Substituting Eqs. (19) and (20) into (21), the spray tip velocity is represented as follows:
utip=βu¯tip.E8
\n
Before the transition timing, the spray tip is in steady state, so that the momentum flux and fuel mass flow rate integrated over the tip cross-sectional area \x3c!--(M.tip and m.f,tip)--\x3e are constant, and the ratio of them is equal to the fuel velocity at the nozzle exit (uf) due to the constant injection rate.
M.tipm.f,tip=uf,E9
\n
where \x3c!--m.f,tip--\x3e is equal to the injection rate of fuel mass \x3c!--(m.f)--\x3e.
\n
Therefore, after substituting Eq. (6) into (9), the ūtip can be derived as
u¯tip=ρfX¯f,tipufρtip,E10
\n
where X¯f,tip is the average fuel volume fraction over cross-section at the spray tip, as well as the average density in the tip cross-section (ρtip) can be calculated by the following equation according to [29],
ρtip=ρfX¯f,tip+ρa1−X¯f,tip.E11
\n
So far the spray tip penetration (Stip) can be obtained by
dStipdt=βρfX¯f,tipufρtip.E12
\n
Eq. (12) cannot be solved as a continuous equation. Thus, the discrete method is used to calculate the spray tip penetration. The spray tip penetration at any time of t is obtained based on the spray tip penetration and the average velocity over the tip cross-section at the last time step (t – Δt) as Eq. (13)
Stipt=Stipt−Δt+βu¯tipt−ΔtΔt.E13
\n
And the average velocity over the tip cross-section at time t is obtained as
u¯tipt=ρfX¯f,tiptufρtipt.E14
\n
After the transition timing, the total momentum flux and fuel mass flow rate over the tip cross-section decelerate from the values of steady state because the information of fuel injection termination already arrived at the spray tip [18]. However, Eq. (9) is valid also for the period after the transition timing, which had been demonstrated in [31]. Thus, the same form as Eq. (10) are available for the average velocity over the tip cross-section, where X¯f,tip and ρtip are replaced by those after the transition timing, X¯f,tip,atr and ρtip, atr.
utip,atr=ρfX¯f,tip,atrufρtip,atr,E15
\n
where ρtip, atr is calculated by Eq. (11), in which X¯f,tip is replaced by X¯f,tip,atr. The spray tip penetration after transition timing can be calculated as
dStipdt=βρfX¯f,tip,atrufρtip,atrt>ttr,E16
\n
where ttr is the transition timing.
\n
To obtain X¯f,tip,atr, air volume and fuel volume in spray can be treated as separate regions as “air” region and “fuel” region shown in the figure, respectively. Before the transition timing, the fuel mass flow rate at the tip is constant, and the volumetric flow rate at the tip, \x3c!--m.f/ρf--\x3e is equal to that at the nozzle exit. However, after the transition timing, the fuel volumetric flow rate decreases from its initial value in the steady state because the information of fuel injection termination already arrived at the spray tip [19]. To describe this process, the volumetric flow rate, \n\x3c!--m.f/ρf,--\x3e was assumed to be shared by fuel and air for the period after the transition timing. Based on this assumption, part of air flows into “fuel” region from “air” region and mixes with fuel, so that the “fuel” region for the steady state is replaced by the “fuel + air” region after transition timing, and then the mixture of “fuel + air” region flows out through the tip with the volumetric flow rate of \x3c!--m.f/ρf.--\x3e Considering the “fuel + air” region at time “t” as the control volume, the mixture flows out of the control volume from tip cross-section with the volumetric flow rate of \x3c!--m.f/ρf.--\x3e Because of the fluid continuity, air will flow into the control volume with the same volumetric flow rate as compensation. Therefore, at any time “t” after transition timing, the total volume of air flow into “fuel + air” region is \x3c!--m.f/ρf⋅t−ttr.--\x3e For simplicity, it is assumed that the air and fuel mix with each other immediately in the “fuel + air” region. Then, the fuel volume fraction in the fluid flowing out of the tip is calculated by the following equation
Xf,fm=mft/ρfmft/ρf+Cdm.f/ρf⋅t−ttr,E17
\n
where mf(t) is mass of fuel in the spray, t is the time from injection start, and Cd is a model constant. Finally, Xf,tip,atr is derived as
Xf,tip,atr=Xf,fmm.f/ρfV.spray.E18
\n
Whence the spray tip penetration after the transition timing is able to be obtained, and the method for solving Eq. (16) is same as that before transition timing.
\n\n
\n
3.2. Spray tail penetration
\n
After EOI, the mixture near the nozzle becomes very lean due to the termination of the fuel supply. Therefore, it is assumed that the part of the spray near the nozzle acts as ambient air zone and a spray tail exists. Knowing the position of the spray tail, the start time of the interaction with the subsequent spray can be determined.
\n
In this study, the spray tail position is determined as a cross-section of a spray where 10% of total fuel is contained up to the nozzle. It can be imagined that the tip of the spray formed by this 10% fuel equates the total spray tail. In other words, the tail penetration of the spray containing total injected fuel can be calculated by the tip penetration of the spray formed by an injection whose quantity is equal to 10% of total injection quantity. Figure 5 shows the examples of calculated tail penetrations compared to the tip penetrations for the injection quantity of 2.5 and 25 mg cases.
\n
Figure 5.
Calculated spray tip and tail penetrations for the injection quantity of 2.5 and 25 mg cases.
\n
\n\n
\n
4. Spray-to-spray interaction modeling
\n
Another primary respect of simulation for diesel combustion with multiple-injection is to describe the interaction between the sprays from sequent injections. Figure 6 shows the spray-to-spray interaction, the interaction occurs after the arrival of the second spray tip at the first spray tail, and the entrainment from the first spray to the second spray is involved to represent the interaction.
\n
The entrainment behavior can be considered as that the spray entrains the ambient gas through the spray boundary that has a conical surface, therefore the entrainment rate can be represent as the product of air density, entrainment velocity over the spray boundary surface, and the area of spray boundary surface. After the second spray tip touches the first spray tail, the entrainment area of the second spray is divided into two parts by the first spray tail as shown in Figure 6. The ratio of the entrainment rate of these two parts (Re) can be obtained as Eq. (19) with assumptions as the air and the first spray have the same density and the entrainment velocity uniformly distribute over the spray boundary surface in the ambient air zone and the first spray zone, respectively:
Re=CeAairAspray,E19
\n
where Aair and Aspray are the areas of the spray boundary surface in the ambient air zone and the first spray zone, respectively. Ce is a coefficient given to describe the difference between the entrainment velocity over the spray boundary surface in the ambient air zone and the first spray zone. Based on Eq. (19) and the total entrainment rate of the second spray, it is able to obtain the amount of the first spray mixture entrained into the second spray.
\n
Figure 6.
Spray interaction diagram.
\n
Meanwhile, the swirl effects on the spray-to-spray interaction cannot be ignored. The swirl flow does not only decrease the spray penetration [32] but also deviates the spray path [23]. As that shown in Figure 7, the swirl effects causes the second spray tip to overtake the first spray tail and tip earlier than the case without swirl flow effects, and reduce the overlap region between the first and second sprays. Thus, based on the assumption that the entrainment rate is proportional to the spray surface area, the ratio (Re) of the entrainment rate from the ambient gas and that from the first spray have to be recalculated as follows:
Re=Aupt+1−RSAAbltRSAAbltE20
\n
Figure 7.
Diagram of sprays interaction [34].
\n
where Aupt and Ablt are the spray boundary surface areas up and below the first spray tail, respectively, and RSA is the ratio of surface area of the second spray in the first spray over Ablt.
\n
To calculate Aupt and Ablt, the reduction of spray penetration in injection direction by swirl flow are considered to determine the position at which the second spray tip touches the first spray tail. The ratio (RMJ) between the momentum from injected fuel (Mj) and total momentum in the spray, which includes the momentums from the injected fuel (Mj) and the entrained gas (Ms), is introduced as a factor for the penetration. The specific expressions are as follows:
RMJ=MjMj2+Ms2,E21
Mj=∫m.fujdt,E22
Ms=∫m.asu¯sdt,E23
\n
where \x3c!--m.f--\x3e and uj are the mass flow rate and the velocity of fuel at the nozzle exit, \x3c!--m.as--\x3e is the entrainment rate with swirl flow effect, which is calculated according to the equation proposed by Kau et al. [33], and ūs is the average swirl velocity over the total spray penetration. The spray penetration (SSE) in the injection direction with swirl flow effect can be represented as RMJStip, where Stip is the penetration without swirl flow effect. When the SSE of the second spray tip is larger than that of the first spray tail, the second spray tip is treated to arrive at the first spray tail.
\n
To calculate RSA, the spray deflection by swirl flow was considered in a simple manner as shown in Figure 8. The shadow part expresses the overlap between the two sprays. The deviation angles θ1 and θ2, and the spray spreading angles α1 and α2 are assumed to have small values for this simplification. In this way, RSA is approximately proportional to the ratio of the angle between the first spray windward and the second spray leeward over the second spray spreading angle as in Eq. (24)
RSA∝θ2+α22−θ1−α12α2.E24
\n
Figure 8.
Simplification of sprays interaction with swirl flow effect [34].
\n
The ratio (RMS) of the momentum from entrained gas over the total momentum in the spray, which is calculated by Eq. (25), is assumed to represent the degree of spray deflection instead of θ1 and θ2 in Eq. (24).
RMS=MsMj2+Ms2.E25
\n
\n
\n
5. Wall impingement effects introduced in stochastic combustion model
\n
\n
5.1. Wall impingement effects on the turbulent mixing
\n
Adjusting the injection time earlier than top dead center (TDC) is often used to realize the PCCI or LTC, especially for the multiple-injection case in which the pilot injection time is usually advanced to the middle even at the early stage of compression stroke. The early injection timing makes the spray flow into the squish region and impinges on the cylinder liner or piston top as shown in Figure 9. Due to the low temperature of the walls and/or the adherence of fuel on the piston top surface, oxidation reaction and mixing in the mixture are attenuated [35]. To involve such effects in the stochastic combustion model, the reduction of fuel-air turbulent mixing rate was considered according to the volume ratio of the spray flowed into the squish area and total spray. The temperature effect mentioned above was not considered; however, the overall oxidation reaction rate is lowered as a result of reduced mixing rate.
\n
Figure 9.
Wall impingement diagram.
\n
As shown in Figure 9, if the spray tip cross-section impinges on the bowl lip edge, the spray can be divided into two parts, squish part and bowl part. Thus the volume ratio between squish part and incremental spray (Rsq, inc) can be calculated as follows:
Rsq,inc=CθAupCθAup+Abl,E26
\n
where Aup and Abl are the areas of the cross-sectional area at impinging timing over and below the bowl lip edge, respectively, and the C(θ) is a function of the angle between the spray central line and cylinder head, and it is used to describe the ratio between spray spreading velocity in squish region and bowl region. This function is selected as cot θ in this study, because it represents the ratio of the horizontal and vertical components of average spray tip velocity when the piston top is treated as a horizontal area. Sequentially, the volume ratio of spray flowed into squish region and total spray (Rsq) can be obtained as follows
Rsq=∫Rsq,incV.spraydtVspray,E27
\n
where tim is the impinging timing and Vspray is the total spray volume. And the stochastic collision frequency (ω) that represents the turbulent mixing rate is calculated as follows:
ω=ω01−CmRsqGjx,E28
\n
where Cm is a constant, ω0 is the collision frequency of free spray, and Gj is the total turbulence energy generated by injection. Gj is used with minus power (x), because the larger turbulence energy generated by injection causes the stronger mixing (larger ω). Cm and x were selected as 6.2 and –0.2 respectively, which are calibrated by experimental heat release rates under different injection time cases.
\n
\n
\n
5.2. Wall impingement effects on the air entrainment
\n
Figure 10 shows abstracted diagram of the situation of spray impinging on the wall in the cylinder. The upper spray represents the initial stage of wall impingement. In this stage, it is reasonable to consider that the air entrainment is enhanced because the surface area of spray is enlarged by wall impingement [36–38]. Thus, to improve the stochastic combustion model, a constant (CETRM) is given to multiply the entrainment rate of free spray after the wall impinging. In addition, the interaction between adjacent sprays is an important factor on air entrainment decrease, the primary reason can be considered that the adjacent sprays overlap after wall impingement as shown in Figure 10 (below sprays) decreases the entrainment area of spray, thereby the entrainment rate is suppressed. In order to involve these effects in a simple way, the ratio of the total spray volume and the chamber volume was used to represent the intensity of the interaction between adjacent sprays, and the interaction effect on entrainment rate is introduced as follows:
m.a=m.a01−CvrVspray×nholeVcyl,E29
\n
where \x3c!--m.a--\x3e is the air entrainment rate affected by spray-volume increase, \x3c!--m.a0--\x3e is the original air entrainment rate, nhole is the number of nozzle holes, Vcyl is the volume in cylinder, and Cvr is a constant to fit the experiment data.
\n
CETRM and Cvr are set as 1.5 and 0.8, respectively, based on the comparison between calculated and experimental heat release rates.
\n
Figure 10.
Spray propagation along the wall.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Emission models
\n
\n
6.1. NOx model
\n
Based on the assumption that most of the NOx is NO, the production of NO during combustion process is computed by the extended Zeldovich mechanism [39]. Meanwhile, the NO normally produces at a high rate in the mixture with equivalence ratio around 1.0 accompanying with high temperature. Thus, the NO concentration is estimated in the fluid elements whose temperature is over 1200 K with the equilibrium species including C, CO, CO2, O2, O, OH, H2, H, H2O, N2, and NO.
\n
\n
\n
6.2. Soot model
\n
The soot model refers to the Moss’s soot model [40]. Moss’s soot model is a semi-empirical soot model derived based on laminar diffusion flame. The soot particles inception and coagulation are considered for the calculation of soot particles number density, and the soot particles surface growth and oxidation are calculated to obtain the soot volume fraction. The soot oxidation rates per unit area by O2 and hydroxyl radical (OH) are introduced to calculate the soot oxidation rate in this model. The soot oxidation rate per unit area by O2 (RSO) is calculated using the Nagle and Strickland-Constable (NSC) model [41]. The soot oxidation rate per unit area by OH (RSOH) is considered by referring Neoh’s equation [42].
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Validation of the developed combustion model
\n
\n
7.1. Test engine
\n
The test engine is a water-cooled single-cylinder four-stroke-cycle direct-injection diesel engine equipped common-rail injection system. The standard specifications are given in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Engine type
\n
Single-cylinder, DI-diesel engine
\n
\n
\n
Bore × Stroke
\n
85 mm × 96.9 mm
\n
\n
\n
Displacement
\n
550 cc
\n
\n
\n
Compression ratio
\n
16.3
\n
\n
\n
Combustion chamber
\n
Reentrant type (51.6 cavity)
\n
\n
\n
Injection system
\n
Common-rail system 0.125 mm × 7 holes nozzle
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Standard specifications of test engine.
\n
All of the experiments were performed at thermally steady states of the engine at a fixed speed of 1500 rpm, an inlet coolant temperature of 80°C, and a lubricating oil temperature of 80°C. The intake pressure was 0.1 MPa and the intake temperature was 35°C. Exhaust back pressure valve was fully open. The fuel was JIS No. 2 diesel fuel (density at 15°C = 820.2 kg/m3 and cetane index = 54.7). The averaged in-cylinder pressure of 50 cycles was used to calculate the heat release rate, which was measured using a piezoelectric pressure transducer (Kistler 6052A).
\n
\n
\n
7.2. Calculation conditions
\n
With the aim for validating the simulation of combustion with multistage injection, at first, the pilot/main two-stage injection strategies were conducted in experiment and calculation, and the calculation ran from intake valve closure (IVC) of –145°ATDC to exhaust valve open (EVO) of 125°ATDC. Since the start of main injection is normally set near TDC in the pilot/main injection strategy, the main injection timing (θmain) was fixed at 1°ATDC, and pilot injection timing and quantity were varied. And the engine operating condition was selected as high load, for which the indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) was set to 1.01 MPa, in order to observe the variation of combustion phases including premixed combustion and mixing-controlled combustion affected by pilot injection condition. The main experimental conditions are listed in Table 2.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Injection pressure
\n
125 MPa
\n
\n
\n
Total injection quantity
\n
32 mm3 per cycle
\n
\n
\n
Pilot injection quantity (qfpilot)
\n
2, 4, and 6 mm3 per cycle
\n
\n
\n
Pilot injection timing (spilot)
\n
–9, –19, and –24°ATDC
\n
\n
\n
Main injection timing
\n
1°ATDC
\n
\n
\n
EGR ratio
\n
20%
\n
\n
\n
Swirl ratio
\n
2.0
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Experimental conditions.
\n
\n
\n
7.3. Pressure and heat release rate
\n
To valid the combustion model, the in-cylinder pressures and the heat release rates were calculated and compared to the experimental data at first. Figures 11–13 show the in-cylinder pressures and heat release rates for different pilot injection timings and quantities. The simulation results obtain the similar levels of pressures and heat release rates to those of the experiments. It is also observed that the model is able to capture the tendencies of the pressure and heat release rate when varying the pilot injection timing and injection quantity.
\n
Figure 11.
Effects of pilot injection quantity on the in-cylinder pressure and the heat release rate (θpilot = –9°ATDC).
\n
Figure 12.
Effects of pilot injection quantity on the in-cylinder pressure and the heat release rate (θpilot = –19°ATDC).
\n
Figure 13.
Effects of pilot injection quantity on the in-cylinder pressure and the heat release rate (θpilot = –24°ATDC).
\n
\n
\n
7.4. Emissions calculation
\n
Based on the good agreement in the pressures and the heat release rates, the NOx and soot emissions were calculated. Figure 14 shows the NOx (left) and soot (right) emissions against the pilot injection timing. The results reveal that the NOx calculation obtains the similar emission level and the variation caused by pilot injection conditions changing with the measured data. Regarding to the soot emission, the soot emissions level obtained by the model is comparable with the measured data, and the calculated soot emissions are able to reproduce the increase with the increase in pilot injection quantity at fixed pilot injection timings, which is observed in the experimental data. Although the tendency of soot emissions variation with pilot injection timing retarded does not completely coincide with that of every experiment with different pilot injection quantity, the general tendency can be captured correctly.
\n
Figure 14.
NOx and soot emissions.
\n
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusion
\n
In this study, a stochastic combustion model was introduced to develop a phenomenological combustion model for modern diesel engines. In order to be able to describe the combustion process of advanced combustion mode, the spray propagations after EOI, spray-to-spray interaction, swirl effects, and wall impingement effects were modeled based on their physical phenomena in appropriate ways for the stochastic combustion model. Then, the developed combustion model was validated based on the experimental data from a single-cylinder diesel engine with pilot/main two-stage injection. The results revealed that the model is able to accurately predict the combustion of the diesel engine with pilot/main two-stage injection, and reasonable prediction of NOx and soot emissions can be obtained by this model. Specific conclusions are as follows:
(1) A zero-dimensional spray propagation model was derived. The spray model is able to predict the spray evolution including spray tip penetration and overall air entrainment after EOI. It is capable to catch the spray propagation tendency after EOI as that well recognized by the fundamental study. Thus, based on introducing this model, the accuracy of the combustion model can be improved especially for the short injection duration case in which the ignition is later than the EOI. As for the multiple-injection case, the thermodynamic states of the gas in the cylinder before the later injection start can be predict more realistically.
(2) Presumed spray tail was proposed for zero-dimensional spray model, which allows to take account of the fast dilution of the mixture near the injector tip after EOI, which resulted by the terminated fuel supply and increased air entrainment rate near the injector tip after EOI. And thanks to the presumed spray tail, the interaction between sprays from sequent injections was formulated by the rate of entrainment into the later spray from the former spray and/or the surrounding gas. Meanwhile, spray deflection by swirl flow cannot be neglected when imitating the interaction between sprays from sequent injection. And the interaction with swirl flow effect was described based on a simple geometrical consideration and formulated using the momentum from injected fuel and entrained gas. In this way, the stochastic combustion model can be used for simulation of combustion with multistage injection.
(3) To consider the wall impingement effect in early injection timing case, after wall impinging, the volume ratio of the spray flowed into the squish area, and total spray was introduced to reduce the fuel-air mixing rate that can involve the combustion chamber shape effects in the phenomenological combustion model.
(4) Air entrainment rate enhancement caused by wall impingement was considered by a factor with air entrainment rate of free spray during initial stage of wall impingement. And the reduction of main spray entrainment rate by interaction between adjacent sprays was formulated by the ratio between spray volume and chamber volume to balance the effect of enhanced air entrainment rate in the late combustion period. According to the results, effects of wall impingement and adjacent spray interactions on the entrainment rate are helpful to well predict the heat release rate in initial and late combustion periods, respectively.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The experiments and modeling work presented here had been performed in Combustion and Power Engineering Laboratory at Kyoto University. The research is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51509051) and Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province of China (Grant No. LC2015017).
\n
\n',keywords:"diesel engine, combustion modeling, phenomenological model, possibility density function",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51796.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51796.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51796",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51796",totalDownloads:891,totalViews:350,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 9th 2015",dateReviewed:"June 29th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 5th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In order to satisfy the growing demand for the reduction of fuel consumption and pollutant emissions, various technologies have been employed in diesel engines. Consequently, to determine the optimal combustion control strategy, many parameters such as injection pressure, nozzle diameter, injection timing, injection quantity, and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate should be selected properly corresponding to the engine operating conditions. It is difficult to obtain the appropriate strategies without understanding the change in combustion process when varying these parameters. To realize parametric studies on combustion control strategy of modern diesel engines, a phenomenological combustion model based on stochastic method was developed. In this model, the modeling of the spray tip and tail penetration after the end of injection, and interaction between the sprays of sequent injection stages were focused on to modify the stochastic combustion model for combustion simulation with multiple injection. The effects of swirl, wall impingement, and adjacent spray interaction are formulated simply to make the combustion model more accurate and computationally efficient. The simulation results were compared with experimental data from a single-cylinder test engine for pilot/main two-stage injection. The results reveal that the model has capability to accurately predict the combustion characteristics and emissions of diesel engine with pilot/main two-stage injection.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51796",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51796",book:{slug:"developments-in-combustion-technology"},signatures:"Long Liu",authors:[{id:"178972",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Long",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Long Liu",slug:"long-liu",email:"liulong@hrbeu.edu.cn",position:null,institution:{name:"Harbin Engineering University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Stochastic combustion model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Model description",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Spray model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1. Spray penetration including the spray evolution after EOI",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2. Spray tail penetration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Spray-to-spray interaction modeling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Wall impingement effects introduced in stochastic combustion model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1. Wall impingement effects on the turbulent mixing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.2. Wall impingement effects on the air entrainment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Emission models",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.1. NOx model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.2. Soot model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. Validation of the developed combustion model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"7.1. Test engine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"7.2. Calculation conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.3. Pressure and heat release rate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"7.4. Emissions calculation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nColban, W. F., Miles, P. C., and Oh, S. Effect of intake pressure on emissions from an automotive diesel engine operating in low temperature combustion regimes, SAE Paper 2007-01-4063, 2007.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nLee, S. and Reitz, R. D. Spray targeting to minimize soot and CO formation in premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) combustion with a HSDI diesel engine, SAE Paper 2006-01-0918, 2006.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nCho, K., Han, M., Sluder, C. S., Wagner, R. M., and Lilik, G. K. Experimental investigation of the effects of fuel characteristics on high efficiency clean combustion in a light-duty diesel engine, SAE Paper 2009-01-2669, 2009.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nOjeda, W., Zoldak, P., Espinosa, R., and Kumar, R. Development of a fuel injection strategy for diesel LTC, SAE Paper 2008-01-0057, 2008.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nLakshminarayanan, P. A. and Aghav, Y. V. Modeling diesel combustion, Springer, Dordrecht/Heidelberg/London/New York, 2009.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nShahed, S. M., Chiu, W. S., and Yumlu, V. S. A preliminary model for the formation of nitric oxides in DI diesel engine and its application in parametric studies, SAE Paper 730083, 1973.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nDent, J. C. and Mehta, P. S. Phenomenological combustion model for a quiescent chamber diesel engine, SAE Paper 811235, 1981.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nHiroyasu, H., Kadota, T., and Arai, M. Development and use of a spray combustion modeling to predict diesel engine efficiency and pollutant emissions: Part 1. Combustion modeling, Bulletin of JSME, 26 (1983), pp. 569–575.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nKaminoto, T., Chang, Y. J., and Kobayashi, H. Rate of heat release and its prediction of a diesel flame in a rapid compression machine, SAE Paper 841076, 1984.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nIkegami, M., Shioji, M., and Koike, M. A stochastic approach to model the combustion process in direct-injection diesel engines. In: Twentieth International Symposium on Combustion, (1984), pp. 217–224.\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nHotta, Y., Inayoshi, M., Nakakita, K., Fujiwara, K., and Sakata, I. Achieving lower exhaust emissions and better performance in an HSDI diesel engine with multiple injection, SAE Paper 2005-01-0928, 2005.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nBadami, M., Mallamo, F., Millo, F., and Rossi, E. E. Influence of multiple injection strategies on emissions, combustion noise and BSFC of a DI common rail diesel engine, SAE Paper 2002-01-0503, 2002.\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nVanegas, A., Won, H., Felsch, C., et al. Experimental investigation of the effect of multiple injections on pollutant formation in a common-rail DI diesel engine, SAE Paper 2008-01-1911, 2008.\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nInagaki, K., Ueda, M., Mizuta, J., et al. Universal diesel engine simulator (UniDES): 1st report: Phenomenological multi-zone PDF model for predicting the transient behavior of diesel engine combustion, SAE Paper 2008-01-0843, 2008.\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nDulbecco, A. and Lafossas, F. A. A 0D phenomenological approach to model diesel HCCI combustion with multi-injection strategies using probability density functions and detailed tabulated chemistry, SAE Paper 2009-01-0678, 2009.\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nNicolas, B., Christian, C., and Pascal, H. A physical 0D combustion model using tabulated chemistry with presumed probability density function approach for multi-injection diesel engines, SAE Paper 2010-01-1493, 2010.\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nSangras, R., Kwon, O. C., and Faeth, G. M. Self-preserving properties of unsteady round nonbuoyant turbulent starting jets and puffs in still fluids. Journal of Heat Transfer, 124 (2002), pp. 460–469.\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nMusculus, M.P.B. Entrainment waves in decelerating transient turbulent jets, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 638 (2009), pp. 117–140.\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nMusculus, M.P.B. and Kattke, K. Entrainment waves in diesel jets, SAE Paper 2009-01-1355, 2009.\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nMusculus, M. P. B., Lachaux, T., Pickett, L. M., et al. End-of-injection over-mixing and unburned hydrocarbon emissions in low-temperature-combustion diesel engines, SAE Paper 2007-01-0907, 2007.\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nMoon, S., Matsumoto, Y., and Nishida, K. Entrainment evaporation and mixing characteristics of diesel sprays around end-of-injection, SAE Paper 2009-01-0849, 2009.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nKastengren, A., Powell, C. F., Tilocco, F. Z., et al. End-of-injection behavior of diesel sprays measured with X-ray radiography, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 134 (2012), 094501 (1–4).\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nYamane, K., Ikegami, M., and Shioji, M. Fuel injection pressure and nozzle orifice diameter in direct-injection diesel engine, Proceedings of International Symposium COMODIA, 94 (1994), pp. 225–230.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nIshiyama, T., Shioji, M., and Ihara, T. Analysis of ignition processes in a fuel spray using an ignition model including turbulent mixing and reduced chemical kinetics, International Journal of Engine Research, 4 (2003), pp. 155–162.\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nIshiyama, T., Kee, S. S., and Kitamura, Y. Modeling and experiment of NOx formation in DI-PCCI combustion, SAE Paper 2007-01-0194, 2007.\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nHoribe, N. and Ishiyama, T. Study on selection of injection conditions for diesel PCCI combustion: Numerical investigation using an ignition-combustion model based on stochastic approach. Transactions of JSME(B), 76 (2010), pp. 699–706, (In Japanese).\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nJanicka, J., Kolbe, W., and Kollmann, W. Closure of the transport equation for the probability density function of turbulent scalar fields, Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics, 4 (1979), pp. 47–66.\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nWakuri, Y., Fujii, M., Amitani, T., and Tsuneya, R. Studies on the penetration of fuel spray in a diesel engine, Bulletin of JSME, 3 (1960), pp. 123–130.\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nSchreiber, M., Sakak, A. S., and Lingens, A. A reduced thermokinetic model for the autoignition of fuels with variable octane ratings, In: Twenty-fifth Symposium. (International) on Combustion, (1994), pp. 933–940.\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nWoschni, G. Universally applicable equation for the instantaneous heat transfer coefficient in the internal combustion engine, SAE Paper 670931, 1967.\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nLong Liu, Naoto Horibe, and Takuji Ishiyama, Combustion Modeling for a Diesel Engine with Multi-Stage Injection Using a Stochastic Combustion Model, Procs. IMech. E., Part D: J. Auto. Eng., 228 (5), pp. 516–532, 2014.\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nHiroyasu, H., Kadota, T., Arai, M. Supplementary Comments: Fuel spray characterization in diesel engines. In: James N. Mattavi and Charles A. Amann (eds) Combustion modeling in reciprocating engines. Plenum Press., New York, (1980), pp. 369–408.\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nKau, C. J., Heap, M. P., Tyson, T. J., and Wilson, R. P. The prediction of nitric oxide formation in a direct injection diesel engine, Proceedings of 16th Symposium (Internatinal) on Combustion, (1977), pp.337–350.\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nLong Liu, Naoto Horibe, Issei Tamura, Tatsuya Komizo, and Takuji Ishiyama, Study on NOx and Soot Emissions in Diesel Engines with Multi-Stage Injection Based on a Stochastic Combustion Model, International Journal of Automotive Engineering, Vol.5(1), pp. 7–13, 2014.\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nLiu, L., Horibe, N., and Ishiyama, T. Combustion modeling for a diesel engine with multi-stage injection using a stochastic combustion model, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 228 (5), (2014), pp. 516–532.\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nHiroyasu, H., Kadota, T., and Arai, M. Supplementary comments: Fuel spray characterization in diesel engines. In: Mattavi, J.N., and Amann, C.A. (eds), Combustion Modeling in Reciprocating Engines, Plenum Press., New York, (1980), pp. 369–408.\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nKook, S., Park, S., and Bae, C. Influence of early fuel injection timings on premixing and combustion in a diesel engine, Energy & Fuel, 22 (2008), pp. 331–337.\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nHiroyasu, H., Kadota, T., and Arai, M. Development and use of a spray combustion modeling to predict diesel engine efficiency and pollutant emissions (Part 1 Combustion Modeling), Bulletin of the JSME, 26(1983), pp.569-575.\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nBruneaux, G. Mixing process in high pressure diesel jets by normalized laser induced exciplex fluorescence. Part II: Wall impinging versus free jet, SAE Paper 2005-01-2097, 2005.\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nBruneaux, G. and Causse, M. Air entrainment in diesel-like gas jet by simultaneous flow velocity and fuel concentration measurements, comparison of free and wall impinging jet configurations, SAE Paper 2011-01-1828, 2011.\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nLavoie, G. A., Heywood, J. B., and Keck, J.C. Experimental and theoretical investigation of nitric oxide formation in internal combustion engines, Combustion Science and Technology, 1 (1970), pp. 313–326.\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nMoss, J. B., Stewart, C. D., and Young, K. J. Modeling soot formation and burnout in a high-temperature laminar diffusion flame burning under oxygen-enriched conditions, Combustion and Flame, 101 (1995), pp. 491–500.\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nNagle, J. and Strickland-Constable, R. F. Oxidation of carbon between 1000–2000°C, Proceedings of 5th Carbon Conference, 1 (1962), pp. 154–164.\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nNeoh, K.G. Soot burnout in flames, Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (1980).\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Long Liu",address:"liulong@hrbeu.edu.cn",affiliation:'
College of Power and Energy Engineering University, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin, China
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Climate change and variability are the real threats to agriculture and food security [1, 2]. Extreme weather events and uncertainty in rainfall patterns are negatively affecting the agricultural crops [3, 4]. The evidences of global trend in rainfall are unclear due to large regional gaps in spatial coverage and temporal shortfalls in the data. Owing to these changes, the drought is more prevailing in many regions of the world including Pakistan [5].
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Finding evidences reported that high temperature and uneven distribution of rainfall have negative effects on crop productivity all over the world [6]. These changes in weather and climate are likely to affect the food security of developing world where a large fraction of ever-increasing population is already fronting hunger, insecure and unhealthy food [7]. Warming of weather and climate systems can results in highly corresponding changes in the occurrence of extreme events including rise in temperature, uneven rainfall patterns [4]. These extreme events occur due to shift in their distribution, or to change in the shape of distribution. Various studies suggest that a shift in mean accounts for much the change in observed temperature extremes [8]. Comparisons of various studies showed that both daily maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) temperatures have shifted toward higher values in all regions. These shift in temperatures and rainfall significantly effected the cropping patterns, crop yields and phenology [9].
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The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has found evidences of accelerated global warming, climate variability and change since the early 1990s. The IPCC reported that average global temperature in the last 100–150 years has increased by 0.76°C [10]. The variability in temperature altered the phenology of crop, i.e., leaf development, anthesis, harvest, fruit production and in asynchrony between anthesis and pollinators. The variable temperature range resulted in high respiration rates, reduction in pollen germination, shorter grain filling period, lesser biomass production and low yields [4]. High temperature above 35°C in combination with high humidity and low wind speed caused a 4°C increase in temperature, resulting in floret sterility in cereals and fruits [6]. Climate change impact assessment provides the scientific foundation for the development of adaptations to offset the negative impacts of climate change. Keeping in views, the current study was planned to assess the impacts of climate change and adaptations strategies for agronomics crops.
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2. Projections of climate change across the globe especially in ASIA
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World faces dreadful challenges due to changing climate as it is indicated by climatic models that global surface temperature is likely to exceed 1.5°C relative to 1850–1900 for all representative concentration pathways (RCP) scenarios for the end of the twenty-first century [11]. It is likely to exceed 2°C for RCP 6.0 and RCP 8.5 and warming will continue beyond 2100 under all RCP scenarios. Increase of global mean surface temperatures for 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005 is projected to likely be increased 0.3–1.0°C (RCP 2.6), 1.1–2.6°C (RCP 4.5), 1.4–3.1°C (RCP 6.0), 2.6–4.8°C (RCP 8.5) by the of the twenty-first century. It is projected that temperature will increase drastically in arid areas of Pakistan and India and western part of China [11]. Models predictions indicated that erratic rainfall with greater intensity would increase across the region, but higher intense rainfall will occur during summer monsoon season. Increase in aridity in South and Southeast Asia is projected due to decline in winter rainfall. Sea level will rise to 3–16 cm by 2030 and 7–50 cm by 2070 across the globe due to climatic abnormalities and in relation with regional sea level variability [11].
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It is evident from the facts that lives of millions rural poorest people in Asia are highly vulnerable to climate change. There are evidences of prominent increase in intensity and frequency of many extreme events such as heat waves, erratic and uncertain rainfall patterns and more number of hot days, sustained dry spells, tropical cyclones and dust storms in the region. These countries accounted for 91% of the world’s total death and 49% of the world’s total damage due to natural disasters in the last century. South Asia is the most food insecure region with 262 million malnourished people in the world [6, 12]. Discussed facts showed (Table 1) that rural communities that already live in remote dry lands and deserts with inadequate natural resources are most prone to climate change. Agricultural systems being affected by abnormal climatic variables that disturbs the biological, physical and chemical processes of the systems. Number of hot days and warm nights are likely to increase in the Asia from 1961 to 2003 and reduction in cool days and nights was observed especially in the years after the start of El Nino [37]. Tropical cyclones frequency and intensity has increased in Pacific from last few decades [38].
Impact of climate change on cereal crop production.
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3. Impact of climate change on crop production
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Global atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases have significantly increased relative to pre-industrial times [13, 39, 40]. As a result, greenhouse gas forcing is the main cause of the warming of the atmosphere during the past decades [14, 41, 42]. This warming is expected to substantially alter the climate system and change global food production, mainly because temperatures are predicted to increase which in turn will alter the precipitation pattern and increase the frequency of extreme events such as drought [15, 43, 44, 45]. Man-made greenhouse gas emissions as a result of industrialization and urbanization have made significant contributions to global warming and further changes in the global climate. As a result, global temperature rose by 0.83°C from 1906 to 2010 [10]. Global warming also causes changes in precipitation levels and patterns due to higher evapotranspiration and water vapor amounts in the atmosphere with several implications for the global hydrological cycle [16, 46]. As the major water consumer of the developing world and some developed countries, agriculture is one of the most vulnerable water sectors to climate change [17, 18]. Dramatic population growth, associated with reduction of productive land area and water resources, exerts extra pressure on the agricultural sector. To ensure sustainability of agriculture, studying the possible climate change impacts on this sector is essential [9, 19, 47].
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Rate of plant growth and development is dependent upon the temperature surrounding the plant and each species has a specific temperature range represented by a minimum, maximum, and optimum [48, 49, 50]. The expected changes in temperature over the next 30–50 years are predicted to be in the range of 2–3°C Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change [10]. Heat waves or extreme temperature events are projected to become more intense, more frequent, and last longer than what is being currently been observed in recent years [51, 52]. Extreme temperature events may have short-term durations of a few days with temperature increases of over 5°C above the normal temperatures [53]. Extreme events occurring during the summer period would have the most dramatic impact on plant productivity. A recent review by Barlow et al. [54] on the effect of temperature extremes, frost and heat, in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) revealed that frost caused sterility and abortion of formed grains while excessive heat caused reduction in grain number and reduced duration of the grain filling period. Analysis by [55] revealed that daily minimum temperatures will increase more rapidly than daily maximum temperatures leading to the increase in the daily mean temperatures and a greater likelihood of extreme events and these changes could have detrimental effects on grain yield. If these changes in temperature are expected to occur over the next 30 years then understanding the potential impacts on plant growth and development will help develop adaptation strategies to offset these impacts [56, 57].
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Previous studies of climate change impacts on agriculture, using crop yield simulation models [9, 58, 59, 60].or statistical models suggest that climate change will substantially affect productivity of major staple food crops such as maize, because growth and development of crops are mainly dependent on sunlight, temperature, and water [22, 23, 61]. Climate change may modify precipitation, soil water, runoff, and may reduce crop maturation period and increase yield variability and could reduce areas suitable for the production of many crops [24, 62, 63]. Climate change might limit crop production (the amount of a crop that is harvested in a farm, region, state, or country in kilograms or tons) in many areas [64, 65, 66].
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Temperature increases affect most plants, leading to crop yield reduction and complex growth responses [25, 46, 67]. Nevertheless, the impact of increasing temperatures can vary widely between crops and regions. For example, a 1°C increase in the growing period temperature may reduce wheat production by about 3–10% [68], winter wheat productions may be decreased by 5–35%, respectively, under the future warmer and drier conditions [21, 26], and corn yield may be reduced by 2.4–45.6% due to higher temperatures [27, 69]. Even if precipitation is unchanged, the crop production may decrease by 15% on average due to the reduction in crop growth period and increased water stress as the result of higher temperature and evapotranspiration (Schlenker et al. [63]; Yang et al. [16]; Khanal et al. [28]) expected precipitation reductions in arid and semiarid regions of the world, where water is already limited, can have dramatic impacts on crop production [32, 33, 34, 35]. For example, in northwestern Turkey, winter wheat yield may decline more than 20% under future climate change because the growth periods can be shortened as a result of increased temperature, exacerbated by a reduction in precipitation [21, 29, 30, 31]. Higher reduction in wheat yield of 50% was found in Pakistan as shown in Table 2. In some other areas, climatic change might have positive influences on agricultural crop yield, i.e., in dry areas rainfall enhances under wet climatic warming can lead to improved crop productions like in Mexico the wheat yield would be increase by 25% in future (Table 2). Maize, rice, winter wheat and potato crop yield can be enhanced with increasing air temperature and rainfall in the Plain of North China [73]. In Ghana maize yield would be increase by 12% in future (Table 2). The impact of climate change on sugarcane and cotton is shown in Table 3. Higher reduction in cotton yield of 17% and sugarcane yield of 40% was found at USA (Table 3). However, some positive impacts of climate change on sugarcane yield were found in few countries such as Brazil and Australia (Table 3). The impact of climate change on coarse grain, oilseed and other miner crops such as pearl millet, sorghum and sesame are shown in Table 1. Huge reduction in coarse grain and other crops were found in china up to 2030. However, higher losses in oilseed crops were observed at India and Pakistan as shown in Table 1.
Impact of climate change on other crop production.
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Countries
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Coarse grains
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Oilseeds
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Other crops
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China
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−22 to 2
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−12 to 12
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−22 to 2
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Philippines
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−17 to −3
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−10 to 4
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−17 to −3
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Thailand
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−17 to −3
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−10 to 4
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−17 to −3
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Rest S+E Asia
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−17 to −3
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−10 to 4
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−17 to −3
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Bangladesh
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−17 to −3
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−10 to 4
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−17 to −3
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India
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−17 to −3
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−15 to 4
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−17 to −3
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Pakistan
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−17 to −3
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−15 to 4
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−17 to −3
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Rest S Asia
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−17 to −3
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−15 to 4
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−17 to −3
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Table 3.
Productivity shock due to climate change on rice, wheat, and coarse grains by 2030.
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4. Adaptation strategies for agronomic crops
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Climate change adaptation is the action to global warming, which helps to reduce the vulnerabilities in the social and biological system. The main objective of adaptation strategy is to build the resilient in societies against climate change [74].
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Agriculture sector is highly vulnerable to changing climate. Extreme weather conditions and changing patterns of precipitation affects the crop development, growth and yield of crops. High temperature at critical growth stages could reduce the grain filling duration caused the grains sterility and consequently yields reduction. [4]. To avoid the risks in agriculture associated with climate change (CC), adaptation is the key factor that could help to mitigate the negative of climate change. Adaptation strategies provide an opportunity to address the CC challenges and to sustain the crop production [75].
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In the recent year, climate change adaptation has been explored by the farmers in many ways. For example, in Pakistan and Brazil farmers has adapted the climate change variability by adjustment of planting tine and optimization of plant populations [9, 60]. Adjustment of planting date is important to explore the fully potential of crop. High temperature at grain filling stage, reduce the time for grain filling that lead to decrease the yield. Adjusting the planting time with the onset of rains and heat waves would decrease the yield losses. Number of plants per unit area plays a vital role for higher yield in crops especially wheat. The number of productive tillers dies or remains unproductive due to variation in temperature and moisture stress. The optimum plant population compensates the yield loss. The development of improved varieties such as early maturing, drought and heat tolerant are necessary to sustain the productivity under changing climate. The new cultivars would increase the production per unit area under moisture stress and extreme temperatures [76].
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Methane gas is produced form the flooded rice. Flood water in rice blocks the oxygen to penetrate in soil that creates the favorable condition for bacteria that emit the methane gas. So new methods of planting like direct seeded rice and system of rice intensification with Alternate wetting and draying reduce the methane emission and increase the water use efficiency [77].
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Precision management of nutrients can increase the resilience in the crops by increasing the efficiency of fertilizers. Precision management of fertilizers in crops especially maize reduced the use of fertilizers that would enhance the production and soil health that lead to decrease the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) [78]. Ratoon crop of sugarcane is more adaptive to climatic vulnerabilities. Fuel consumption is less for tillage practices, and less soil is disturbed that lead to reduce the GHGs emission. Pit planting is new evolutionary method in sugarcane. In this methods sugarcane seedling are grown in a small pit under field condition. This method improved the aeration and solar radiation that lead to increase the quality of cane juice and number of canes for milling [79]. Weeds are serious issue in the chickpea cultivation. Weeds compete with the chickpea plants for water and nutrients that reduce the growth and yield of chickpea. So integrated weed control improves the yield. GHGs emissions are also reduced due to less use of synthetic weedicides [80] (Table 4).
Climate change and variability have negative effects on crop productivity. Change in precipitation pattern, increase in frequency, and intensity of extreme events such as heat waves and drought have detrimental effects on grain yield. Future projections showed that temperature would be increased by 2–3°C at the end of century. Number of hot days and warm night will be increased in Asia and high intense rainfall will occur in summer monsoon. This warming situation would cause a huge reduction in grain yield of crops by end of century. Wheat yield is expected to decrease by 50% in Pakistan, maize yield by 46% in China, cotton yield by 17% in USA and sugarcane yield would reduce by 30% at India. The negative effects of climate change can be mitigated by developing some adaptation measures. The development of heat tolerant cultivars, modification in current production technologies of crop can offset the negative effects of climate change. In future, climate change impacts should be studies by using low and high emission scenarios for early, mid and late century. The adaptation strategies should be quantified based on modeling approaches.
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\n\n',keywords:"climate change impacts, climate change projections, adaptation strategies",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67439.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67439.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67439",totalDownloads:435,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 13th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 23rd 2018",datePrePublished:"May 30th 2019",datePublished:"November 6th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Climate change is a serious threat to agriculture and food security. Extreme weather conditions and changing patterns of precipitation lead to a decrease in the crop productivity. High temperatures and uncertain rainfall decrease the grain yield of crops by reducing the length of growing period. Future projections show that temperature would be increased by 2.5°C up to 2050. The projected rise in temperature would cause the high frequent and prolong heat waves that can decline the crop production. The rise in temperature results in huge reduction in yield of agronomic crops. Sustaining the crop production under changing climate is a key challenge. Therefore, adaptation measures are required to reduce the climate vulnerabilities. The adverse effect of climate change can be mitigated by developing heat tolerant cultivars and some modification in current production technologies. The development of adaptation strategies in context of changing climate provides the useful information for the stakeholders such as researchers, academia, and farmers in mitigating the negative effects of climate change.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67439",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67439",signatures:"Ishfaq Ahmed, Asmat Ullah, M. Habib ur Rahman, Burhan Ahmad, Syed Aftab Wajid, Ashfaq Ahmad and Shakeel Ahmed",book:{id:"8298",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",bookSignature:"Saddam Hussain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8298.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247858",title:"Dr.",name:"Saddam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"saddam-hussain",fullName:"Saddam Hussain"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"246116",title:"Prof.",name:"Shakeel",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Shakeel Ahmad",slug:"shakeel-ahmad",email:"shakeelahmad@bzu.edu.pk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"273439",title:"Dr.",name:"Asmat",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",fullName:"Asmat Ullah",slug:"asmat-ullah",email:"drasmatu@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Ayub Agriculture Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"273441",title:"Prof.",name:"Ashfaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Ashfaq Ahmad",slug:"ashfaq-ahmad",email:"ashfaqchattha@uaf.edu.pk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"274896",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishfaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Ishfaq Ahmad",slug:"ishfaq-ahmad",email:"ishfaqkanjal@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"285550",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Habib Ur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahaman",fullName:"Muhammad Habib Ur Rahaman",slug:"muhammad-habib-ur-rahaman",email:"habib.rahman@mnsuam.edu.pk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"285553",title:"Mr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",fullName:"Ghulam Abbas",slug:"ghulam-abbas",email:"maharabbastarar@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"285554",title:"Ms.",name:"Zartash",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",fullName:"Zartash Fatima",slug:"zartash-fatima",email:"zartashfatima@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"285555",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Aftab",middleName:null,surname:"Wajid",fullName:"Syed Aftab Wajid",slug:"syed-aftab-wajid",email:"aftabwajid@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286699",title:"Mr.",name:"Burhan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Burhan Ahmad",slug:"burhan-ahmad",email:"burhanahmadkhan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Projections of climate change across the globe especially in ASIA",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Impact of climate change on crop production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Adaptation strategies for agronomic crops",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Field CB. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press; 2012'},{id:"B2",body:'Rezaei EE, Webber H, Gaiser T, Naab J, Ewert F. Heat stress in cereals: Mechanisms and modelling. European Journal of Agronomy. 2015;64:98-113'},{id:"B3",body:'Ullah A, Ahmad A, Khaliq T, Akhtar J. Recognizing production options for pearl millet in Pakistan under changing climate scenarios. 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Response of crop yield and nitrogen use efficiency for wheat-maize cropping system to future climate change in northern China. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2018;262:310-321'},{id:"B41",body:'Leng G, Huang M. Crop yield response to climate change varies with crop spatial distribution pattern. Scientific Reports. 2017;7(1):1463'},{id:"B42",body:'Clapp J, Newell P, Brent ZW. The global political economy of climate change, agriculture and food systems. Journal of Peasant Studies. 2018;45(1):80-88'},{id:"B43",body:'Fellmann T et al. Major challenges of integrating agriculture into climate change mitigation policy frameworks. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 2018;23(3):451-468'},{id:"B44",body:'Abbas G et al. Quantification the impacts of climate change and crop management on phenology of maize-based cropping system in Punjab, Pakistan. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2017;247:42-55'},{id:"B45",body:'Ahmad S et al. Quantification of the effects of climate warming and crop management on sugarcane phenology. Climate Research. 2016;71(1):47-61'},{id:"B46",body:'Jones MR, Singels A, Ruane AC. Simulated impacts of climate change on water use and yield of irrigated sugarcane in South Africa. Agricultural Systems. 2015;139:260-270'},{id:"B47",body:'Lipper L et al. Climate-smart agriculture for food security. Nature Climate Change. 2014;4(12):1068'},{id:"B48",body:'Chen C, Pang Y, Pan X, Zhang L. Impacts of climate change on cotton yield in China from 1961 to 2010 based on provincial data. Journal of Meteorological Research. 2015;29(3):515-524'},{id:"B49",body:'Adhikari P et al. Simulating future climate change impacts on seed cotton yield in the Texas High Plains using the CSM-CROPGRO-cotton model. Agricultural Water Management. 2016;164:317-330'},{id:"B50",body:'Campbell BM et al. Reducing risks to food security from climate change. Global Food Security. 2016;11:34-43'},{id:"B51",body:'Reddy KR et al. 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Impact of climate changes on potential sugarcane yield in Pernambuco, northeastern region of Brazil. Renewable Energy. 2015;78:26-34'},{id:"B66",body:'Zhao D, Li Y-R. Climate change and sugarcane production: Potential impact and mitigation strategies. International Journal of Agronomy. 2015;2015'},{id:"B67",body:'Challinor AJ, Watson J, Lobell DB, Howden SM, Smith DR, Chhetri N. A meta-analysis of crop yield under climate change and adaptation. Nature Climate Change. 2014;4(4):287'},{id:"B68",body:'You L, Rosegrant MW, Wood S, Sun D. Impact of growing season temperature on wheat productivity in China. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2009;149(6-7):1009-1014'},{id:"B69",body:'Tao F, Zhang Z. Adaptation of maize production to climate change in North China plain: Quantify the relative contributions of adaptation options. European Journal of Agronomy. 2010;33(2):103-116'},{id:"B70",body:'Marin FR et al. Climate change impacts on sugarcane attainable yield in southern Brazil. Climatic Change. 2013;117(1-2):227-239'},{id:"B71",body:'Knox JW, Díaz JAR, Nixon DJ, Mkhwanazi M. A preliminary assessment of climate change impacts on sugarcane in Swaziland. Agricultural Systems. 2010;103(2):63-72'},{id:"B72",body:'Singh J, Singh AK, Sharma MP, Singh PR, Srivastava AC. Mechanization of sugarcane cultivation in India. Sugar Tech. 2011;13(4):310-314'},{id:"B73",body:'Chavas DR, Izaurralde RC, Thomson AM, Gao X. Long-term climate change impacts on agricultural productivity in eastern China. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2009;149(6-7):1118-1128'},{id:"B74",body:'Smit B, Wandel J. Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Global Environmental Change. 2006;16(3):282-292'},{id:"B75",body:'Fischer G, Shah M, van Velthuizen H. Climate change and agricultural vulnerability. A special report prepared as a contribution to the world summit on sustainable development. Laxenburg, Austria: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis; 2002'},{id:"B76",body:'Deressa TT, Hassan RM, Ringler C, Alemu T, Yesuf M. Determinants of farmers’ choice of adaptation methods to climate change in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia. Global Environmental Change. 2009;19(2):248-255'},{id:"B77",body:'Latif MA, Islam MR, Ali MY, Saleque MA. Validation of the system of rice intensification (SRI) in Bangladesh. Field Crops Research. 2005;93(2-3):281-292'},{id:"B78",body:'Srinivasan A. Handbook of Precision Agriculture: Principles and Applications. USA: CRC Press; 2006'},{id:"B79",body:'Yadav RL. Enhancing efficiency of fertilizer n use in sugarcane by ring-pit method of planting. Sugar Tech. 2004;6(3):169'},{id:"B80",body:'Pedde KC, Gore AK, Chavan AS. Integrated weed management in chickpea. Indian Journal of Weed Science. 2013;45(4):299'},{id:"B81",body:'Pimentel AJB, Rocha JR d AS, de Souza MA, Ribeiro G, Silva CR, Oliveira ICM. Characterization of heat tolerance in wheat cultivars and effects on production components. Revista Ceres. 2015;62(2):191-198'},{id:"B82",body:'Weerakoon WMW, Mutunayake MMP, Bandara C, Rao AN, Bhandari DC, Ladha JK. Direct-seeded rice culture in Sri Lanka: Lessons from farmers. Field Crops Research. 2011;121(1):53-63'},{id:"B83",body:'CIAT; World Bank; CCAFS and LI-BIRD. Climate-Smart Agriculture in Nepal. CSA Country Profiles for Asia Series. Washington, D.C: International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT); The World Bank; CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS); Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development (LI-BIRD); 2017. 26 p'},{id:"B84",body:'Witt C, Pasuquin JM, Dobermann A. Towards a site-specific nutrient management approach for maize in Asia. Better Crops With Plant Food. 2006;90(2):28-31'},{id:"B85",body:'Ratnam M, Rao AS, Reddy TY. Integrated weed management in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). 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Centre for Climate Research and Development (CCRD), COMSATS University Islamabad, Pakistan
Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Pakistan
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Open Access Funding
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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