pH values at which metals in AMD precipitate [21].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to be a great asset to many interested scientists including young and senior researchers, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and drug industry as well as clinicians.
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Badria",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",keywords:"Dietary Intake, Bioavailability, Bioactivity, Pharmacokinetics, Food, Medicinal Plants, Nutraceuticals, Multitarget Drugs, Chronic Diseases, Health, Phytoestrogen, Therapeutic Applications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 1st 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 29th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 28th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 15th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"25 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in drug discovery, developing new therapies for liver disease, skin disorders, and cancer. Appointed head of liver research lab and holder of 20 patents over 10 marketed pharmaceutical products.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.png",biography:"Professor Farid Badria, Ph.D., MSc, is the recipient of several awards including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for Best Inventor; State Recognition Outstanding Award in Medicine (Egyptian Academy of Science); Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and Khawrazmi International Award, Iran. He is also a scholar of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization (ICRO)-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) International, Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France.\nDr. Badria has 20 patents, 250 publications, more than a dozen books, several marketed pharmaceutical products, and many plenary lectures and workshops to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver disease, skin disorders, and cancer.",institutionString:"Mansoura University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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These are made up of: the land, the water and the atmosphere of the earth; microorganisms, plant and animal life; any part or combination of the first two items on this list and the interrelationships among and between them and the physical, chemical, aesthetic and cultural properties and conditions of the foregoing that influence human health and well-being. It is also characterised by a number of spheres that influence its behaviour and intrinsic value. The most important sphere of the environment is the biosphere because it harbours the living organisms. This is the sphere where you find living organisms (plants and animals) interacting with each and their nonliving environment (soil, air and water). In the late centuries, industrialisation and globalisation have impaired pristine environments and their ability to foster life. This has introduced components that compromise the holistic functioning of the environment and its intrinsic values [1].
\nAn environment can be polluted or contaminated. Pollution differs from contamination; however, contaminants can be pollutants, and pose detrimental impact on the environment. From literature, pollution is defined as the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the environment resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to environmental activities and impairment of quality for use of the environment and reduction of amenities. Contamination on the other hand is the presence of elevated concentrations of substances in the environment above the natural background level for the area and for the organism. Environmental pollution can be referred to undesirable and unwanted change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil which is harmful for living organisms—both animal and plants. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light [2].
\nPollutants, the elements of pollution, can either be foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
\nEnvironmental pollutants continue to be a world concern and one of the great challenges faced by the global society. Pollutants can be naturally occurring compounds or foreign matter which when in contact with the environment cause adverse changes. There are different types of pollutants, namely inorganic, organic and biological. Irrespective of pollutants falling under different categories, they all receive considerable attention due to the impacts they introduce to the environment. The relationship between environmental pollution and world population has become an inarguable directly proportional relationship as it can be seen that the amount of potentially toxic substances released into the environment is increasing with the alarming growth in global population. This issue has led to pollution being a significant problem facing the environment.
\nIndustrial, agricultural and domestic wastes contribute to environmental pollution, which cause adverse harm to human and animal health. From such sources, inorganic pollutants are released. Inorganic pollutants are usually substances of mineral origin, with metals, salts and minerals being examples [2]. Studies have reported inorganic pollutants as material found naturally but have been altered by human production to increase their number in the environment. Inorganic substances enter the environment through different anthropogenic activities such as mine drainage, smelting, metallurgical and chemical processes, as well as natural processes. These pollutants are toxic due to the accumulation in the food chains [3].
\nOrganic pollution can be briefly defined as biodegradable contaminants in an environment. These sources of pollution are naturally found and caused by the environment, but anthropogenic activity has also been contributing to their intensive production to meet the human needs. Some of the common organic pollutants which have been noted to be of special concern are human waste, food waste, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides, petroleum and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) [4].
\nOrganic pollutants have gained attention as they have become a major problem in the environment. Properties of organic pollutants, amongst others, such as high lipid solubility, stability, lipophilicity and hydrophobicity have recently made organic pollutants termed persistent. These properties give organic pollutants the ability to easily bioaccumulate in the different spheres of the environment, thus causing toxicological effects [5, 6].
\nBiological pollutants are described as pollutants which exist as a result of humanity’s actions and impact on the quality of aquatic and terrestrial environment. This type of pollutants include bacteria, viruses, moulds, mildew, animal dander and cat saliva, house dust, mites, cockroaches and pollen. Studies have documented different sources of these pollutants, including pollens originating from plants; viruses transmitted by people and animals; bacteria carried by people, animals, and soil and plant debris [7].
\nAlthough there is no specific definition of a heavy metal, literature has defined it as a naturally occurring element having a high atomic weight and high density which is five times greater than that of water [8]. Among all the pollutants, heavy metals have received a paramount attention to environmental chemists due to their toxic nature. Heavy metals are usually present in trace amounts in natural waters but many of them are toxic even at very low concentrations [9]. Metals such as arsenic, lead, cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, cobalt, zinc and selenium are highly toxic even in minor quantity. Increasing quantity of heavy metals in our resources is currently an area of greater concern, especially since a large number of industries are discharging their metal containing effluents into fresh water without any adequate treatment [3].
\nHeavy metals become toxic when they are not metabolised by the body and accumulate in the soft tissues. They may enter the human body through food, water, air or absorption through the skin when they come in contact with humans in agriculture, manufacturing, pharmaceutical, industrial or residential settings. Industrial exposure accounts for a common route of exposure for adults. Ingestion is the most common route of exposure in children. Natural and human activities are contaminating the environment and its resources, they are discharging more than what the environment can handle [9, 10] (Figure 1).
\nSources and sinks of heavy metals [
Heavy metals can emanate from both natural and anthropogenic processes and end up in different environmental compartments (soil, water, air and their interface) (Figure 2).
\nSources of heavy metals and their cycle in the environment [
Many studies have documented different natural sources of heavy metals. Under different and certain environmental conditions, natural emissions of heavy metals occur. Such emissions include volcanic eruptions, sea-salt sprays, forest fires, rock weathering, biogenic sources and wind-borne soil particles. Natural weathering processes can lead to the release of metals from their endemic spheres to different environment compartments. Heavy metals can be found in the form of hydroxides, oxides, sulphides, sulphates, phosphates, silicates and organic compounds. The most common heavy metals are lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu). Although the aforementioned heavy metals can be found in traces, they still cause serious health problems to human and other mammals [9].
\nIndustries, agriculture, wastewater, mining and metallurgical processes, and runoffs also lead to the release of pollutants to different environmental compartments. Anthropogenic processes of heavy metals have been noted to go beyond the natural fluxes for some metals. Metals naturally emitted in wind-blown dusts are mostly from industrial areas. Some important anthropogenic sources which significantly contribute to the heavy metal contamination in the environment include automobile exhaust which releases lead; smelting which releases arsenic, copper and zinc; insecticides which release arsenic and burning of fossil fuels which release nickel, vanadium, mercury, selenium and tin. Human activities have been found to contribute more to environmental pollution due to the everyday manufacturing of goods to meet the demands of the large population [10].
\nThe presence of heavy metals in the environment leads to a number of adverse impacts. Such impacts affect all spheres of the environment, that is, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and atmosphere. Until the impacts are dealt with, health and mortality problems break out, as well as the disturbance of food chains. Figure 3 summarises the health impacts of heavy metals.
\nImpacts of heavy metals on the environment [
Heavy metals contamination is becoming a serious issue of concern around the world as it has gained momentum due to the increase in the use and processing of heavy metals during various activities to meet the needs of the rapidly growing population. Soil, water and air are the major environmental compartments which are affected by heavy metals pollution.
\nEmissions from activities and sources such as industrial activities, mine tailings, disposal of high metal wastes, leaded gasoline and paints, land application of fertilisers, animal manures, sewage sludge, pesticides, wastewater irrigation, coal combustion residues and spillage of petrochemicals lead to soil contamination by heavy metals. Soils have been noted to be the major sinks for heavy metals released into the environment by aforementioned anthropogenic activities. Most heavy metals do not undergo microbial or chemical degradation because they are nondegradable, and consequently their total concentrations last for a long time after being released to the environment [5, 14].
\nThe presence of heavy metals in soils is a serious issue due to its residence in food chains, thus destroying the entire ecosystem. As much as organic pollutants can be biodegradable, their biodegradation rate, however, is decreased by the presence of heavy metals in the environment, and this in turn doubles the environmental pollution, that is, organic pollutants and heavy metals thus present. There are various ways through which heavy metals present risks to humans, animals, plants and ecosystems as a whole. Such ways include direct ingestion, absorption by plants, food chains, consumption of contaminated water and alteration of soil pH, porosity, colour and its natural chemistry which in turn impact on the soil quality [15].
\nAlthough there are many sources of water contamination, industrialisation and urbanisation are two of the culprits for the increased level of heavy metal water contamination. Heavy metals are transported by runoff from industries, municipalities and urban areas. Most of these metals end up accumulating in the soil and sediments of water bodies [15].
\nHeavy metals can be found in traces in water sources and still be very toxic and impose serious health problems to humans and other ecosystems. This is because the toxicity level of a metal depends on factors such as the organisms which are exposed to it, its nature, its biological role and the period at which the organisms are exposed to the metal. Food chains and food webs symbolise the relationships amongst organisms. Therefore, the contamination of water by heavy metals actually affects all organisms. Humans, an example of organisms feeding at the highest level, are more prone to serious health problems because the concentrations of heavy metals increase in the food chain [16].
\nIndustrialisation and urbanisation, due to rapid world population growth, have recently made air pollution as a major environmental problem around the world. The air pollution was reported to have been accelerated by dust and particulate matters (PMs) particularly fine particles such as PM2.5 and PM10 which are released through natural and anthropogenic processes. Natural processes which release particulate matters into air include dust storms, soil erosion, volcanic eruptions and rock weathering, while anthropogenic activities are more industrial and transportation related [17].
\nParticulate matters are important and require special attention as they can lead to serious health problems such as skin and eyes irritation, respiratory infections, premature mortality and cardiovascular diseases. These pollutants also cause deterioration of infrastructure, corrosion, formation of acid rain, eutrophication and haze [9]. Amongst others, heavy metals such as group 1 metals (Cu, Cd, Pb), group 2 metals (Cr, Mn, Ni, V and Zn) and group 3 metals (Na, K, Ca, Ti, Al, Mg, Fe) originate from industrial areas, traffic and natural sources, respectively [17, 18].
\nTreatment processes for acid mine water typically generate high-density sludge that is heterogeneous due to variety of metals, metalloids and anionic components, and this makes it difficult to dispose the sludge [19]. Recent researches have therefore focused on the recovery of chemical species from acid mine drainage (AMD) and secondary sludge. This is aimed at recovering valuable resources and also enabling easier and safer disposal of the treated sludge, hence reducing their environmental footprints. Disposal of metal ladened waste to landfills and waste retention ponds/heaps lead to secondary pollution of surface and subsurface water resources. It may also lead to soil contamination, hence affecting their productivity [19].
\nIn order to protect the human health, plants, animals, soil and all the compartments of the environment, proper and careful attention should be given to remediation technologies of heavy metals. Most physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies require handling of large amounts of sludge, destroy surrounding ecosystems and are very expensive [19] (Figure 4).
\nMechanisms for the removal of heavy metals [
A variety of alkaline chemical reagents have been used over the years for neutralisation of acid mine drainage (AMD) in order to increase the pH and consequently precipitate and recover the metals. The most common alkaline reagents used for sequential recovery of minerals resources from AMD are limestone (CaCO3), caustic soda (NaOH), soda ash (Na2CO3), quicklime (CaO), slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) [21]. Some processes have recovered metals at varying pH regimes (Table 1) and synthesised commercially valuable materials such as pigments and magnetite [22]. Some minerals are recovered and sold to metallurgical industries, hence off-setting the treatment costs [19].
\nMetal ion | \npH | \nMetal ion | \npH | \nMetal ion | \npH | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al3+ | \n4.1 | \nHg2+ | \n7.3 | \nCd2+ | \n6.7 | \n
Fe3+ | \n3.5 | \nNa+ | \n6.7 | \nFe2+ | \n5.5 | \n
Mn2+ | \n8.5 | \nPb2+ | \n6.0 | \nCu2+ | \n5.3 | \n
Cr3+ | \n5.3 | \nZn2+ | \n7.0 | \n\n | \n |
pH values at which metals in AMD precipitate [21].
Adsorption occurs when an adsorbate adheres to the surface of an adsorbent. Due to reversibility and desorption capabilities, adsorption is regarded the most effective and economically viable option for the removal of metals from aqueous solution. Although efficient, adsorption is not effective with very concentrated solution as the adsorbent easily gets saturated with the adsorbate. It is only feasible for very dilute solutions, is labour intensive because it requires frequent regeneration and it is not selective in terms of metal attenuation [21]. Adsorption is therefore not applied in a large scale of metal remediation.
\nIon exchange is the exchange of ions between two or more electrolyte solutions. It can also refer to exchange of ions on a solid substrate to soil solution. High cation exchange capacity clay and resins are commonly used for the uptake of metals from aqueous solutions. However, this method requires high labour and is limited to certain concentration of metals in the solution. This system also operates under specific temperature and pH. Natural and synthetic clays, zeolites and synthetic resins have been used for removal and attenuation of metals from wastewater [19, 23].
\nBiosorption refers to the removal of pollutants from water systems using biological materials, and it entails the absorption, adsorption, ion exchange, surface complexation and precipitation. Biosorbents have an advantage of accessibility, efficiency and capacity. This process is readily and easily available. Regeneration is easy, hence making it very favourable. However, when the concentration of the feed solution is very high, the process easily reaches a breakthrough, thus limiting further pollutant removal [24].
\nThe use of membrane technologies for the recovery of acid mine drainage is very effective for water that has high concentration of pollutants. It uses the concentration gradients phenomenon or the opposite which is reverse osmosis. There are different types of membranes that are used for mine water treatment including: ultrafiltration, nano-filtration, reverse osmosis, microfiltration and particle filtration [19, 25, 26].
\nSouth Africa is well endowed by mineral reserves and this has triggered its immense dependence on mineral resources for gross domestic product and economy. However, the legacy of coal and gold mining has left in its wake serious environmental problems. The major problem is acid mine drainage. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is formed from the hydro-geochemical weathering of sulphide-bearing rocks (pyrite, arsenopyrite and marcasite) in contact with water and oxygen [23, 27]. This reaction is also catalysed by iron (Fe) and sulphur-oxidising microorganisms [28, 29]. In a nutshell, the formation of AMD can be summarised as follows [19, 23, 30, 31]:
\nThe oxidation of sulphide to sulphate solubilises the ferrous iron (Fe(II)), which is subsequently oxidised to ferric iron (Fe(III)):
\nEither these reactions can occur spontaneously or can be catalysed by microorganisms (sulphur- and iron-oxidising bacteria) that derive energy from the oxidation reaction [26]. The ferric cations produced can also oxidise additional pyrite into ferrous ions:
\nThe net effect of these reactions is to produce H+ and maintain the solubility of the ferric iron [32]. Because of the high acidity and elevated concentration of toxic and hazardous metals, AMD has been a prime issue of environmental concern that has globally raised public concern [33].
\nThe discharge of metalliferous drainage from mining activities has rendered the environment unfit to foster life [22]. Pragmatic approaches need to be developed to counter for this mining legacy that is perpetually degrading the environment and its precious resources [21]. Researches and piloted studies have indicated that active and passive approaches can be successfully adopted to treat acid mine drainage and remove potentially toxic chemical species [23, 31]. The presence of Al, Fe, Mn and sulphates is a prime concern in addition to the trace of Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn [29]. Metalloids of As and earth alkali metal (Ca and Mg) are also present in significant levels [33]. Several studies have shown the feasibility of treating acid mine drainage to acceptable levels as prescribed by different water quality guidelines, but the resultant sludge has been an issue of public concern due to its heterogeneous and complex nature loaded with metal species [23, 34].
\nBased on that evidence, research studies have been firmly embedded on the recovery of valuable minerals from AMD [19, 23]. There are several mechanisms used for the recovery of chemical components from AMD including: precipitation [35], adsorption [36], biosorption [24], ion exchange [19, 25, 26], desalination [37] and membrane filtration [38, 39]. Out of those techniques, precipitation has been the promising technology due to the ability to handle large volumes of water with very little dosage [35]. Adsorption and ion exchange have a challenge of poor efficiency at elevated concentrations and quick rate of saturation. Membrane technologies have the problem of generating brine that creates another environmental liability. Desalination has a problem of producing salts that has impurities, hence making them unsuitable for utilisation. Freeze desalination has been the promising technology, but it has never been tried in a large scale [19, 23, 34].
\nSouth Africa’s geology is rich in coal and mineral reserves which contain key metals such as gold, platinum and copper. The significant volume of mineral and coal reserves has made mining serve as a backbone in the development and growth of the country’s economy. This is evident from the massive number of mines found around the country. However, mining has been noted to cause inimical impacts to the human health, organisms and environment as a whole, with water resources being the most common victim of the pollution [40].
\nThe mining of coal and gold for multilateral uses exposes pyrite to oxidising agents. Iron hydroxide and sulphuric acid are toxic chemical species to living organisms when introduced into water resources (both surface and underground). This deteriorates the natural form of the water bodies and its ability to foster life. Acid mine drainage has very low pH of about <1.4 to >3 [41, 42]; high TDS, EC and other metals in toxic concentration. Previous studies documented the following concentrations in AMD: < 75 ppm to >47,800 acidity; <3560 to >41,700 SO42- ppm; <460 to >12,270 ppm total Fe; <17,400 to 37,700 μg/L Zn; <270 to >13,000 μg/L Cu; <520 to >1500 μg/L Co; <75 to >360 μg/L Ni; <8 to >30 μg/L Pb and 6 to 30 μg/L Cd [41, 42, 43, 44].
\nHowever, the above-mentioned concentrations depend on the pH of the AMD—concentrations decrease when pH increases. When exposed to such conditions, mortality and diseases are most likely to occur in organisms, as well as other health [45]. In addition, AMD destroys ecosystems of organisms and also negatively impacts on the economy of the country. Heavy metals in active and abandoned mines in South Africa have impacted both surface and underground water.
\nThe National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) 108 of 1998, stipulates that everyone has the right to live in an environment which is safe and unlikely to pose any deleterious effects to their health. The legislative requirements for industrial effluents are primarily governed by the Department of Water Affairs DWS Water Quality Guidelines [46]. This purpose requires that any person who uses water for industrial purposes shall purify or otherwise treat such water in accordance with requirements of DWA [41, 46, 47, 48]. The relevant criteria for discharge of acidic and sulphate-rich water are given in Table 2.
\nParameter | \nGold AMD* | \nCoal AMD** | \nNeutral drainage† | \nDWS industrial | \nDWS irrigation | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | \n2.3 | \n2.5 | \n6.5 | \n5.0–10.0 | \n6.5–8.4 | \n
EC | \n22,713 | \n13,980 | \n500 | \n0–250 | \n>540 | \n
Na | \n248.4 | \n70.5 | \n20.1 | \n— | \n430–460 | \n
K | \n21.6 | \n34.2 | \n29.1 | \n— | \n— | \n
Mg | \n2.3 | \n398.9 | \n861.8 | \n— | \n— | \n
Ca | \n710.8 | \n598.7 | \n537.5 | \n— | \n— | \n
Al | \n134.4 | \n473.9 | \n0.01 | \n— | \n5.0–20 | \n
Fe | \n1243 | \n8158.2 | \n0.07 | \n0.0–10 | \n5.0–20 | \n
Mn | \n91.5 | \n88.2 | \n25.0 | \n0.0–10.0 | \n0.02–10.0 | \n
Cu | \n7.8 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n0.2–5.0 | \n
Zn | \n7.9 | \n8.36 | \n0.16 | \n— | \n1.0–5.0 | \n
Pb | \n6.3 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n0.2–2.0 | \n
Co | \n41.3 | \n1.89 | \n0.29 | \n— | \n0.05–5.0 | \n
Ni | \n16.6 | \n2.97 | \n0.21 | \n— | \n0.2–2.0 | \n
SO42− | \n4635 | \n42,862 | \n4603 | \n0–500 | \n— | \n
As shown in Table 2, mine effluents in South Africa are dominated by dissolved Fe, Al, Mn, Ca, Na, Mg and traces of Cu, Co, Zn, Pb and Ni. These concentrations are far above the legal requirements.
\nThe introduction of effluents from mining activities into receiving streams can severely impact aquatic ecosystems through habitat destruction and impairment of water quality. This will eventually lead to reduction in biodiversity of a given aquatic ecosystem and its ability to sustain life. The severity and extent of damage depends on a variety of factors including the frequency of influx, volume and chemistry of the drainage and the buffering capacity of the receiving stream [22, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58].
\nWhen metals in AMD are hydrolysed, they lower the pH of the water making it unsuitable for aquatic organisms to thrive [52]. AMD is highly acidic (pH 2–4), and this promotes the dissolution of toxic metals [44]. Those toxic species exert hazardous effects on terrestrial and aquatic organisms [23]. Also, if the water is highly acidic, only acidophile microorganisms will thrive on such water with the rest of aquatic organisms migrating to other regions which are conducive to their survival. Many streams contaminated with AMD are largely devoid of life for a long way downstream. To some aquatic organisms, if the pH range falls below the tolerance range, probability of death is very high due to respiratory and osmoregulation failure. Acidic conditions are dominated by H+ which is adsorbed and pumps out Na from the body which is important in regulating body fluids [23, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65].
\nExposure of aquatic and terrestrial organisms to potentially toxic metals and metalloids can have devastating impacts to living organisms [44, 66, 67]. Toxic chemical species present in AMD have been reported to be toxic to aquatic and terrestrial organisms. They are associated with numerous diseases including cancers. Some of these chemical species may accumulate and be biomagnified in living organisms, hence threatening the life of higher trophic organisms such as birds [68]. Lead causes blood disorders, kidney damage, miscarriages and reproductive disorders and is linked to various cancers. The exposure of living organisms to toxic chemical species in AMD can also lead to nausea, diarrhoea, liver and kidney damage, dermatitis, internal haemorrhage and respiratory problems. Epidemiological studies have shown a significant increase in the risk of lung, bladder, skin, liver and other cancers on exposure to these chemical species. Effects of Al, Fe, Mn, Cu, Mg and Zn on the health of living organisms are summarised in Table 3 [44, 56, 67].
\nElement | \nDWA limit | \nEcological impacts of AMD | \n
---|---|---|
Al | \n<0.5 mg/L | \nProlonged exposure to aluminium has been implicated in chronic neurological disorders such as | \n
Fe | \n<1 mg/L | \nSevere aesthetic effects (taste) and effects on plumbing (slimy coatings). Slight iron overload possible in some individuals. Chronic health effects in young children and sensitive individuals in the range of 10–20 mg/L, and occasional acute effects towards the upper end of this range | \n
Mn | \n<0.2 mg/L | \nVery severe, aesthetically unacceptable staining. Domestic use unlikely due to adverse aesthetic effects. Some chance of manganese toxicity under unusual conditions | \n
Cu | \n<1 mg/L | \nGastrointestinal irritation, nausea and vomiting. Severe taste and staining problems. Severe poisoning with possible fatalities. Severe taste and staining problems | \n
Mg | \n<200 mg/L | \nWater aesthetically unacceptable because of bitter taste users if sulphate present. Increased scaling problems. Diarrhoea in most new consumers | \n
Zn | \n<5 mg/L | \nBitter taste; milky appearance. Acute toxicity with gastrointestinal irritation, nausea and vomiting. Severe, acute toxicity with electrolyte disturbances and possible renal damage | \n
Effects of selected AMD metals on the health of living organisms.
The sexual abuse of children continues to be an extensive international problem with serious long term consequences. There are varying definitions of CSA, with the World Health Organization defining CSA as the involvement of a child under the age of 18 in sexual activity that they do not fully comprehend, do not give consent to, or for which the youth is not developmentally prepared and that violates the social taboos or laws of society [1]. CSA may include penetrative and nonpenetrative acts. Prevalence rates for CSA vary greatly, based on differing definitions of CSA, underreporting of CSA, and differences in child welfare record keeping by country. Prevalence rates for CSA according to a 2009 meta-analysis from 65 studies in 22 countries determined that an estimated 20% of girls and 8% of boys were victims of CSA prior to age 18 [2]. The high prevalence rates and the serious long term emotional, physical, relational and sexual consequences of CSA implore the need for efficacious, trauma informed interventions for the child and family. The vast majority of CSA is perpetrated by an offender the child knows and trusts, mandating that the interventions address the family and not just the victim [3]. Additionally, multidisciplinary coordination of law enforcement, forensic interviewing, child welfare services and therapists is essential to minimize retraumatization of the child and to best promote healing and recovery.
There are emotional, behavioral, developmental, relational, physical and sexual sequela of CSA, especially if the child did not receive timely and efficacious interventions and/or the child was not believed nor supported when they disclosed the CSA. The effects of CSA are often dependent on severity and frequency of the CSA as well as the developmental level of the child. Additionally, many CSA survivors have been victims of ongoing and complex trauma and the effects are cumulative and likely to overwhelm the child’s coping resources. Emotional impacts can include depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and angry outbursts, among others [4]. Externalizing behavioral symptoms can include regressions in toileting, temper tantrums, sleep difficulties and nightmares, provocative sexual behaviors, substance abuse, defiance and noncompliance [5]. CSA increases an individual’s risk for both minor and major health problems including cancer and diabetes [6]. Relational consequences can include indiscriminant attachments which put victims at further risk, and also withdrawal and mistrust. Mistrust is empirically common if the child experienced betrayal trauma where the perpetrator was a known and trusted individual [7]. Sexual sequela can include sexual acting out behaviors, hypersexuality, poor body boundaries as well as an aversion and fear of affection and sexual behaviors.
The child’s relationship with the perpetrator or offender of the sexual abuse impacts symptom presentation and also disclosure. The majority of sexual abuse victims know their perpetrator [3, 7], often making it difficult for the child to disclose due to feelings of loyalty to the family or the perpetrator. The lack of disclosure often results in the sexual abuse continuing over an extended period of time and the youth not receiving needed interventions, which may exacerbate their symptoms and the negative effects of CSA [8].
There is a need for empirically supported, targeted, and child directed interventions for victims of CSA [9]. These interventions should be trauma informed, provided within the context of a strong and supportive therapeutic relationship and include psychoeducation about CSA, coping skills, exposure through a trauma narrative and safety planning. Several of the most widely utilized interventions for CSA victims and their nonoffending caregivers are presented in this chapter.
Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) is an empirically supported treatment model for CSA developed to address PTSD symptoms and trauma in children and adolescents [4, 8, 10, 11]. Studies conducted in the last 25 years have provided consistent support for TF-CBT as the superior therapy for sexually abused children and other traumatized children when compared to non-directive or child-centered supportive therapy, as it provides essential support structures for both caregivers and children [11]. TF-CBT treats children and adolescents, ages 3 to 17, by addressing the negative effects of trauma including processing of traumatic memories, addressing and overcoming problematic thoughts, and building coping and interpersonal skills. This short-term manualized treatment is typically provided in eight to 16 weekly 90-minute sessions, extending to as many as 25 sessions for individuals suffering from complex trauma [4, 8]. The TF-CBT treatment model was developed not only to address PTSD and depression and anxiety symptoms, but also underlying problematic distortions of thought regarding self-blame for trauma, ideas and expectations for safety, and constructs of trust in others and the world [10, 11].
The core components of TF-CBT can be summarized with the PRACTICE acronym, P: psychoeducation and parenting skills, R: relaxation skills or managing physiological reactions to trauma, A: affective modulation skills or managing affective responses to trauma, C: cognitive coping skills that build connections between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, T: trauma narrative and processing, I: in vivo mastery of trauma reminders, C: conjoint child-caregiver sessions, and E: enhancing safety and future development [4, 8].
A primary curative component of TF-CBT is creation and processing of the trauma narrative (T) [4, 8, 10, 11]. This is the middle third of the duration of therapy, where the therapist and traumatized client focus increasingly on the specific traumas experienced. As the therapist and client progress through the components of the PRACTICE model, the therapist increases gradual exposure and helps the client and caregivers implement the skills learned to prepare them to cope with the inevitable full exposure of trauma reminders that accompany the trauma narrative [4, 8]. The trauma narrative and processing component is essential in the exposure therapy aspect of this treatment model, as it allows the child to extinguish negative emotions and reactions associated with the trauma by wiring new pathways of associations to the traumatic memories and eliciting positive and resilience-focused feelings such as pride and strength [8, 10].
In the trauma narrative and processing component, the youth develop a narrative about their CSA that includes specific traumatic circumstances, cognitions, feelings, behaviors, and other trauma-related experiences. For many of these youth, it is difficult to create a fully integrated trauma narrative, as they may only conjure up fragmented and non-linear pieces of their complex trauma memories [8]. Traditionally, these trauma narratives manifest in the form of written books about the youth and their specific trauma. The youth will complete their trauma narrative, usually ending with a chapter of what they have learned about themselves, relationships with others, worldviews, and expectations of the future, and then have the opportunity to share their narrative with their caregiver [10]. Trauma narratives can both highlight maladaptive core beliefs, and facilitate the integration of thoughts and feelings related to trauma [10]. Trauma narratives have been shown to reduce a child’s fear and anxiety related to their abuse and decrease avoidant behaviors related to trauma [4, 8, 10, 11].
Play is the language of children and play based therapy for CSA is a developmentally attuned and expressive intervention that can facilitate emotional and behavioral regulation and healing from CSA [12]. Children who have been sexually abused frequently have difficulty with verbal recollection and expression of their traumatic experiences both due to the neurobiological impact of trauma on language centers in the brain and the developmental level of the child [13, 14] and play interventions can be familiar and less threatening. Additionally, complex trauma interferes with typical brain development, plus traumatic memories are often stored in the brain’s implicit memory, which results in memories of sexual abuse being stored in areas of the brain and body that are frequently challenging to access through verbal methods [15]. Through play therapy, children use symbolic representation to explore feelings and thoughts. Play therapy can include dolls, puppets, action figures and stuffed animal play for sexual abuse disclosure, which creates distance and an alternative to the children directly discussing their traumatic experiences, as they act it out through play. Play can be incorporated into other treatment modalities, such as play based construction of a trauma narrative in TF-CBT, and is particularly important for younger children who may not have the cognitive and language skills to fully express their feelings through talk therapy [16].
Play therapy for CSA can be directive and focused on the CSA or nondirective and child centered, focused on building rapport and establishing safety in the therapeutic relationship [12]. Play can be used to engage children who have experienced CSA and their caregivers in the therapy process, to teach specific personal safety and coping skills, to create a fun therapeutic environment and to facilitate communication between the child and the therapist [16]. Historically, the efficacy of play therapy for CSA has been difficult to quantify, however, play therapy is beginning to develop an evidence base that is more than anecdotal, and is establishing play therapy as an effective empirically supported intervention for CSA [17, 18].
Trauma informed art therapy is effective for children who have experienced early relational trauma, such as intrafamilial sexual abuse, which may result in symptoms of PTSD [19]. Art therapy interventions can provide a voice and sense of self-agency to CSA survivors as they creatively and abstractly represent their traumatic experiences and use metaphors and visual symbols to describe their sexual abuse [20]. Through visual arts, youth who have been sexually abused can express overwhelming emotions without requiring words [21].
Healthy emotional expression as well as emotional regulation for children who have experienced CSA can be promoted through art therapy [21]. Children who have been sexually abused may present with dissociative tendencies, limiting their ability to create a verbal trauma narrative and art therapy can provide a medium of construction of the trauma narrative that is not dependent on verbal processing [22]. Art interventions, such as drawing, painting, sculpting, collaging, etc., employed in forming and processing of a trauma narrative can act as a catalyst for children who have experienced CSA to explore thoughts, feelings, trauma memories, and perceptions through visual, tactile, and other sensory means [23]. With child sexual abuse, it is especially important to explore the non-verbal memories that recall fragmented sensory and emotional experiences of the trauma [24]. Art therapy is a visual and sensory modality that assists youth who have been sexually abused with accessing traumatic material stored in implicit memory, which is body-based form of memory that is distinct from explicit, narrative and conscious memory [20]. Art therapy may provide a bridge between implicit and explicit memory that allows children who have experienced CSA to express feelings and memories that are not accessible by verbal means [23].
To treat CSA, there are numerous efficacious group interventions which aim to decrease symptoms of CSA while also providing future risk reduction skills [25]. Group therapy for CSA is a treatment modality that is frequently used and is often the treatment of choice for CSA. CSA group treatment has growing interest for a variety of reasons, such as an increase in demand for trauma focused mental health services and a need for a cost-effective approach [26]. Group modalities for CSA include TF-CBT groups, art therapy groups, support groups, psychoeducation groups, and process groups, among others. Children in CSA group therapy benefit from the support and understanding of peers who have had similar experiences. Group therapy provides an important sense of universality for CSA victims which can help combat feeling of isolation, social stigma, shame, guilt, and anger [27]. Universality is a key component of CSA group treatment and can assist with normalization of feelings of powerlessness, betrayal and helplessness, while simultaneously providing skills for resilience [27]. The relational consequences and mistrust that are often a result of CSA can be mitigated in group therapy for CSA as group members begin to connect through the opportunity to interact with supportive therapists and other CSA victims [28].
TF-CBT was initially provided as individual treatment although TF-CBT is frequently provided in a group format and group TF-CBT has also been identified as an efficacious treatment modality for CSA [29]. The group format of TF-CBT promotes cohesion by destigmatizing traumatic experiences. Children learn new skills together and can support one another to implement these skills [29]. When children are attending their group, caregivers are attending collateral group sessions to learn the TF-CBT components [10, 29]. Parenting and coping skills are taught to provide more consistency in the home and psychoeducation regarding trauma is provided [10, 29]. TF-CBT groups for CSA can decrease trauma symptoms such as anxiety, depression, avoidance, hypervigilance, and intrusive thoughts in youth [25]. Group therapy for CSA has shown to be effective for improving overall psychological distress, development of coping skills, and reducing sexual and other behavior problems [25]. Additionally, group TF-CBT has supported youth in developing stronger personal safety skills and decreasing emotional reactions in caregivers [25].
Art therapy groups for CSA are an expressive arts group treatment modality that incorporates creativity and can facilitate processing of traumatic experiences with other youth who have experienced CSA. Various types of abstract and representational art can be created in group and shared with group members in order to increase catharsis and connection/cohesion between group members. For example, group members may draw characters (animals, superheroes, objects) that represent themselves, their perpetrators and protective caregivers and then be asked to tell detailed stories to the group about these characters [20]. In this group art activity, a child may identify as an animal living in their safe place, until a predator presents and harms the animal (i.e., a fox attacking a rabbit, a bee stinging a kitten). Allowing the child to identify with the animal provides distance and separation from the event so as to prevent the children from being retraumatized or overwhelmed by trigger reminders [20]. An eight session art therapy group for latency age girls who had been sexually abused focused on four themes: establishing group cohesion and fostering trust, exploring feelings associated with the abuse, sexual behavior and the prevention of revictimization and termination of the group [30].Group members utilized painting, drawing, clay sculpting, and dramatic role plays during this art therapy group. Outcome measures from this group art therapy intervention for girls who had been sexually abused evidenced a reduction in symptoms of anxiety and depression [30].
Support groups for CSA provide cohesion, connection with others with a shared experience, and psychoeducation about CSA. CSA support groups may focus on body boundaries, personal safety, CSA education, and coping skills and typically do not have a disclosure or trauma narrative as part of the group curriculum [31]. This may be due to the shorter length of treatment and/or group treatment provided outside of a clinical setting, such as at a school. Due to limited time and the need for youth to not become emotionally triggered in a school setting, support groups typically do not have group members share details about their victimization.
Nonoffending caregivers are primary supports for children who have been victims of CSA and the need for specific and tailored interventions for nonoffending caregivers is increasingly recognized in the literature and caregiver support has been identified as a crucial factors in children’s recovery from CSA [32]. Caregiver interventions following sexual abuse of their child aim to reduce caregiver distress, increase adaptive caregiver coping as well as enhance support of the child [33]. Nonoffending caregivers have been referred to as “overlooked victims” in child sexual abuse cases [34]. A recent qualitative study with nonoffending caregivers of children under 13 who had been victims of CSA found that the majority of caregivers reported mental health services were necessary and beneficial for themselves to help them cope with the impact of their child’s CSA [33]. Interventions for nonoffending caregivers may include group and/or individual treatment focusing on psychoeducation, information, supports, parenting guidance, and dealing with their own victimization (if relevant). When intrafamilial CSA occurs, the nonoffending caregiver has the essential role of assisting the CSA victims and other children in the family so that safety and security can be restored [35]. Simultaneously, the caregiver is likely experiencing shock, grief, fear and a myriad of other emotions, which are often overwhelming, while they are tasked with shepherding the child who has experienced CSA on their journey of healing and recovery. Nonoffending caregivers often need support, guidance and direction because in addition to the crisis of the CSA, they may be faced with a lack of financial support, legal proceedings, and possible conflict with and separation from extended family whose loyalties may lie with the perpetrator [35]. Caregiver support is an important mediating variable in outcomes for victims of CSA [32].
Support groups for nonoffending caregivers of children who have been sexually abused can provide critical psychoeducation and social support for the caregiver during this vulnerable time of rebuilding and redefining their family [32]. Nonoffending caregiver support groups offer a safe place to begin the difficult recovery process, to normalize feelings and thoughts about their child’s CSA and to begin to build a support network with other families [34]. In the group, group therapists teach caregivers the relationship between thoughts, feelings and behaviors and provide guidance on thought restructuring which enables caregivers to deal with their own symptoms as well as modeling appropriate coping skills for their children and coaching their children on these skills. Additionally, caregiver support groups can provide practical information on social services, legal services, housing, school intervention and other needed resources [34].
Following disclosure or discovery that their child has been sexually abused, nonoffending caregivers may experience depression, posttraumatic stress and increases in anxiety [36]. Shields and colleagues found that following child sexual abuse disclosure, 24% of caregivers met diagnostic criteria for depression or PTSD or both [36]. Parental distress was associated with decreases in positive parenting and caregiver involvement with the victim. Individual therapy for the nonoffending caregiver can be beneficial to address mood symptoms, trauma reminders and to increase coping and implementation of parenting skills. This individual treatment can be provided in conjunction with group treatment. If a caregiver has their own history of CSA, they may also benefit from individual therapy to process how their child’s victimization is triggering their own CSA experience, especially if the caregiver did not receive interventions for their own CSA victimization [34].
TF-CBT incorporates individual and caregiver-focused interventions to inform families of the reactions and effects of trauma in children. Caregivers can be parents, foster parents, relative caregivers or other supportive adults actively involved in the child’s life. This caregiver component enhances the positive impact of treatment in terms of decreasing caregiver and child depressive and anxiety symptoms, as factors such as caregivers’ emotional distress and caregiver support of the child have been found to be strong and significant mediators to treatment response [10]. Parental and caregiver support is a primary component of the PRACTICE interventions of the TF-CBT model and the caregiver is actively and collaboratively involved in the entire course of treatment with approximately half of the treatment time focused on caregivers [8, 10]. Through both individual caregiver sessions and conjoint sessions with their child, caregivers learn to be present while their child discusses the CSA and how it affected them and caregivers learn skills to be supportive of their child as they work through the recovery process. Through the PRACTICE components, caregivers are taught strategies to express and modulate their affect as well as being taught ways to manage intense emotions in their child [10]. Additionally, caregivers learn parenting and child behavior management skills specific to children who have been victims of CSA. Prior to terminating treatment, skills to safety plan for CSA victims and promote positive future engagement are addressed with caregivers. [11].
Following disclosure or discovery of suspected CSA, a child and family’s life may have an influx of professionals involved with the aim of child protection, assessment and promotion of the victim’s physical and mental health, prosecution of the perpetrator, and family healing and recovery. Ideally, these efforts are coordinated in order to minimize deleterious impact on the CSA victim and family. In the United States, Child Advocacy Centers (CAC) were developed in response to the desire to limit redundant interviewing of the victim and to coordinate investigative and therapeutic response to CSA [37]. These CACs utilize a multidisciplinary team of medical, mental health, child protective and law enforcement professionals in a “one stop shop” approach to CSA with interagency communication and collaboration. In 2011, The National Children’s Alliance in the United States (U.S.), developed Standards to ensure that children across the U.S. receive consistent, evidence based services that help them recover from CSA and other types of child abuse [38]. These Standards are updated every five years, with the most recent Standards from 2017 and to date there are more than 880 CACs in the United States, spanning all 50 states. In 2018, 367,797 children in the U.S. were served by CACs, with an increase in 29% from 2008 to 2018 [38]. However, even with this increase, there are still over ten million children living in the U.S. in areas without a CAC. Additionally, internationally, many countries lack the funding and infrastructure to implement a coordinated and multidisciplinary response to CSA.
Increased caregiver and child satisfaction were found with these coordination efforts in evaluation and intervention with CSA [37]. CACs can serve as a model for coordinated multidisciplinary services that reduce retraumatization of the CSA victim due to limiting the child having to repeatedly disclose their CSA experiences to police, lawyers, doctors, therapists, investigators and judges [38].
This chapter highlighted several empirically supported and highly utilized interventions for CSA. Rather than being a comprehensive review of the literature, this chapter covered best practices for CSA intervention and treatment with attention to both the child and the nonoffending caregiver as it is imperative to simultaneously address the needs of the child and the caregiver to promote healing and recovery from CSA. Multiple modalities for individual, group and collateral caregiver intervention were presented, illuminating their efficacy and implementation for CSA. Selection of a specific treatment modality should be individualized based on cultural and contextual variables for the child and family, the frequency and severity of abuse, the child’s and the caregiver’s symptomology as well as the treatment setting and the training and experience of the provider. Additionally, the need for coordinated multidisciplinary investigative and therapeutic responses to CSA was highlighted in order to limit the negative systemic impact on the child and family, with CACs presented as a model implemented in the U.S. to address this need.
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