\r\n\tContaminated water is not suitable for drinking, or use in recreation, agriculture, and industrial activities. These waters cause poisoning of drinking water, deterioration of river and lake ecosystems, decrease in biological diversity as a result of the death of aquatic life, and various environmental problems.
\r\n\r\n\tWater resources are limited however, the need for water is gradually increasing. Considering that water quality deteriorates increasingly, the importance of preserving existing water resources in terms of quantity and quality is increasing day by day. So, it is important to determine the sources of contamination correctly and to take the necessary precautions.
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Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2198",title:"Air Pollution",subtitle:"A Comprehensive Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ec80da26f7539f60d0fb35b68813a7e",slug:"air-pollution-a-comprehensive-perspective",bookSignature:"Budi Haryanto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139963",title:"Dr.",name:"Budi",surname:"Haryanto",slug:"budi-haryanto",fullName:"Budi Haryanto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10349",title:"Environmental Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"daa4fa476e1d64c56fabfdbf670e7a9b",slug:"environmental-health",bookSignature:"Takemi Otsuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10349.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"34101",title:"Prof.",name:"Takemi",surname:"Otsuki",slug:"takemi-otsuki",fullName:"Takemi Otsuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6728",title:"Trace Elements",subtitle:"Human Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e1144832b71a4ffcabc7cc31ce911b2",slug:"trace-elements-human-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Eithar El-Adham",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6728.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"2198",title:"Air Pollution",subtitle:"A Comprehensive Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ec80da26f7539f60d0fb35b68813a7e",slug:"air-pollution-a-comprehensive-perspective",bookSignature:"Budi Haryanto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139963",title:"Dr.",name:"Budi",surname:"Haryanto",slug:"budi-haryanto",fullName:"Budi Haryanto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"63949",title:"A Survey on 3D Ultrasound Reconstruction Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81628",slug:"a-survey-on-3d-ultrasound-reconstruction-techniques",body:'\nThe medical imaging is very important for the physicians to visualize the inner anatomy of the patient for diagnosis and analysis purposes. There are various types of imaging modality, which are the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasonography imaging, and computer tomography (CT) imaging. Recently, the use of ultrasound has become widely popular among the practitioners and researchers alike especially in the medical field, such as in obstetrics, in cardiology as well as in surgical guidance. This is due to the fact that the ultrasound is faster and safer, has noninvasive nature, and less expensive than the MRI and CT.
\nThe conventional way to use the ultrasound machine is that the physician moves the ultrasound probe over the subject’s skin to examine the region of interest (ROI). The ultrasound probe will feed the input signal to the ultrasound machine to display the 2D ultrasound image on the screen output. The 2D ultrasound image shows the cross-sectional part of the ROI. By using the hand-eye coordination approach, the physician is able to form a mentally constructed volume of that ROI for examination of the organ features and also to estimate the volume of the ROI. However, the reliance of 2D ultrasound images during the ultrasound scanning session can present some of the limitations as follows [1]:
The decision-making in diagnosis and analysis is very time-consuming and can also lead to incorrect decision, as the physician needs to transform a set of 2D ultrasound frames to mentally create a 3D impression of ROI.
The organ volume measurement is less accurate and dependent on operator’s skill because only simple measurement is used to calculate the dimension of a ROI.
Some ROIs, such as the viewing of planes that are parallel to the skin, are difficult to visualize. This is due to the fact that movement of ultrasound probe is restricted when moving around the ROI.
On the other hand, 3D ultrasound volume can enhance the understanding of physicians to the scanned ROI without spending too much of mental workload. The 3D ultrasound volume visualization can be achieved by undergoing the 3D ultrasound reconstruction process, which is the generation of 3D ultrasound volume from a series of 2D ultrasound image. Before the 3D volume is reconstructed, data collection is required. There are several methods used for data acquisition, which are the 2D array scanning, mechanical scanning, tracked freehand scanning, and untracked freehand scanning. The data collected are generally comprised of the 2D ultrasound images and their relative spatial information.
\nAfter the data are obtained, the volume reconstruction method is implemented by using interpolation and approximation algorithm to get the 3D volume data and put them in a 3D volume grid based on the spatial information acquired from the tracking system. There are several methods of volume reconstruction method, such as pixel-nearest neighbor (PNN), voxel-nearest neighbor (VNN), distance weighted (DW), radial basis function (RBF), image-based algorithm, etc.
\nIn order to visualize the reconstruction result, there are three basic types of rendering techniques, which are the surface rendering techniques, multiplanar reformatting techniques, and volume rendering techniques. This is the final stage for the 3D ultrasound reconstruction process where the physicians can view the 3D ultrasound data for analysis and diagnosis purposes, as well as for surgical guidance.
\nIn terms of state-of-the-art approaches, many researchers also focused on the real-time 3D ultrasound imaging technology. In this way, the physicians are able to view the reconstruction results of the ROI immediately while scanning. Hence, the real-time 3D ultrasound can help the physicians to make decision efficiently and accurately as they can get an immediate feedback. Furthermore, the improvement in hardware devices, such as the graphical processing unit (GPU), also helps to achieve the goal of several research studies where the hardware limitation was an obstacle in the past.
\nThis book chapter aims to present the current state of 3D ultrasound reconstruction and visualization techniques. The remainder of the book chapter is organized as follows. In Section 2, we will present the various 3D ultrasound imaging systems. In Section 3, the 3D ultrasound reconstruction process is described step by step. In Section 4, we present the application of 3D ultrasound in the medical application. We draw discussion and conclusion for future studies in Section 5. Although the ultrasound can be used in many other applications, such as in high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) to kill cancer cell and to view crack in the wall and metal structure, etc., our scope is focused on the imaging or visualization of medical application.
\nThe 3D ultrasound imaging system is a system that visualizes a ROI in 3D by reconstructing and combining a set of 2D ultrasound frames, which view from different positions and angles of that ROI. The set of 2D ultrasound frames can be captured by different scanning methods or techniques as well as the transducer’s dimensionality. Figure 1 shows the classification of 3D ultrasound imaging system.
\nThe classification of 3D ultrasound imaging system.
As data acquisition plays an important role in the accuracy and applicability of the 3D ultrasound volume reconstruction, selecting the most suitable 3D ultrasound imaging system is crucial. The choice is highly depended on the application, for example, the use of mechanical scanning system is suitable for transrectal ultrasound examination to evaluate the prostate gland in human body.
\nThe 2D array scanning system used a dedicated 2D array ultrasound probe or 3D ultrasound probe that creates a pyramidal volume scan, which obtains a series of 2D ultrasound frames in real time [2]. Hence, it is able to create a time-dependent 3D ultrasound imaging system that can display the animation and flow visualization of the scanned ROI in between the scanning timeframe. It is the fastest way to view 3D ultrasound imaging in real time. As shown in Figure 2, the transducer elements are arranged in 2D array where each element fired an ultrasonic beam, which are combined to form a pyramidal volumetric scan. Hence, the transducer can remain stationery during ultrasound scanning session.
\nThe pyramidal volumetric scan of 2D array transducer [
In contrast, 2D array scanning system is very expensive, is difficult to develop in terms of hardware and software, and is not commonly available [1, 4, 5]. Besides that, the transducer and ultrasound machine between different companies are not compatible to each other, due to the commercialized competition among the competitors [5]. Furthermore, the size of the acquired volume is limited by the geometric dimension of the transducer [3, 6].
\nThe 3D ultrasound image can also be obtained by the use of a cheaper linear array ultrasound probe, also known as the 2D ultrasound probe. This can be done by the transformation of a series of 2D ultrasound frames into a 3D ultrasound volume via the 3D ultrasound reconstruction process. These include the use of mechanical scanning system as well as freehand-based scanning system.
\nThe 3D mechanical probe consists of a linear array ultrasound probe, which is guided by a stepper motor inside a compact casing. The motor guides the ultrasound probe in a tilting, rotating, or linear movement around the ROI, as shown in Figure 3. When the motor is activated, multiple 2D ultrasound images can be acquired around the scanned ROI in a short time. Besides that, there is also a mechanical scanning system that uses a motorized mechanism and the external fixture, such as robot arm, to move the ultrasound probe. Both of the systems move the transducer in a predefined translation and orientation path around the ROI [4]. Therefore, this system is able to acquire regularly spaced 2D ultrasound frames [7] and also with accurate position and orientation that is relative to a frame [1]. These are the important factors to determine an accurate 3D ultrasound reconstruction image. However, mechanical scanning system is costly, not flexible, and angle of movement is limited because of its bulkiness size [3, 7].
\nSchematic diagram of 3D mechanical ultrasound probe scanning methods [
The freehand-based scanning system acquires the 2D ultrasound images along with their position and orientation, by attaching a sensor on the ultrasound probe. The position tracking sensors are such as the electromagnetic sensor and the optical sensor. This system allows the operator to use the probe to scan around the desired ROI arbitrarily and hence is more flexible in terms of mobility than aforementioned systems. Besides that, there exists a freehand-based scanning system that is without the use of position sensor. The advantages of freehand scanning system are low cost and scanning flexibility [4, 8]. On the downside, the 2D ultrasound frames acquired by freehand scanning system are usually irregular spacing between images and are highly sparse [9], which may cause undesired artifact in the reconstruction result. Therefore, the reconstruction methods or algorithms are researched and developed in order to solve the stated problem, which is further discussed in Section 3.3.
\nWith the recent advancement of position tracking technology, the tracked freehand ultrasound scanning method has improved in terms of imaging quality, accuracy, effectiveness, portability, and reliability. Alternatively, the advancement of consumer-friendly hardware technologies introduced by the game industry not only can support better gaming experience but also provides a cost-effective solution to current problems, such as the use of Microsoft Kinect in healthcare sector [10]. The use of Sony’s PlayStation (PS) Move and PS Eye are also proven to be useful in tracking positions in 3D space [11].
\nThe electromagnetic tracking system is one of the popular types of freehand scanning system. Similar to the optical tracking system, this system also consists of two important components: the electromagnetic sensor mounted on the probe, as well as the electromagnetic transmitter, which tracks the position and orientation of that sensor on probe [4]. The recorded spatial information is then transferred to the computer workstation for reconstruction and visualization. However, electromagnetic tracking system suffers from the interference of magnetic signals if working nearby the sources, for example, surrounding metal instruments and power cables, which will affect the tracking accuracy [12], and also caused geometric distortion during the 3D reconstruction process [1].
\nThe freehand 3D ultrasound imaging system with optical tracking sensor involves two important equipments: the markers mounted on the probe and one or multiple cameras to track the marker. Currently, the Polaris Optical Tracking System and Optotrak Certus are the two commercial optical trackers for 3D ultrasound imaging system and both are the product of Northern Digital (NDI). However, the problems found in the optical tracking system are that the marker mounted on the probe is large and caused the ultrasound scanning session to be inconvenient [12] and the line of sight of cameras must not be obstructed [13]. In order to counter this problem, the work in [13] created an optical tracking system with inertial sensor for freehand 3D ultrasound imaging, without external reference such as cameras. As for the cost-effective feature, in [11], the authors had introduced the use of PlayStation (PS) Move and PS Eye in the conventional 2D ultrasound probe for the 3D ultrasound reconstruction. This method is also able to offer portability and extensibility to the ultrasound imaging system.
\nThe untracked freehand system or sensorless method requires the operator to move the transducer in a steady and regular motion at a constant linear or angular velocity, while 2D ultrasound frames are captured to generate a 3D ultrasound image [14]. Recently, a sensorless reconstruction method has been designed using a regression-based distance measurement, interpolation techniques, and unconstrained freehand data without any limitation on the trajectory [15]. In recent study, the image-based algorithm makes use of the adaptive speckle decorrelation to learn relative position and orientation between the acquired 2D ultrasound image pairs [16]. Since the sensorless freehand ultrasound does not need any position tracking sensor, it is considered the most portable 3D freehand ultrasound system [16]. However, the inconsistency scan rate and angle can cause the reconstruction result to be not smooth and also results in less quality 3D image during 3D visualization step [14].
\nThis section explained the 3D ultrasound reconstruction process in detail. This process is achieved from the use of 2D ultrasound probe with linear array. Based on [6], the standard workflow of the 3D ultrasound reconstruction is data acquisition stage, data preprocessing stage, volume reconstruction method stage, and 3D visualization stage. Figure 4 shows the overall process of 3D ultrasound reconstruction.
\nThe 3D ultrasound reconstruction process.
The data can be obtained from any ultrasound scanning systems that are presented in Section 2, such as sensorless system, electromagnetic tracking system, and optical tracking system. The obtained data are the 2D ultrasound frames and the orientation and position of the tracking sensor when a particular frame was taken. The B-scan image and its relative orientation and position must be synchronized [11]. As for the real-time system, there is a need to synchronize the image captured, position and orientation, and the time [17]. This synchronization process is also known as the temporal calibration [18].
\nNext, ultrasound probe calibration or spatial calibration is used to get the homogeneous transformation to convert each 2D coordinate pixel in 2D ultrasound frames into 3D coordinates voxel of ultrasound probe frame [12, 19, 20]. This method is used mostly in the real-time ultrasound 3D reconstruction system [19, 21].
\nScan conversion is also important for the reconstruction and visualization processes later, because of the possibility of different coordinate systems used by the scanning devices, such as in the work of [22], where the polar coordinate system recorded by the tracking system is converted into Cartesian coordinate system for 3D reconstruction. Besides that, reference [11] provides a method for the conversion of quaternion-based coordinate system into Cartesian coordinate system.
\nAfter the acquisition of the data, the data such as the 2D ultrasound frames are sent to the workstation for further processing. Most of the image processing techniques are used during this step, in order to enhance the 2D frames quality, remove noise, and preserve the edge boundary. This is because the 2D frames have various types of noise and artifacts, such as speckle noise, refraction, shadowing, reverberation, etc., and the spatial resolution within a 2D ultrasound frame is not uniform due to the transducer and signal characteristics varies with the penetration depth [7]. The example of image enhancement techniques included noise removing technique, histogram equalization, 2D Gaussian filter, median filtering, etc.
\nFigure 5 shows the noise and artifacts found in the 2D ultrasound frame. Besides that, segmentation process is also important to distinguish between the scanned objects in a region of interest (ROI), such as the skin, bone structure, etc., before the volume can be calculated. There are three types of segmentation process, which are automatic segmentation algorithms, semiautomatic segmentation algorithm, and manual segmentation. Automatic segmentation proves to be effective in obstetrics as the boundary of fetus and surrounding amniotic fluid is easy to be detected because of the high contrast between these two [6].
\nNoise and artifacts [
The volume reconstruction methods are the most important part in the 3D ultrasound reconstruction process, which involved the implementation of interpolation and approximation algorithm to get the 3D volume data and put them in a 3D volume grid based on the spatial information acquired from the tracking system. The volume reconstruction also aims to reduce computational requirements without damaging or losing the underlying shape of the data [18]. Before the volume reconstruction methods start, the coordinate system and volume grid of reconstructed volume need to be established, such as volume size, axes of volume, origin of axes, and the size of voxel [23]. The volume coordinate configuration uses principal component analysis (PCA), which is a statistical tool that estimates the largest difference of collected data that the volume can enclose all the data values [23]. The bounding box technique is configured by computing the volume size by filling the voxel with pixels from a series of 2D ultrasound frames, and then the maximum point and the minimum point can be obtained. The bounding box is fast and simple to determine the volume coordinate configuration [8]. The minimum point is set as the origin of the volume. After the volume coordinate is configured, the volume reconstruction can be performed. There are several methods of volume reconstruction and they are pixel-based method (PBM), voxel-based method (VBM), and also function-based method (FBM). In addition, the Visualization Toolkit (VTK) is the most common software package for volume reconstruction and visualization, such as in [4, 11, 14, 16, 17, 24].
\nThe pixel-nearest neighbor (PNN) method is the example of pixel-based method (PBM), which is used to reconstruct the 3D volume by traveling across each pixel of acquired 2D ultrasound frames. In general, PNN consists of two important steps, which are bin-filling step and hole-filling step [25]. First, the bin-filling step is also known as distribution step and it travels across each pixel in all the 2D ultrasound frames, and then the nearest voxel in the 3D reconstructed volume is filled with that pixel value [4,8]. The method to assign pixel to voxel is based on the corresponding position and orientation information of 2D frames [9]. In this way, the 2D pixels can be transformed into voxels in the 3D volume space. If there have been multiple pixels assigned to a single voxel, the pixel values are averaged [4]. The bin-filling step might lead to empty voxel. Hence, hole-filing phase is used to identify and fill the empty voxel, usually by using the average, maximum, minimum, or a median of the neighbor filled voxels value [8, 9]. The selection of neighbor voxels is determined by a parameter value that represents the distance [24] or the radius of spherical region [8] from an empty voxel to be filled. However, the disadvantages of PNN method are causing blurred result and losing important information of 2D frames [9]. Besides that, some artifacts have been observed on the boundaries between the bin-filled area with original texture pattern and the hole-filled area with smoothed texture pattern [8].
\nSome research works are done in order to recover the disadvantages of PNN, especially in the hole-filling steps. Fast marching method (FMM) is proposed in the hole-filling step to interpolate empty voxel to preserve the sharp edges in the image and hence reduce the artifacts of the smoothed texture pattern [8]. Besides that, an improved Olympic operation is also proposed to estimate the empty voxel effectively [26]. Based on the observation, the PNN method is still favorable among the researchers in the field of 3D ultrasound reconstruction because of its simplicity to use as well as its capability to avoid complex computational time. Many improved PNN also has been proposed to create higher-quality reconstruction results.
\nThe voxel-based method (VBM) is used to reconstruct the 3D volume by traveling across each voxel in a volume grid and gathering the pixel values from input 2D ultrasound frames and computing them by various methods. The newly computed value is then placed at that voxel. The most common methods in VBM are voxel-nearest neighbor (VNN) and distance-weighted (DW). The VNN travels across each volume voxel and selects the nearest pixel value from a set of 2D frames to be put on that voxel. This method is capable to preserve the original texture patterns from 2D ultrasound frames; however, its downside is that large distance of the voxel to the 2D frames will generate large reconstruction artifacts and also it tends to preserve the speckle noise from corrupted ultrasound echo [8, 9].
\nAs for the DW method, it also travels across each volume voxel first. Then, its local neighborhood pixels of 2D ultrasound frames are weighted by the inverse distances between the pixels and that voxel [27]. Lastly, the average value of those pixels is placed on the voxel. The DW method is able to suppress speckle noise [8]. On the other hand, it also smoothens the 3D reconstructed volume, causing the loss of some information on the original 2D ultrasound frames [9].
\nBesides that, the implementation of kernel regression can also help estimate the whole voxels in a volume, which is filled by bin-filling stage with more details and suppressing speckle noises, but it suffers from computational speed [9]. Although there is a use of bin-filling step, the use of kernel regression in this sense is considered a VBM as it also requires the reconstruction process to travel across each voxel in a volume.
\nThe functional-based method (FBM) takes a set of input data and uses a function like polynomial to reconstruct 3D ultrasound volume [28]. The radial basis function (RBF) is one of the FBMs that used an estimate function to compute a spline that passes through the pixels that form a shape in the 2D ultrasound frames [9, 27]. The created splines need to be as identical and smooth as the original shapes in the 2D frames. The approximation requirement is required because of the existence of measurement errors, as well as to reduce the overshoots in order to have the gray-level range of interpolated voxels to be same as that of the original 2D ultrasound frames [27]. The mentioned measurement errors are such as the tissue motion, position sensor error, and calibration error during the data acquisition process. In addition, the overshoot is a situation in signal processing where the signal or function exceeds its supposed target.
\nBesides RBF, Bayesian framework can be used to infer the voxel values in a volume grid by assuming a 3D parametric function that has basic function centered at every voxel, and the volume grid is modeled using piecewise smooth Markov random field (PS-MRF) with typical 6-connected neighborhood system [7, 29]. The work of [7] showed that the PS-MRF can work with irregular spaced B-scan images and to reduce the speckle noise and preserve boundary. However, it requires extreme computation time and needs to use GPU and parallel programming to overcome this limitation. The FBMs able to create a high-quality 3D volume from the 2D ultrasound frames; however, they require intensive computational power as well as speed, which imply that these methods are not widely studied in the field of 3D ultrasound reconstruction.
\nAfter volume reconstruction, the 3D visualization method is used to display the volume data from the volume gird for the operator and physicians to see the result of ultrasound scanning. This is useful for them to analyze the scanned anatomy and assist in diagnosis, as well as for image-guided surgery. The 3D visualization process is also the last step to complete the fully functioning 3D ultrasound reconstruction. The common rendering algorithms or techniques for 3D visualization are multiplanar reformatting, volume rendering, and surface rendering.
\nThe multiplanar reformatting method is a visualization technique where 2D ultrasound planes, also known as resliced image, are extracted from the 3D ultrasound data and displayed to the user with 3D impression [30]. The physicians can view the 3D ultrasound reconstruction result on three orthogonal slice views, which is in terms of traverse plane, coronal plane, and sagittal plane [17]. The resliced images are presented together with texture-mapped 3D rendering. There are three approaches of display [1], which are the planar cross-sectional images, the cube view, and the orthogonal planes. The limitation of planar viewing is that there will be possibility to loss of information due to the complex shape of ROI, especially when viewing spinal curvature. Thus, the use of nonplanar volume rendering method can compensate this limitation [31]. Due to its simplicity and the fact that it does not require high computational power, the multiplanar reformatting method is favorable among researchers and practitioners alike to visualize the 3D ultrasound reconstruction. Figure 6 shows the examples of planar cross-sectional images and the cube view, while Figure 7 shows the difference between planar and nonplanar volume rendering.
\n(a) Planar cross-sectional images of reconstructed volume data [
The example shows the difference of planar and nonplanar volume rendering in the assessment of scoliosis [
Volume rendering technique involves ray-casting or ray-marching techniques where the change of light that went through the 3D volume data is projected as the output visualization results for the operator to view [32]. The light absorption principle [33] is implemented in the volume rendering technique where every voxel has the attributes such as brightness, transparency, and color [30]. So, there are several approaches used for the volume rendering visualization, and they are maximum intensity projection and translucency rendering [1]. The volume rendering can distinguish between tissue and fluids very well, and hence, it is suitable to view 3D ultrasound fetal image [1, 32]. However, the volume rendering is CPU-intensive and is not suitable to view the soft tissues details [1]. Figure 8 shows the ray-casting in volume rendering technique, and Figure 9 shows the example of volume rendering that uses maximum and minimum intensity projection.
\nThe volume rendering technique involves several rays passing through 3D volume data. The synthesis methods can be applied to each voxel value that the ray passed to produce specific effects, such as transparency and maximum intensity projection of certain objects [
The different volumes rendering visualization of 3D ultrasound imaging system approaches, where (a) shows the maximum intensity projection of a fetus and (b) shows the minimum intensity projection of blood vessels in the liver [
The surface rendering produces a 3D surface based on the segmented boundary data points by generating the surface triangles or polygons associated with standard surface-rendering techniques being provided by interpolation [34]. The surface rendering can improve the interpretation of data sets [14]. The surface rendering technique can be classified into indirect surface rendering and direct surface rendering. The direct surface rendering is a special case of volume rendering technique, where the surface is rendered directly from the volume without intermediate geometric representations, setting thresholds or using object labels to define a range of voxel intensities to be viewed [35]. The transparency and colors are used for the better 3D visualization of the volume [36]. As for the indirect surface rendering, it requires that the surfaces of relevant structure boundaries within the volume be identified a priori by segmentation [35]. The example of indirect surface rendering is such as contour filtering and marching cubes. Figure 10 shows the 3D visualization using surface rendering technique.
\n(a) The indirect surface rendering of cardiac structure [
Contour filtering decides how contours of two successive slices to be connected where the vertices of the assigned contours should be connected to form triangular mesh [37]. This method is first introduced by Keppel [37] that used the triangulation for 3D surface rendering of contour lines from the medical data slices. The method is then optimized in the work of [38] using simplification algorithm to improve the level of detail as well as rendering speed.
\nMarching cubes algorithm is also one of the popular surface reconstruction algorithms introduced by Lorensen and Cline to display high-quality surface rendering for medical 3D volume data. The marching cubes algorithm uses a divide-and-conquer method [39] in a 3D volume data where the 3D volume is divided into many voxel cubes that form a voxel array. Each cube is made from eight vertices, which represents a voxel value from the volume data. A user-specific parameter value known as isovalue is defined before reconstruction in order to create a surface, also known as isosurface, by determining how the surface intersects with the cube [39]. Therefore, the surface rendering of different parts of the medical data, such as the arteries and atrium of the heart, can be distinguished and visualized, as shown in Figure 10(b). Then, the marching cubes process is moved to the next cube by following the order from left to right, front to back, and top to bottom until the algorithm ends [24]. In the marching cubes algorithm process, each vertex is assigned to a binary number either 1 or 0, where 1 means that the vertex is outside the surface, while 0 means that the vertex is inside the surface. In general, there are 28 = 256 cases on how surface intersects in a voxel cube, since eight vertices are contained in a cube and are represented as binary number. Due to the fact that some of the cases are the inverse or symmetry of each other, the 256 cases are reduced into 15 cases with unique pattern configuration [33] and are put in a lookup table. The 15 unique pattern configurations are as shown in Figure 11.
\nThe 15 unique pattern configurations [
The marching cubes algorithm has been implemented in the 3D reconstruction of medical data, such as in medical imaging reconstruction and creating a 3D contour of a mathematical scalar field [40] and in CT reconstruction [24]. Because of the utilization of lookup table, the marching cubes algorithm is fast and simple to use. It is also capable to take full advantage of the graphical processing unit (GPU) acceleration function to create good 3D reconstruction result [24].
\nHowever, the original marching cubes algorithm suffers from the connectivity problems between triangle of adjacent cubes also known as the “hole problem” [40], which will cause the reconstruction result to be not smooth. Figure 12 shows the “hole problem” found in the conventional marching cubes algorithm. In order to solve this issue, the efforts have been made by the past researchers, such as modifying the lookup table, extending the look-up table, etc. In [40] introduced the 21 unique pattern configurations that will always ensure the triangles of adjacent cubes will connect to each other.
\nThe “hole problem” [
By the comparison, Wan et al. [14] found out that the marching cubes algorithm can produce sharper 3D ultrasound reconstruction image when compared with the contour filtering algorithm. Besides that, the result using marching cubes algorithm is easier to detect the edges and inner part of the ROI. However, the conventional marching cubes algorithm can generate a very large number of triangles for the 3D visualization [38]. In summary, marching cubes algorithm trades off speed for higher level of detail, while contour filtering sacrifices some details for computational speed.
\nThe improvement of data acquisition methods, 3D reconstruction algorithms, volume visualizations, and hardware capabilities has greatly increased the feasibility of 3D ultrasound imaging in clinical application. Hence, the 3D ultrasound imaging has become more relevant in the medical field due to the increase in flexibility, efficiency, and real time applicability. In this section, the clinical application of 3D ultrasound reconstruction is discussed.
\nThe 3D ultrasound imaging used in obstetrics brings two main advantages. Firstly, 3D ultrasound imaging can be used to determine the number of fetuses, fetus’ surface feature, and placenta location [41]. The volume rendering can distinguish between tissue and surrounding amniotic fluids very well, and hence it is suitable to view 3D ultrasound fetal image for the physicians to examine the fetal presentation, as well as for the parents to see the fetus’ face [1, 32]. It also can reduce the repeatability of physicians to relocate the placenta location and reduce mental workload to mentally construct the 2D ultrasound images into volumetric view. The second advantage is 3D ultrasound imaging that can assist in the accurate volume measurement of fetal size. Based on the World Health Organization (WHO) [41], the physicians need to measure the femur length, abdominal circumference, biparietal diameter, and head circumference, in order to determine whether the fetal is oversized or undersized.
\nIn cardiology, 3D ultrasound imaging can help to identify the plague in blood vessel, such as atherosclerotic stenosis. This can be achieved using segmentation method to get the surface of the blood vessel [12].
\nBesides that, the 3D ultrasound imaging also proved to be effective in the assessment of scoliosis [31, 42]. Due to the need to follow up treatment frequently during the early stage, frequent X-ray examination is harmful for the young patient. Hence, 3D ultrasound reconstruction can help in scoliosis examination as ultrasound has less radiation generation and nontraumatic to the subject. The flexibility of ultrasound also allows the subject to be scanned in standing posture, which is more accurate to measure the spinal curvature angle as shown in Figure 13.
\nThe schematic diagram for the assessment of scoliosis using 3D ultrasound imaging system [
This chapter discussed the analysis on the literature of existing 3D ultrasound reconstruction method or algorithm. First, the 3D ultrasound imaging system can be classified as the 2D array scanning system, the mechanical scanning system, and the freehand scanning system. Their properties, advantages, and disadvantages are discussed. Second, the reconstruction process for the 3D ultrasound imaging system is explained. The steps required by the 3D ultrasound reconstruction are data acquisition stage, data preprocessing stage, implementing volume reconstruction method stage, and 3D visualization stage. Lastly, the advantages of 3D ultrasound reconstruction in the medical visualization are discussed, which includes obstetrics, cardiology, and scoliosis assessment.
\nThe main limitation found in the current methods is the requirement for large computational processing power in order to visualize accurate medical data. Through the improvement of hardware capabilities such as GPU, the computational power and speed limitation can be improved. However, this presents a new problem, which is the increase in the cost of production. Therefore, we observed that the computational speed, accuracy of reconstruction, and cost-effectiveness are the challenges to be faced to provide a practicable 3D ultrasound reconstruction system.
\nIn the future, the augmented reality (AR) medical can solve a lot of issue in ultrasonography, especially in the viewing of ultrasound image, as it can display the ultrasound image or other important information in the field of view of the physicians. This can further improve the clinician’s perception toward the scanned ROI.
\nFurthermore, the data visualization method can also greatly improve the ultrasound perception by assigning the color to the scanned organs. This is because the current ultrasound images are black and white and are very hard to distinguish between different organs. Based on the physical properties of organs, the reflected intensity of ultrasonic wave is different for every organ. In this way, the color mapping can be used in different intensities to produce colorful ultrasound image, which represents and distinguishes every organ in the scanned region. Besides that, flow visualization can also be incorporated in the ultrasound visualization, such as different colors for different blood flow directions.
\nThis chapter is supported by Ministry of Science, Technology & Innovation under the ScienceFund grant vote R.J130000.7928.4S135. The authors also like to acknowledge University of Technology, Malaysia (UTM) for providing the guidance to the research facilities to work.
\nThis book chapter does not have any conflict of interest.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Journals",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-journals",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\\n\\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\\n\\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\\n\\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\\n\\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\\n\\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\\n\\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\\n\\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\\n\\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\n\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\n\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\n\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\n\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\n\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\n\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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This chapter presents a review on fundamentals and applications of conventional Fenton, leading advanced technologies in the Fenton process, and reuse methods of iron containing sludge to synthetic and real wastewaters are discussed. Finally, future trends and some guidelines for Fenton processes are given.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]},{id:"67689",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86952",title:"Membrane Distillation: Basics, Advances, and Applications",slug:"membrane-distillation-basics-advances-and-applications",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Membrane technology as an emerging separation process has become competitive with other separation techniques in recent decades. Among pressure-driven and isothermal membrane processes, membrane distillation (MD) as a thermally driven process has come out to put an end to hardships of such processes like distillation. MD process can be used in a wide variety of applications such as desalination and wastewater treatment. Generally, MD is a process which water is a main component of the feed solution and only water vapor can pass through a hydrophobic membrane pores. With four main configurations different from each other by their condensation procedure, the performance of MD process is limited due to the lack of appropriate module, membrane, and energy consumption rate. In recent years, many experiments have been carried out to find well-suited membrane type and module. Also, applying solar or waste heat as heat source and the capability of coupling with other processes like forward osmosis and osmotic distillation distinguish MD process from other membrane processes. This chapter addresses membrane characteristics, MD applications, transport mechanisms, and process challenges.",book:{id:"8915",slug:"advances-in-membrane-technologies",title:"Advances in Membrane Technologies",fullTitle:"Advances in Membrane Technologies"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Shirzad Kebria and Ahmad Rahimpour",authors:[{id:"289042",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimpour",slug:"ahmad-rahimpour",fullName:"Ahmad Rahimpour"},{id:"289043",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Shirzad Kebria",slug:"mohammad-reza-shirzad-kebria",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Shirzad Kebria"}]},{id:"70086",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90192",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes: A Powerful Treatment Option for the Removal of Recalcitrant Organic Compounds",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-a-powerful-treatment-option-for-the-removal-of-recalcitrant-organic-com",totalDownloads:1602,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are the technologies that generally use the hydroxyl radicals, the ultimate oxidant for the remediation of organic contaminants in wastewater. These are highly effective novel methods speeding up the oxidation process. AOP can combine with ozone (O3), catalyst, or ultraviolet (UV) irradiation to offer a powerful treatment of wastewater. Future research should be focused on enhancing the properties of heterogeneous catalysts in AOPs. This chapter reports general review of different AOPs utilized for the removal of various phenolic compounds and textile dyes in wastewater. The chapter also aimed at an investigation of efficiency for different photochemical AOPs. The authors have carried out the experimental runs at a laboratory scale for the removal of malachite green oxalate (MGO) dye with photochemical AOPs. The influence of ferrous ions and oxidant dosage on percentage decolorization of MGO in wastewater has been reported. The discussion extends to the utilization of different modified photocatalysts for the photocatalysis process. The future challenges, such as the adoption of strategies for the integration of processes and the decrement in operational cost of AOPs, are discussed. The discussion covers the utilization of different heterogeneous catalysts, the reduction of input demands of chemicals and energy for the processes.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Damodhar Ghime and Prabir Ghosh",authors:[{id:"251470",title:"Dr.",name:"Prabir",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prabir-ghosh",fullName:"Prabir Ghosh"},{id:"312650",title:"Mr.",name:"Damodhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ghime",slug:"damodhar-ghime",fullName:"Damodhar Ghime"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70242",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1873,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Fenton is considered to be one of the most effective advanced treatment processes in the removal of many hazardous organic pollutants from refractory/toxic wastewater. It has many advantages, but drawbacks are significant such as a strong acid environment, the cost of reagents consumption, and the large production of ferric sludge, which limits Fenton’s further application. The development of Fenton applications is mainly achieved by improving oxidation efficiency and reducing sludge production. This chapter presents a review on fundamentals and applications of conventional Fenton, leading advanced technologies in the Fenton process, and reuse methods of iron containing sludge to synthetic and real wastewaters are discussed. Finally, future trends and some guidelines for Fenton processes are given.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]},{id:"71660",title:"Applications of Chemical Kinetics in Heterogeneous Catalysis",slug:"applications-of-chemical-kinetics-in-heterogeneous-catalysis",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Chemical kinetics is a key subdiscipline of physical chemistry that studies the reaction rate in every elemental step and corresponding catalytic mechanism. It mainly concludes molecular reaction dynamics, catalytic dynamics, elemental reaction dynamics, macrodynamics, and microdynamics. Such a research field has wide applications in heterogeneous catalysis. Based on the Arrhenius plot fitted by the catalytic conversions below 15% without the mass transfer effect and heat transfer effect, the apparent activation energy echoing with the intrinsically catalytic sites and the pre-exponential factor echoing with the relative number of active sites can be, respectively, derived from the slope and intercept of the Arrhenius plots, which can be used to compare the intrinsically catalytic activity of different catalysts and the relative amount of active sites. Reaction orders of both reactants and products are derived from the reaction rate equation and also fitted by the catalytic conversions below 15% without the mass transfer effect and heat transfer effect. According to the acquired reaction orders, the reaction mechanism can be proposed and even defined in some simple reactions. Therefore, investigations of chemical kinetics are of extreme importance and meaning in heterogeneous catalysis.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Zhenhua Zhang, Li-Ping Fan and Yue-Juan Wang",authors:[{id:"312555",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenhua",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhenhua-zhang",fullName:"Zhenhua Zhang"},{id:"316868",title:"Ms.",name:"Li-Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"li-ping-fan",fullName:"Li-Ping Fan"},{id:"316869",title:"Prof.",name:"Yue-Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yue-juan-wang",fullName:"Yue-Juan Wang"}]},{id:"77416",title:"Application of Water Quality Index for the Assessment of Water from Different Sources in Nigeria",slug:"application-of-water-quality-index-for-the-assessment-of-water-from-different-sources-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:517,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Water quality index (WQI) provides a single number that expresses the overall water quality, at a certain location and time, based on several water quality parameters. The objective of WQI is to turn complex water quality data into information that is understandable and usable by the public. A number of indices have been developed to summarize water quality data in an easily expressible and easily understood format. The WQI is basically a mathematical means of calculating a single value from multiple test results. This chapter discusses, in detail, the application of a water quality index for the assessment of water quality to different several water sources in Nigeria.",book:{id:"9921",slug:"promising-techniques-for-wastewater-treatment-and-water-quality-assessment",title:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment",fullTitle:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment"},signatures:"Ruth Olubukola Ajoke Adelagun, Emmanuel Edet Etim and Oko Emmanuel Godwin",authors:[{id:"256167",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Edet Etim",slug:"emmanuel-edet-etim",fullName:"Emmanuel Edet Etim"},{id:"345734",title:"Mr.",name:"Oko",middleName:null,surname:"Emmanuel Godwin",slug:"oko-emmanuel-godwin",fullName:"Oko Emmanuel Godwin"},{id:"345735",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",middleName:null,surname:"Olubukola Ajoke Adelagun",slug:"ruth-olubukola-ajoke-adelagun",fullName:"Ruth Olubukola Ajoke Adelagun"}]},{id:"71348",title:"Water Treatment and Desalination",slug:"water-treatment-and-desalination",totalDownloads:1049,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Water covers a large area of the earth that reaches about three quarters of the surface of this planet, but we cannot say that all of this water is fresh or drinkable; according to many statistics, the percentage of fresh water reaches about 1% of the total water on earth. But with the great need for fresh water, whether for drinking or other purposes such as agriculture, the search for water treatment methods has become much larger. One of the most important of these methods that have been developed is desalination of seawater using desalination plants; therefore, we will address here the most important methods used in desalination and water treatment.",book:{id:"7645",slug:"desalination-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Mona M. Amin Abdel-Fatah and Ghada Ahmed Al Bazedi",authors:[{id:"286268",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Fatah",slug:"mona-abdel-fatah",fullName:"Mona Abdel-Fatah"},{id:"295973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Basedi",slug:"ghada-al-basedi",fullName:"Ghada Al-Basedi"}]},{id:"73429",title:"Emerging Trends in Wastewater Treatment Technologies: The Current Perspective",slug:"emerging-trends-in-wastewater-treatment-technologies-the-current-perspective",totalDownloads:818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The quality of freshwater and its supply, particularly for domestic and industrial purposes are waning due to urbanization and inefficient conventional wastewater treatment (WWT) processes. For decades, conventional WWT processes have succeeded to some extent in treating effluents to meet standard discharge requirements. However, improvements in WWT are necessary to render treated wastewater for re-use in the industrial, agricultural, and domestic sectors. Three emerging technologies including membrane technology, microbial fuel cells and microalgae, as well as WWT strategies are discussed in this chapter. These applications are a promising alternative for manifold WWT processes and distribution systems in mitigating contaminants to meet acceptable limitations. The basic principles, types and applications, merits, and demerits of the aforementioned technologies are addressed in relation to their current limitations and future research needs. The development in WWT blueprints will augment the application of these emerging technologies for sustainable management and water conservation, with re-use strategies.",book:{id:"9921",slug:"promising-techniques-for-wastewater-treatment-and-water-quality-assessment",title:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment",fullTitle:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment"},signatures:"Edward Kwaku Armah, Maggie Chetty, Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji, Donald Tyoker Kukwa, Boldwin Mutsvene, Khaya Pearlman Shabangu and Babatunde Femi Bakare",authors:[{id:"237732",title:"Dr.",name:"Babatunde",middleName:"Femi",surname:"Bakare",slug:"babatunde-bakare",fullName:"Babatunde Bakare"},{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",middleName:"Manimagalay",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"323336",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald Tyoker",middleName:null,surname:"Kukwa",slug:"donald-tyoker-kukwa",fullName:"Donald Tyoker Kukwa"},{id:"324641",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward Kwaku",middleName:null,surname:"Armah",slug:"edward-kwaku-armah",fullName:"Edward Kwaku Armah"},{id:"326294",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeremiah Adebisi",middleName:null,surname:"Adedeji",slug:"jeremiah-adebisi-adedeji",fullName:"Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji"},{id:"326593",title:"Mr.",name:"Boldwin",middleName:null,surname:"Mutsvene",slug:"boldwin-mutsvene",fullName:"Boldwin Mutsvene"},{id:"326594",title:"Mr.",name:"Khaya Pearlman",middleName:null,surname:"Shabangu",slug:"khaya-pearlman-shabangu",fullName:"Khaya Pearlman Shabangu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1354",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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