD as a strong candidate for treating cognitive impairment, the entourage effect suggests that the co-operation of other plant molecules could provide further benefits. This chapter explores the scientific evidence surrounding the benefits of CBD and other specific key phytochemicals in cannabis: linalool, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, flavonoids and anthocyanin, on brain health and cognition.",book:{id:"7040",slug:"recent-advances-in-cannabinoid-research",title:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research"},signatures:"Katrina Weston-Green",authors:null},{id:"68776",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Chemical Basis of Neural Function and Dysfunction",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-chemical-basis-of-neural-function-and-dysfunction",totalDownloads:1133,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"7480",slug:"neurochemical-basis-of-brain-function-and-dysfunction",title:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction"},signatures:"Thomas Heinbockel and Antonei B. 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The process of synaptic transmission generates or inhibits electrical impulses in a network of neurons for the processing of information. Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, while GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter. The balance of glutamatergic and GABAergic tone is crucial to normal neurologic function. Through synaptic transmission, this information is communicated from the presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell. Amino acid neurotransmitters primarily glutamic acid, GABA, aspartic acid, and glycine are single amino acid residues released from presynaptic nerve terminals in response to an action potential and cross the synaptic cleft to bind with specific receptor on the postsynaptic membrane. The integral role of amino acid neurotransmitters is important on the normal functioning of the brain. 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