Composition (% db) of DDGS from ethanol plants in South Dakota [21].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"326",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Silicon Carbide - Materials, Processing and Applications in Electronic Devices",title:"Silicon Carbide",subtitle:"Materials, Processing and Applications in Electronic Devices",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Silicon Carbide (SiC) and its polytypes, used primarily for grinding and high temperature ceramics, have been a part of human civilization for a long time. The inherent ability of SiC devices to operate with higher efficiency and lower environmental footprint than silicon-based devices at high temperatures and under high voltages pushes SiC on the verge of becoming the material of choice for high power electronics and optoelectronics. What is more important, SiC is emerging to become a template for graphene fabrication, and a material for the next generation of sub-32nm semiconductor devices. It is thus increasingly clear that SiC electronic systems will dominate the new energy and transport technologies of the 21st century. In 21 chapters of the book, special emphasis has been placed on the “materials” aspects and developments thereof. To that end, about 70% of the book addresses the theory, crystal growth, defects, surface and interface properties, characterization, and processing issues pertaining to SiC. The remaining 30% of the book covers the electronic device aspects of this material. Overall, this book will be valuable as a reference for SiC researchers for a few years to come. This book prestigiously covers our current understanding of SiC as a semiconductor material in electronics. The primary target for the book includes students, researchers, material and chemical engineers, semiconductor manufacturers and professionals who are interested in silicon carbide and its continuing progression.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-968-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4419-9",doi:"10.5772/852",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"silicon-carbide-materials-processing-and-applications-in-electronic-devices",numberOfPages:560,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"6f4514052d329afb3bc5dc1a8cc2ac3f",bookSignature:"Moumita Mukherjee",publishedDate:"October 10th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/326.jpg",numberOfDownloads:71778,numberOfWosCitations:98,numberOfCrossrefCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitations:82,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:212,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 8th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 6th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"24251",title:"Dr.",name:"Moumita",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"moumita-mukherjee",fullName:"Moumita Mukherjee",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24251/images/1920_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Moumita Mukherjee completed higher-education from Presidency College, Calcutta, India and University of Calcutta, India. She received M.Sc. degree in Physics with specialization in Electronics and Communication and Ph.D. (Tech) in Radio Physics and Electronics from University of Calcutta, India. She worked as a Senior Research Fellow (SRF) of Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO), Ministry of Defence, Govt. of India, under Visva Bharati University, India, Advanced Technology Centre, Jadavpur University, India and Centre for Millimeter-wave Semiconductor Devices & Systems (CMSDS), India. She is presently working as a ‘DRDO- Research Associate’ at CMSDS, IRPE, University of Calcutta. \nHer research interest is focused on the modeling/simulation and fabrication of Millimeter and Sub-millimeter (Terahertz) wave high power homo-junction/hetero-junction devices based on wide-band-gap semiconductors, photo-irradiation effects on the high power Terahertz IMPATT oscillators, nano-scale THz devices and Microwave photonics. She published more than 85 peer-reviewed research papers on semiconductor devices in reputed International refereed journals and reviewed IEEE-Proceedings. She is the author of a book on “Fundamentals of Engineering Physics”, a number of international book-chapters and worked as a Chief Editor and editor in a number of reputed international journals and publications in India and abroad. \nDr. Mukherjee obtained “National Merit Scholarship’, from Govt. of India, received “Top 100 Scientists-2009” award, “Woman of the Year-2010” award by ABI, Cambridge, UK and her biography is included in the “2000 outstanding Intellectuals of the 21st Century- 5th Edition – 2009-2010. Her biography is also published in the 26th and 27th editions of “Marquis Who’s Who in the World” -2009 and 2010 (NJ: USA) and “Marquis Who’s Who in Science & Engineering-2011”. 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These can result in increased demands for food, clothing, housing, and consumer goods. Additionally, there has been a growing need for energy during the last several decades, which historically has been met primarily by use of fossil fuels. In the U.S., transportation fuels generally account for about 1/3 of all energy consumed. Of this, about 90% comes from fossil sources. Between 1/2 and 2/3 of the total U.S. demand for petroleum has been met by imports during the last 30 years [1]. Many argue that this scenario is not sustainable in the long run, and other energy alternatives are needed. During 2005-2010, the U.S. experienced some of the highest growth rates ever seen in the domestic biofuels industry.
The U.S. biofuels industry has recently grown as a response to increasing energy needs and energy prices. Bio-based fuels can theoretically be manufactured from many biological materials. Biochemical conversion of carbohydrates into ethanol and lipids into biodiesel are the two most common routes at this point in time. This includes most cereal grains (e.g., corn, barley, wheat, sorghum, rice, etc.), oilseeds (e.g., soybeans, sunflowers, flax, rapeseed, and others), native prairie grasses (including miscanthus, switchgrass, prairie cord grass, reed canary grass, and other grasses), agricultural residues (including corn stover, rice husks, wheat straw, and other crop residues), algae, municipal solid wastes, food processing wastes, and other biological wastes and substrates [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Right now, however, the most heavily used feedstock for biofuel production in the U.S. is corn grain. Industrial-scale alcohol manufacturing from corn starch is readily accomplished, and at a low cost (generally about $1/gal), which is considerably lower than other biological material conversions in the U.S.
In recent years, the corn-based fuel ethanol industry in the U.S. has reached a scale which can impact the nation’s supply of transportation fuels. Only during the last decade, however, has this industry become visible to the average citizen. This has been due, in part, to the growing demand for domestic transportation fuels for national security, escalating prices at the fuel pump, positive economic effects throughout rural America, as well as questions and controversies surrounding the production and use of corn ethanol. While fuel is the main aim of the ethanol industry, nonfermentable coproducts are also generated during manufacturing. The primary coproduct is distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) (Figure 1), which is the focus of this chapter.
Corn-based Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS) is currently the most common coproduct available from U.S. fuel ethanol plants (Photo courtesy of Rosentrater).
To help meet the increasing demand for transportation fuels, and to meet federal U.S. mandates, the number of ethanol plants has rapidly increased in recent years, as has the quantity of fuel ethanol and coproducts produced (Figure 2). As of 2015, the RFS (Renewable Fuel Standard) mandates the use of 15 billion gal/y (56.8 billion L/y) of corn-based ethanol in the U.S. [13]. At the beginning of 2015, there were 213 fuel ethanol plants in the U.S., which produced nearly 56.8 billion L/y (15.0 billion gal/y) [12, 15]. As the biofuels industry continues to evolve, cellulosic and other bio-based fuels will gain prevalence in coming years.
Most new ethanol plants have been dry-grind facilities (Figure 3), which will be discussed subsequently. As production volume has increased, the processing residues, known collectively as “distillers grains” – have increased concomitantly (Figure 2). Between 35 and 40 million metric tonnes (t) of distillers grains (both wet and dry) will be produced each year by the U.S. fuel ethanol industry over the next several years. In recent years there has actually been a slight decline in distillers grains production, due to evolving processes which now extract oil from the coproduct streams. This will be discussed at a later point in the chapter.
As the industry has grown over the last few decades, the consumption of corn has grown as well (Figure 4). In recent years, over 30% of the U.S. corn crop is used to produce fuel ethanol. When examining these data, however, it is important to note several key points: most corn in the U.S. is not human food-grade corn, exports have been relatively constant over time, there has only been a slight decline in the corn used for animal feed, but the overall quantity of corn which is produced by U.S. farmers has been greatly increasing over time. The corn used to manufacture fuel ethanol has arisen from the growing U.S. supply of corn. Furthermore, and more importantly, the corn which has been used to produce ethanol (instead of animal feed) is generally replaced by DDGS and other ethanol coproducts in these animal feeds. Ethanol coproducts (primarily DDGS and DWG) are key to the long-term viability of the fuel ethanol industry as well as the various livestock industries. Thus feed and fuel can be produced simultaneously, contrary to what may be discussed in the media.
The aims of this chapter are multiple: 1) to review fuel ethanol and coproduct manufacturing in the U.S.; 2) to discuss the importance of distillers coproducts to both the biofuel and the livestock industries; and 3) to illustrate how coproducts are changing and potential uses are expanding as the ethanol industry evolves.
U.S. fuel ethanol (gal) and DDGS (t) production over time; RFS denotes levels mandated by the Renewable Fuel Standard. Inset shows number of U.S. ethanol plants over time [
U.S. dry grind corn-to-ethanol manufacturing plants. A. 450 x 106 L/y plant. B. 80 x 106 L/y plant (Photos courtesy of Rosentrater).
U.S. corn production (bu) and consumption according to major categories of use (adapted from [
Corn ethanol is produced by two main commercial approaches. These include dry grind processing and wet milling. Over the last 20 years, many new fuel ethanol plants have been constructed in the U.S. (Figure 2). During this time, the industry has grown, evolved, and matured. Dry grind processing has become the most popular method for ethanol manufacturing for a variety of reasons, including lower capital and operational costs, lower energy use, and lower water consumption. In fact, most new ethanol plants in recent years have been dry grind facilities, and comprise approximately 80% of ethanol facilities in the U.S. [13].
Dry grind processing (Figure 5) consists of multiple unit operations. Primary steps include grain receiving, cleaning, storage, grinding, cooking, liquefaction, saccharification and fermentation, solids separation, distillation, ethanol storage and loadout, whole stillage centrifugation, coproduct drying, coproduct storage, and loadout. Additionally, ethanol plants entail heat recovery, waste management, CO2 extraction, dust control, and facility instrumentation systems. Specific details will vary, though, as each ethanol plant is somewhat unique in design and operation. Oil extraction is a relatively new technology for creating additional coproduct streams, and will be discussed later.
Grinding, cooking, and liquefying increase surface area and allow the corn starch to be broken down into dextrins by enzymes (e.g., alpha-amylase) during saccharification, and subsequently into glucose molecules (using gluco-amylase), which are then consumed during fermentation by yeast (
Flow chart of typical corn dry grind fuel ethanol and coproducts processing operations.
Dry grind ethanol manufacturing generally results in three key products. These include fuel ethanol, the primary end product; residual nonfermentable corn kernel components, which are further processed and then sold as distillers grains (or coproducts); and carbon dioxide. A rule of thumb used in industry is that each 1 kg of corn processed will produce approximately 1/3 kg of each of the products. Another general rule is that each bushel of corn processed (about 56 lb; 25.4 kg) will yield almost 2.9 gal (11.0 L) of ethanol (in reality, it will range from about 2.7 to 2.8 gal/bu, depending on the efficiency of the plant), 18 lb (8.2 kg) of distillers grains, and 18 lb (8.2 kg) of carbon dioxide (which is a byproduct of the yeast metabolism). These will vary from plant to plant due to production practices, equipment used, residence times, process temperatures, concentrations, maintenance schedules, equipment cleanliness, environmental conditions, as well as the composition and quality of the raw corn, the location where the corn was grown, and the growing season that produced that corn.
During fermentation the yeast’s metabolic processes which convert glucose into ethanol result in carbon dioxide as a byproduct. This can be captured, compressed, and sold to gas markets such as beverage or dry ice manufacturers. This is especially attractive to ethanol plants near metropolitan areas. Most of the time it is just released to the atmosphere because logistics make CO2 sales impractical. Additional detailed information on ethanol and DDGS manufacturing can be found in [17, 18].
Coproducts are important to the ethanol industry for a number of reasons. First and foremost, coproducts are additional sources of revenue to ethanol plants. Since these coproducts are primarily used as animal feed ingredients, monitoring and maintaining the consistency of coproduct compositions is critical to sales and utilization. DDGS from most modern U.S. fuel ethanol plants typically contains about 30% protein, 10% fat, at least 40% neutral detergent fibre, and up to 12% starch (of course, the lower the starch the better, as this is indicative of conversion efficiency) [19, 20]. DDGS composition can vary somewhat between plants. Within a single plant over time, however, DDGS is much less variable than amongst plants. Table 1 illustrates composition of DDGS from five ethanol plants in South Dakota, USA. Protein levels ranged from 28.3 to 31.8%, fat ranged between 9.4 and 11.0%, and ash ranged from 4.1 to 13.3%.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||||
1 | \n\t\t\t28.33 | \n\t\t\t10.76 | \n\t\t\t31.84 | \n\t\t\t15.56 | \n\t\t\t11.82 | \n\t\t\t13.27 | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t30.65 | \n\t\t\t9.75 | \n\t\t\t39.90 | \n\t\t\t15.21 | \n\t\t\t9.81 | \n\t\t\t12.84 | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t28.70 | \n\t\t\t10.98 | \n\t\t\t38.46 | \n\t\t\t17.89 | \n\t\t\t11.59 | \n\t\t\t11.52 | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t30.65 | \n\t\t\t9.40 | \n\t\t\t36.73 | \n\t\t\t15.28 | \n\t\t\t9.05 | \n\t\t\t4.13 | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t31.78 | \n\t\t\t9.50 | \n\t\t\t38.88 | \n\t\t\t17.24 | \n\t\t\t10.05 | \n\t\t\t4.48 | \n\t\t
Composition (% db) of DDGS from ethanol plants in South Dakota [21].
It is instructive to examine composition differences in DDGS from plants throughout the U.S. For example, DDGS from 49 plants from 12 states were analysed for proximate composition (Table 2) and amino acid profiles (Table 3) [22]. On average, dry matter ranged from 87.9% to 90.6%, protein ranged from 29.4% to 32.6%, fat ranged from 9.6% to 12.8%, crude fibre ranged from 6.7% to 9.3%, and ash ranged from 4.2% to 6.6%. It appeared that geographic location of the ethanol plants didn’t really play a role for any of the nutrients, as no nutrients seemed to be significantly affected by location.
Some ethanol plants are implementing new fractionation systems to produce new coproduct streams [13], and this is beginning to alter the nutrient composition of the distillers coproducts in the market place. More will be discussed later in this chapter.
Minnesota | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t89.03 | \n\t\t\t30.70 | \n\t\t\t11.73 | \n\t\t\t6.96 | \n\t\t\t6.63 | \n\t\t
Illinois | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t89.72 | \n\t\t\t29.98 | \n\t\t\t11.48 | \n\t\t\t7.26 | \n\t\t\t5.60 | \n\t\t
Indiana | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t90.55 | \n\t\t\t29.40 | \n\t\t\t12.80 | \n\t\t\t8.07 | \n\t\t\t5.86 | \n\t\t
Iowa | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t88.92 | \n\t\t\t31.23 | \n\t\t\t10.27 | \n\t\t\t7.57 | \n\t\t\t5.76 | \n\t\t
Kentucky | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t90.57 | \n\t\t\t29.43 | \n\t\t\t9.77 | \n\t\t\t9.28 | \n\t\t\t4.47 | \n\t\t
Michigan | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t89.60 | \n\t\t\t32.60 | \n\t\t\t11.00 | \n\t\t\t7.37 | \n\t\t\t6.06 | \n\t\t
Missouri | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t87.90 | \n\t\t\t30.45 | \n\t\t\t10.25 | \n\t\t\t7.17 | \n\t\t\t5.39 | \n\t\t
Nebraska | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t89.02 | \n\t\t\t30.40 | \n\t\t\t11.35 | \n\t\t\t8.13 | \n\t\t\t4.23 | \n\t\t
New York | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t88.21 | \n\t\t\t30.00 | \n\t\t\t9.60 | \n\t\t\t7.87 | \n\t\t\t4.55 | \n\t\t
North Dakota | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t89.21 | \n\t\t\t31.75 | \n\t\t\t11.70 | \n\t\t\t6.89 | \n\t\t\t6.32 | \n\t\t
South Dakota | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t88.61 | \n\t\t\t31.80 | \n\t\t\t11.53 | \n\t\t\t6.65 | \n\t\t\t4.78 | \n\t\t
Wisconsin | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t89.68 | \n\t\t\t31.70 | \n\t\t\t11.63 | \n\t\t\t7.59 | \n\t\t\t5.77 | \n\t\t
Overall Average | \n\t\t\t49 (Total) | \n\t\t\t89.25 | \n\t\t\t30.79 | \n\t\t\t11.09 | \n\t\t\t7.57 | \n\t\t\t5.45 | \n\t\t
Typical proximate composition (% db) of DDGS (averages of samples from 49 ethanol plants) [22].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
Minnesota | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t1.39 | \n\t\t\t0.84 | \n\t\t\t1.20 | \n\t\t\t3.63 | \n\t\t\t0.99 | \n\t\t\t0.61 | \n\t\t||||
Illinois | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t1.37 | \n\t\t\t0.82 | \n\t\t\t1.15 | \n\t\t\t3.45 | \n\t\t\t0.94 | \n\t\t\t0.63 | \n\t\t||||
Indiana | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t1.19 | \n\t\t\t0.79 | \n\t\t\t1.08 | \n\t\t\t3.28 | \n\t\t\t0.85 | \n\t\t\t0.60 | \n\t\t||||
Iowa | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t1.34 | \n\t\t\t0.86 | \n\t\t\t1.20 | \n\t\t\t3.63 | \n\t\t\t0.95 | \n\t\t\t0.61 | \n\t\t||||
Kentucky | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t1.35 | \n\t\t\t0.79 | \n\t\t\t1.09 | \n\t\t\t3.33 | \n\t\t\t0.89 | \n\t\t\t0.66 | \n\t\t||||
Michigan | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t1.28 | \n\t\t\t0.86 | \n\t\t\t1.18 | \n\t\t\t3.67 | \n\t\t\t0.87 | \n\t\t\t0.71 | \n\t\t||||
Missouri | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t1.35 | \n\t\t\t0.83 | \n\t\t\t1.18 | \n\t\t\t3.68 | \n\t\t\t0.89 | \n\t\t\t0.73 | \n\t\t||||
Nebraska | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.46 | \n\t\t\t0.88 | \n\t\t\t1.18 | \n\t\t\t3.61 | \n\t\t\t1.05 | \n\t\t\t0.65 | \n\t\t||||
New York | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t1.46 | \n\t\t\t0.85 | \n\t\t\t1.21 | \n\t\t\t3.64 | \n\t\t\t1.04 | \n\t\t\t0.61 | \n\t\t||||
North Dakota | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.37 | \n\t\t\t0.88 | \n\t\t\t1.24 | \n\t\t\t3.76 | \n\t\t\t0.97 | \n\t\t\t0.65 | \n\t\t||||
South Dakota | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.47 | \n\t\t\t0.87 | \n\t\t\t1.22 | \n\t\t\t3.70 | \n\t\t\t1.08 | \n\t\t\t0.62 | \n\t\t||||
Wisconsin | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t1.45 | \n\t\t\t0.86 | \n\t\t\t1.24 | \n\t\t\t3.75 | \n\t\t\t1.07 | \n\t\t\t0.59 | \n\t\t||||
Overall Average | \n\t\t\t49 | \n\t\t\t1.37 | \n\t\t\t0.84 | \n\t\t\t1.18 | \n\t\t\t3.59 | \n\t\t\t0.96 | \n\t\t\t0.64 | \n\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||||||||
Minnesota | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t1.59 | \n\t\t\t1.17 | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t\t1.62 | \n\t\t\t1.20 | \n\t\t|||||
Illinois | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t1.51 | \n\t\t\t1.11 | \n\t\t\t0.22 | \n\t\t\t1.52 | \n\t\t\t1.22 | \n\t\t|||||
Indiana | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t1.45 | \n\t\t\t1.04 | \n\t\t\t0.21 | \n\t\t\t1.44 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|||||
Iowa | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t1.57 | \n\t\t\t1.14 | \n\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t\t1.60 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|||||
Kentucky | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t1.48 | \n\t\t\t1.09 | \n\t\t\t0.26 | \n\t\t\t1.43 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|||||
Michigan | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t1.52 | \n\t\t\t1.15 | \n\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t\t1.57 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|||||
Missouri | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t1.53 | \n\t\t\t1.15 | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t\t1.58 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|||||
Nebraska | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.58 | \n\t\t\t1.15 | \n\t\t\t0.26 | \n\t\t\t1.58 | \n\t\t\t1.14 | \n\t\t|||||
New York | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t1.63 | \n\t\t\t1.11 | \n\t\t\t0.20 | \n\t\t\t1.59 | \n\t\t\t1.19 | \n\t\t|||||
North Dakota | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.62 | \n\t\t\t1.19 | \n\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t\t1.67 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|||||
South Dakota | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.67 | \n\t\t\t1.19 | \n\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t\t1.63 | \n\t\t\t1.35 | \n\t\t|||||
Wisconsin | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t1.65 | \n\t\t\t1.14 | \n\t\t\t0.22 | \n\t\t\t1.64 | \n\t\t\t1.25 | \n\t\t|||||
Overall Average | \n\t\t\t49 | \n\t\t\t1.56 | \n\t\t\t1.13 | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t\t1.57 | \n\t\t\t1.22 | \n\t\t
Typical amino acid levels (% db) of DDGS (averages of samples from 49 ethanol plants) [22].
The U.S. ethanol industry’s primary market for distillers grains has historically been as a commodity livestock feed ingredient. Most often this has been in the form of DDGS, and in recent years in the form of DWG. All other ethanol coproducts have historically been sold at much lower levels; some of these other coproducts are not produced at some ethanol plants). Using ethanol coproducts for livestock feed or feed supplements have become effective methods for using these materials. Coproducts contain appropriate nutrients and they are highly digestible (depending on the species). Furthermore, use of coproducts in animal feeds (in place of corn grain) will actually help offset corn which has been used for ethanol production (the so-called food vs. fuel debate). In fact, it has been shown that DDGS can replace corn in livestock diets on a 1:1 up to a 1:1.2 level, depending on the species. The majority (over 80%) of U.S. distillers coproducts are used in beef and dairy feeds, because ruminants can use high levels of fibre. As feed ingredient prices have increased in recent years, coupled with increasing knowledge about how to effectively use these feed ingredients, ethanol coproduct use in swine and poultry diets have increased in recent years [22]. Many feeding trials have been conducted on coproducts in livestock diets over the years, for both monogastric and ruminant feeds (many of these studies are fully described in Liu and Rosentrater, 2011). Depending on the diet composition used, all livestock species have been shown to thrive at 10% DDGS inclusion, and most can tolerate levels up to and even greater than 20%.
DDGS use in livestock diets has continued to increase over the years. Various predictions of peak potential DDGS use in domestic U.S. beef, dairy, swine, and poultry markets have estimated that between 40 and 60 million t could be used in the U.S. each year, depending upon inclusion rates, age, etc., for each species [23, 24, 25]. Around the world, the need for protein-based animal feeds continues to grow, and DDGS has become a global commodity. Of the 23 million t of DDGS produced in 2008 [13], 4.5 million t were exported to international markets [26]; this accounted for nearly 20% of U.S. DDGS production that year (Figure 6). And the potential for global exports is projected to increase for the foreseeable future, and will likely hover near about 25% of all DDGS production in coming years [25, 27]. In recent years, China has become the dominant global importer of DDGS. Extensive information about the use of DDGS in livestock diets can be found in [18] as well as [28].
A. DDGS exports from the U.S. over time. B. Countries who imported DDGS from the U.S. in 2008, 2010, 2012 (adapted from [
The sale of nonfermentable coproducts is critical to the fuel ethanol industry as a source of revenue; and these materials have also become important feed ingredients to the livestock industry over the last decade. Sales of dry and wet distillers coproducts generally translates into 10 to 20% of an ethanol plant’s total revenues, and can even be as high as 40% (depending on the economics). These materials really are “coproducts”, not “byproducts” or “waste materials”. In fact, many plants recognize this and promote their simultaneous production of animal feed and biofuel.
In recent years, the market price of DDGS has ranged from approximately $50/t (in the early 2000s) to more than $300/t (2012-2013) (Figure 7). The prices of corn and DDGS have generally paralleled each other fairly well over the years (Figure 8A). This trend occurs due, in large part, to the fact that DDGS is often used to replace corn in livestock diets. In the last decade, DDGS has increasingly been used as a soybean meal replacement also. Because soybean meal has a higher protein content, DDGS is often sold at a lower price compared to either corn or soybean meal (Figure 8A). This has been true volumetrically as well as per unit protein (Figure 8B). In the last few years DDGS has actually been sold at more than 100% the value of corn. This is frequently due to external impacts on the marketplace, including international exports.
DDGS sales price over time (monthly averages) (adapted from [
A. Example comparisons of DDGS, soybean meal (SBM), and corn sales prices and their relative comparisons. B. Cost comparisons on a per unit protein basis (adapted from [
Even though the corn ethanol industry is maturing, there continue to be efforts to develop new, valued-added materials from the corn kernels as well as from the coproduct materials. When these research efforts are commercialised, they will result in more products from the corn kernel itself (an approach known as upstream fractionation) and the distillers grains (known as downstream fractionation). These types of fractionation approaches can result in the separation of components of high, medium, and low value (Figure 9). For example, several mechanical and chemical approaches have been developed to remove protein, fibre, or oil components from the endosperm (which contains the starch). This type of separation will allow a highly-concentrated starch substrate to be introduced to the fermentation process, and will allow the other corn kernel components to be used for human food or other high-value applications. [31] provided an extensive discussion regarding various pre-fermentation fractionation approaches. On the other hand, post-fermentation fractionation techniques have also been examined. For example, [32] used a combination of air classification and sieving to separate fibre particles from DDGS. All of these approaches, if implemented commercially, will alter the chemical composition and digestibility of the resulting DDGS.
Many plants have recently begun adding capabilities to concentrate nutrient streams such as oil, protein, and fibre into specific fractions, which can then be used for targeted markets and specific uses. For example, one company in Iowa is now separating fibre from the DDGS and using it as a feedstock for cellulosic ethanol production. Additionally, many companies have begun removing oil from the whole stillage and/or CDS streams (Figure 10). This oil, which is officially known as Distillers Oil, Feed Grade (Figure 11), can readily be converted into biodiesel or animal feed ingredients, but they cannot be used for food grade corn oil, because they are too degraded. In fact, more than 85% of U.S. ethanol plants are now removing oil, because the economics are so favourable. Of note, in 2010 almost no ethanol plants were extracting oil...the rapid increase has solely been due to added value streams for the ethanol plants. On the horizon is concentrated corn proteins, which can be used for high-value animal feeds (such as aquaculture or pet foods), or other feed applications which require high protein levels (such as monogastrics or younger animals).
Fractionation of DDGS into individual chemical components (or at least concentrating them) offers the opportunity for new value-added uses and new revenue streams.
Oil is now removed at many ethanol plants via centrifugation of condensed distillers solubles, after a heating step and additional chemicals are added, which allow the oil to be removed without forming an emulsion.
Distillers Oil, Feed Grade, is being extracted from nearly 85% of all U.S. ethanol plants in 2014 (Photo courtesy of Rosentrater).
As these process modifications are developed, tested, and implemented at commercial facilities, improvements in coproducts will be realized and increasingly used in the marketplace. These new products will require extensive investigation in order to determine how to optimally use them and to quantify their values in the marketplace.
The fuel ethanol industry in the U.S. has grown exponentially during the last decade in response to government mandates and due to increased demand for alternative fuels. This has become especially pronounced as the price of gasoline has drastically fluctuated, and consumers have realized that fuel prices are problematic. Additionally, energy has become an issue of national security. Corn-based ethanol is not the entire solution to transportation fuel needs. But it is clearly a key component to addressing energy needs. Corn ethanol is seen by many as a transition to other bio-based fuels in the long run; but this industrial sector will continue to play a key role in the bioeconomy, as it is a proven approach to large-scale industrial bioprocessing. And as the industry grows, coproducts will become increasingly important for economic and environmental sustainability. One way to improve sustainability is to diversify coproducts as well as integrate systems (Figure 12, for example), where materials and energy cycle and recycle. For example, upstream outputs become downstream inputs for various components of a biorefinery factory, animal operation, energy production (i.e., heat, electricity, steam, etc.), feedstock operation, and other systems. A closed loop system would be the ultimate scenario. By integrating these various components, and developing a diversified portfolio (beyond just ethanol and distillers grains) the biorefinery will not only produce fuel, but also fertilizer, feed, food, industrial products, energy, and more importantly, can be self-sustaining.
Coproducts will continue to play a key role as the biofuels industry evolves and becomes more fully integrated. This figure illustrates one concept of combining fuel production with animal and plant production systems.
CDS: Condensed distillers solubles
DDG: Distillers dried grains
DDGS: Distillers dried grains with solubles
DWG: Distillers wet grains
DWGS: Distillers wet grains with solubles
RFS: Renewable Fuel Standard
SBM: Soybean meal
Spintronics, also known as spin electronics, is a newly emerging field of research that focuses on the spin degree of freedom of electrons rather than their charge. Charge current is a flow of electrons from one point to another under the influence of an electric field. In spintronics, spin current can propagate within the material. A pure spin current can be generated through effects such as the spin Hall effect (SHE), spin pumping, spin-wave propagation, etc. The pure spin currents consume much less energy than charge currents. This is because of the absence of charge flow that eliminates the power consumption needed for the electric field required to drive charge flow [1, 2, 3].
In spintronics, magnetization switching is of both fundamental interest and technological significance. One way to switch the magnetization of a ferromagnetic film is through the spin filtering effect. In this case, a spin-polarized electrical current will be generated. As the polarized electrons flow through the ferromagnetic film, they transfer angular momentum to the film and produce a spin-transfer torque to switch the film. This torque is called spin-transfer torque (STT). Magnetic random-access memory based on STT has already been commercialized in recent years.
The above-mentioned spin-torque switching, however, has a limit. The angular momentum transferred per unit charge in the applied current usually cannot exceed a quantum of spin (
The ferromagnetic films used in most of the SOT studies were all conductive. A direct consequence is the severe shunting current in the ferromagnet layer, which not only limits the switching efficiency but also causes parasitic effects. For example, previous works have shown that interfacing a TI with a conductive FM film can result in a significant modification or even complete suppression of the topological surface states (TSSs) in the TI layer. In a TI/FM heterostructure, the TSSs may have been largely spoiled by the FM electrons. This means that many large spin-orbit torques observed in TI/FM structures may not be due to TSS. In this context, the use of MIs in an HM/MI heterostructure can effectively avoid the shunting current. Moreover, the TSSs in a TI/MI structure can be preserved except for the opening of a small gap at the Dirac point when strong coupling exists at the interface. This will enable the magnetization switching due to
Magnetic insulators include a large class of materials, including spinels, garnets, and ferrites. They have a general chemical formula of M(Fe
In the ferrite family, hexagonal ferrites have strong magnetocrystalline anisotropy. For example, M-type barium ferrite (BaFe12O19, noted as BaM) has an anisotropy field of 17 kOe. The perpendicular anisotropy in MI films originates from bulk intrinsic anisotropy rather than interfacial anisotropy [4]. This means that, when being used for actual devices, the BaM film has no constrains on the thickness. This is in strong contrast with the ferromagnetic metal counterpart (e.g., CoFeB/MgO) that often has to be very thin to realize interfacial perpendicular anisotropy. In addition, the magnetic damping is usually significantly lower in MIs than in FMs. For example, the intrinsic Gilbert damping constant in BaM materials is 7 × 10−4, which is at least 10 times smaller than the value in permalloy [5]. This advantage is significant for spin-torque oscillator applications, where the current threshold for self-oscillations decreases with the damping, as well as for logic device applications that require low-damping, insulating spin channels.
This chapter reviews the main advances made in spintronic experiments with BaM over the past several years. Section 2 gives a brief introduction to BaM and discusses its crystalline structure, magnetic properties, and thin film growth techniques. This section serves to provide a background for the discussions in the following sections. Section 3 reviews the advances of spintronic experiments with BaM. Section 3.1 provides an overview of the related spintronic experiments. Section 3.2 discusses the generation of pure spin currents through the spin Seebeck effect and photo-spin-voltaic effect in the Pt/BaM structure. Section 3.3 discusses the spin-orbit torque-assisted switching in BaM. Section 3.4 discusses the use of topological insulator/BaM heterostructure for magnetization switching. Finally, Section 3.5 provides an outlook in the field of BaM materials and devices.
BaM is a hexagonal ferrite, which consists of close-packed layers of oxygen ions. Figure 1 shows a unit cell of BaM. The Ba2+ ion is large, as is the O2− ion, and the barium always replaces oxygen somewhere in the oxygen lattice. The close-packed layers form six fundamental blocks, namely, S, S*, R, R*, T, and T* [5, 6, 7]. The S block consists of close-packed oxygen layers stacking in an ABCABC… sequence. It has a cubic spinel arrangement with the <1 1 1 > axis along the vertical direction. There are two units of Fe3O4 without any barium ions in each S block. The R block comprises close-packed oxygen layers stacking in an ABAB… sequence. It has a hexagonal closest packed structure along the vertical axis. Each R block has a unit formula of BaFe6O11. The T block is made of four oxygen layers, with a barium ion replacing an oxygen ion in the middle two layers, which gives a unit formula of Ba2Fe8O14. The S*, R*, and T* blocks are 180° rotations around the c-axis from the S, R, and T blocks. BaM is built from the stacking of S, R, S*, and R* blocks.
Crystalline structure of M-type barium ferrite. Blue ball, Ba2+. Yellow ball, Fe3+. Red ball, O2−.
Trivalent Fe3+ ions occupy tetrahedral and octahedral sites as well as one trigonal bipyramidal site. Different sites account for different spin orientations and Bohr magnetons (
A variety of techniques are used to grow BaM thin films, including pulsed laser deposition (PLD) [8, 9, 10], alternating target laser ablation deposition (ARLAD) [11, 12], molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) [13], liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) [14, 15], magnetron sputtering [16, 17], and so on. Guo et al. at Boston Applied Technologies proposed a chemical solution deposition process to deposit BaM. Song and his colleagues succeeded in the PLD growth of BaM thin films that showed an FMR linewidth as narrow as single-crystal BaM bulks. However, these films showed a remanent magnetization much smaller than the saturation magnetization [9]. This problem was improved in the later experiments when tuning the deposition conditions [18]. Figure 2 shows the PLD parameters which decide the thin film quality. Figure 2b shows that
Growth condition in pulsed laser deposition of BaM thin films. (a) Parameters controlling the BaM thin film quality. (b) Different Al2O3 substrate types for growing BaM with different
In microwave device applications, BaM films usually have a thickness of several microns. For spintronic devices, the thickness is reduced to tens of nanometers. Figure 3 shows the structure and magnetic properties of nanometer-thick BaM thin films grown on a
Structure and magnetic properties of BaM thin films. (a) Atomic force microscope of 5 nm BaM thin film. (b)
Figure 3b shows a 2
Such fitting yielded a gyromagnetic ratio
where
Figure 4 shows the structural and magnetic properties of a representative BaM film that is grown on an (1 1 −2 0)
Structure and magnetic properties of 1.2 μm BaM thin films with c-axis in plane. (a) AFM image. (b) XRD spectrum. (c) Hysteresis loops of the BaM thin film. Blue circles, H along the in-plane easy axis direction. Red circles, H along in-plane hard axis direction. (d) Ferromagnetic resonance spectrum with Gaussian and Lorentzian fittings. a, b, and c are adapted from [
In the following sections, we introduce recent spintronic experiments using MIs with strong anisotropy fields. Devices that incorporate the unique properties of MIs are an excellent potential solution for the power consumption and heat dissipation problems of conventional electronics, as they would consume much less energy and generate significantly less heat. We introduce the use of different techniques in generating pure spin currents, using bilayer heterostructures of a normal metal (NM)/ferromagnetic material. There are a variety of normal metal choices such as platinum (Pt) and Gold (Au). Both have been explored and tested in spintronics related studies and experiments [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
In the first two sections, we will explore the generation of pure spin currents using the spin Seebeck effect (SSE) and the photo-spin-voltaic effect (PSVE). Both techniques take advantage of a NM coupled with a MI. In SSE, a temperature gradient in the MI is the main factor that induces the MI to inject pure spin currents into the NM layer. In PSVE however, the light of certain wavelengths reaching the atomic layers of the NM, exciting the NM electrons near the NM/MI interface, is what generates the pure spin currents. SSE and PSVE Experimentation results will also be explored and discussed. Then, in the last two sections, we will demonstrate how pure spin currents can be used practically to enhance magnetic switching in MIs in a significant and meaningful way. NM/MI bilayers will not be the only type of heterostructure discussed here, we will also explore topological insulator/MI structures and demonstrate the significance of topological insulators in spintronics.
The traditional Seebeck effect, first discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1821 [34], refers to the generation of electric potential in a conductor when a temperature gradient is applied to it. The electric potential is caused by charge carriers within the conductor moving from the hot region to the cold region. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar conductors that are joined to form a junction; when a heat gradient is applied across the thermocouple (see Figure 5a), a voltage difference can be observed across them. The sign of the voltage flips when the direction of the temperature gradient is flipped. The traditional Seebeck effect is the basic principle behind most thermoelectric generators.
Schematic illustrations of (a) the conventional Seebeck effect and (b) longitudinal spin Seebeck effect.
The spintronic equivalent of the traditional Seebeck effect, called the spin Seebeck effect, was first discovered in 2008 [19, 28]. SSE is a phenomenon that can be observed in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials when a heat gradient is applied to them [19, 28, 35]. The heat gradient induces a spin voltage in the ferromagnet that can be used to inject pure spin currents into a conductor attached to the ferromagnet. Here, spin voltage is a potential for the spin of electrons, rather than their charge, to drive spin current [19, 36, 37, 38]. Previously mentioned bilayer heterostructures of normal metal/magnetic material have been used to study the SSE in two different configurations: transverse and longitudinal [19, 39]. In the transverse configuration, the generated spin current is perpendicular to the temperature gradient [28]. The generated spin current in the longitudinal configuration is parallel to the temperature gradient [19] (see Figure 5b). The longitudinal configuration has been the dominant choice for SSE research, owing to its simplicity [19]. Magnetic insulators (such as YIG, BaM, etc.) offer an ideal platform for observing the longitudinal spin Seebeck effect (LSSE) [19, 40]. In a conductive ferromagnet, the longitudinal configuration can give rise to a large anomalous Nernst effect (ANE)-induced voltage, which makes it difficult to distinguish between ANE and SSE [19, 33, 41, 42].
If SSE generates pure spin currents, then an important question would be how do we measure them? The absence of charge flow makes it impossible to use conventional methods to measure the spin currents. One way to measure LSSE-generated spin current is to first convert it into a charge current that can then be measured by conventional means. In this context, the choice of the normal metal in the bilayer heterostructure becomes very important. Heavy metals, such as Pt and Au, have strong spin-orbit coupling [43, 44], offering an effective mechanism to convert a transverse spin current into a longitudinal charge current through inverse spin Hall effect (ISHE) [43, 45, 46, 47]. The ISHE charge current across the heavy metal surface creates an electric field
In summary, the voltage measured across the normal metal surface is strongest when
This discussion sheds light on the importance of the existence of an external magnetic field
An exception to the external magnetic field requirement is made when using BaM thin films due to their strong uniaxial anisotropy [18]. In the absence of an external magnetic field, the magnetization of BaM films, caused by the spins of unpaired electrons, tend to favor one axis, called the easy axis, over any other axis. Thus, most electron spins within the BaM film tend to align themselves with the easy axis, randomly up or down, in the absence of an external magnetic field. Therefore, BaM films have uniaxial anisotropy. The uniaxial field of BaM was found to be around 16.5 kOe [9, 18]. Applying a magnetic field of this value or higher along the easy axis of the film causes all the electron spins to align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field, removing the magnetic field then will leave a large remnant magnetization within the BaM film owing to its uniaxial anisotropy. Namely, the film becomes self-biased and does not require an external field to magnetize it.
An LSSE experiment and its results using a Pt/BaM heterostructure [18] will be discussed next. In this experiment the sample consisted of a micron-thick BaM layer, topped with a 2.5-nm-thick Pt layer. The BaM layer was grown on a 0.5 mm sapphire substrate. The easy axis of the BaM film was in the plane of the film.
Figure 6 shows the experiment setup and results. Figure 6a shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup that was used to test LSSE within the sample. The sample was put on an aluminum plate to act as a heat sink. An incandescent light bulb was placed directly on top of the sample, acting as the heat source. The easy axis of the BaM layer was along the
Light-induced generation of spin currents. (a) The experimental setup. (b) and (c) Respective voltage signals measured for M
The heat from the light bulb, along with the aluminum plate acting as a heat sink, created the temperature gradient across the BaM film thickness; the difference in temperature between the bottom surface and top surface of BaM,
Figures 6b and c demonstrate the relationship between the difference in temperatures
Figure 6d shows an important property of SSE, namely, the sign of the generated voltage flips when the direction of the BaM magnetization is flipped. The graph shows the relationship between
Control measurements were performed and are shown in Figure 7. Changing the lateral position of the light bulb did not have any noticeable effect on the measured voltage. This is to be expected, as the temperature gradient depends on the height of the light bulb, rather than its lateral position. This is demonstrated in Figure 7a, where the light position was changed to six different lateral positions. The figure shows that, other than jumps from electrical disturbance caused by the position change, the measured voltage remained largely unchanged.
Control measurements. (a) Voltage changes caused by moving the bulb along the x-axis. (b) Voltage and
Using a Peltier cooler as an added source for the temperature gradient in addition to the light bulb also did not have a noticeable change in the relationship between the measured voltage and
The importance of using a metal with strong spin-orbit coupling is demonstrated through Figure 7d, where Cu, which has very weak spin-orbit coupling, and therefore very weak ISHE, was used in a Cu (9 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm)/sapphire (0.5 mm) sample. The figure shows a behavior that is different from the Pt/BaM samples, indicating the absence of SSE in this sample. A likely source for the signal shown in Figure 7d is the conventional Seebeck effect, caused by a temperature gradient across the sample’s length. (All figures, experimentation setup and results were taken from [18] with appropriate permissions).
A closely related but fundamentally different effect to SSE is the photo-spin-voltaic effect (PSVE). PSVE happens in NM/MI heterostructures; it generates pure spin currents across the NM thickness that can be measured through ISHE. Light can generate spin voltage and drive spin currents through PSVE. While the spin voltage is generated in the MI layer in the SSE case, the spin voltage in PSVE is generated in the atomic layers of the NM that are close to the interface due to magnetic proximity effect [48]. When light of a certain wavelength hits the sample, photons excite electrons in the Pt layer, causing them to move to higher energy bands. The efficiency of this photon-driven excitation varies because of the spin orientation. The difference in efficiency, along with different diffusion rates of excited electrons and holes, generates the spin voltage through PSVE [48].
Figure 8 shows PSVE in a Pt/MI structure. An important question arises due to the extremely similar setup of both LSSE and PSVE: how can we determine the source of the ISHE generated voltage? It could be due to LSSE, or PSVE, or both. Fortunately, research in this area determined several distinguishable factors that make it possible to disentangle LSSE from PSVE. The most important factor is the wavelength of the light used to excite the sample. Experimental results determined that PSVE can only be observed when the wavelength of the light used falls in the range 1600–2000 nm [48]. Using a light source with a wavelength outside that range or a heat source other than light, such as a Peltier cooler, will only give us LSSE in our sample and no PSVE [49]. Other factors include the type of materials and device geometries used in the studies. For example, different MI types and thicknesses give widely different signals in LSSE. A recent work showed that the main contribution in the voltage comes from LSSE rather than PSVE [50]. However, experiments have shown that using a light source with the appropriate wavelength gives extremely similar results in Pt that is coupled with MI of varying types and thicknesses [48].
(a) Photo-spin-voltaic effect in Pt/MI bilayer heterostructure. (b) Sketch of the physical mechanism underlying PSVE. When light illuminates the sample, photons excite electrons and generate nonequilibrium hot electrons and holes in the Pt atomic layers that are in proximity to the MI (the gridded region). The excited electrons and holes diffuse from Pt/MI interface to the Pt interface (along the +z direction), giving rise to spin currents (
Figure 9 shows the results of PSVE in three different samples: Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (78 μm), Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (21 nm), and Pt (2.5 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm). For each sample, three different experimental setup configurations were tested: illuminating from the sample’s top, illuminating from the sample’s bottom, and illuminating from both the top and bottom of the sample. The phenomena of PSVE in all cases were similar, with a difference that is no bigger than an order of magnitude. This confirms that the voltage is induced by PSVE instead of SEE. Only the sign of the voltage, but not its magnitude, flipped with the flipping of the magnetization of the MI film; this confirms the spin origin of the measured voltage. (All the PSVE information and experimental setup and discussion were taken from [48] with appropriate permissions).
Measurements for different illumination/magnetization configurations for three different samples Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (78 μm), Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (21 nm), and Pt (2.5 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm). Source: [
The uniaxial anisotropy and the nonvolatile nature of easy axis-aligned magnetization within the BaM film can be used to design memory and logic-based systems. If the magnetization is up, it will keep its direction until a magnetic field flips it toward the opposite direction. If an efficient way can be found to switch the magnetization states of the magnetic insulator thin films, then they can be used in magnetic memory systems commercially [51].
In a NM/MI structure, such as Pt/BaM, SHE can be used to convert a charge current across the Pt surface into a spin current that flows across the thickness of Pt through spin-orbit coupling; this process will accumulate spins at the Pt/BaM interface. The spin accumulation generates spin-orbit torques (SOTs) that can be used to switch the BaM magnetization. Each electron provided by the charge current can undergo several spin-flip scatterings at the interface, breaking the conventional spin-torque switching limit and increasing the switching efficiency considerably [51].
We discuss the SOT experimental details of a Pt(5 nm)/BaM(3 nm) sample. The easy axis of the BaM film was perpendicular to the surface of the film. Figure 10b shows the hysteresis loop of the film, measured by a vibrating sample magnetometer, when an out-of-plane external magnetic field was applied (red curve). The olive curve shows the hysteresis loop along the hard axis when the external magnetic field is applied in the plane of the film. This figure confirms the perpendicular uniaxial anisotropy of the film, with a perpendicular anisotropy field of 17.6 kOe. A Hall bar structure was fabricated out of the Pt/BaM bilayer and is shown in Figure 10a. Figure 10c shows a hysteresis loop on the Hall resistance, revealing an anomalous Hall effect (AHE)-like behavior. It is unclear whether the AHE-like behavior is from magnetic proximity effect or spin Hall magnetoresistance. However,
(a) Optical image of the Pt (5 nm)/BaM (3 nm) Hall bar structure. (b) Magnetic hysteresis loops of the BaM film. (c) Anomalous Hall resistance R
The first experiment demonstrated was the out-of-plane switching; the external magnetic field is fixed out of the film’s plane and 20° off the easy axis. The purpose of this tilt was to break the magnetization symmetry due to the external field, allowing for the observation of the SOT effect. One would expect that if the SOT field is along the -
Indeed, experimental results, shown in Figure 11, confirm exactly that. Namely, when charge currents of varying intensities are applied to the Pt film along the −
Switching responses in Pt/BaM for out-of-plane magnetic fields. (a) and (b) Effects of charge currents
Further experiments were performed to confirm the existence of spin current-generated SOT near the Pt/BaM interface. This time, the external field
Anomalous Hall resistance R
These results confirm that SOT due to pure spin currents, generated by SHE in Pt/BaM structures, can be used to assist the magnetization switching in BaM films. It should be noted however, that SHE generates two different torques: a damping-like torque (DLT) and a field-like torque (FLT). The effective fields for DLT and FLT are
where
Carrying out both simulations involved three main steps: first,
The results from running the two different models of simulations were very close and are shown in Figure 13. The blue dots show the linear nature of the relationship between
(a) and (b) Coercivity vs. DLT field (H
Further improvements and enhancements in the switching efficiency can be achieved by using materials with higher spin-orbit coupling, resulting in stronger SOT. Topological insulators exhibit such requirements and will be the topic of the next section. (All figures, experimentation setup, and results were taken from [51] with appropriate permissions).
Topological insulators (TI) are of great interest in spintronic-related studies. A TI is a material with nontrivial symmetry-protected topological order that behaves as an insulator in its interior but whose surface contains conducting states. What differentiates a TI from other materials with conducting surfaces is that its surface states are time-reversal symmetry-protected. Due to the very strong spin-orbit coupling of TIs [10, 52], if a charge current is supplied to their surface, the surface states induce spin polarity and therefore generate a spin current, owing to the SHE. The SHE in TIs is several times stronger than in heavy metals such as Pt, and it can become hundreds of times stronger at very lower temperatures [10].
Theoretically, the very strong SHE in a TI can generate SOT that is much stronger than its counterpart in heavy metals. This strong SOT can then be exploited for magnetization switching by pairing it with a ferromagnet, similar to what was discussed in the previous section. Using a conductive ferromagnet, however, can completely suppress the surface states of a TI [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56], preventing the generation of spin currents, therefore making it impossible for SOT magnetization switching to happen in TI/conductive ferromagnet structures.
Here, the usefulness and importance of magnetic insulators are again emphasized. Pairing a TI with MI keeps the integrity of the surface states. Various materials can be used to create a TI, such as (Bi
(a) and (b) Hall traces of TIG/(BixSb1−x)2 Te3 for
In another experiment, the authors used a Bi2Se3/BaM heterostructure to explore the effect of topological surface state in switching the magnetization of a magnetic insulator [10]. The BaM layer used had similar characteristics to the BaM layer used in the Pt/BaM experiment. The BaM film was 5-nm-thick and had a uniaxial anisotropy axis perpendicular to the surface, as shown by the two hysteresis loops in Figure 15a. The blue hysteresis loop was measured when the external field was applied perpendicular to the BaM film’s surface. The red loop was measured when an external field was applied along the BaM film plane. The two loops together confirm the perpendicular orientation of the anisotropy axis of the BaM film.
(a) Magnetization (M) vs. field (H) loops for the Bi2Se3/BaFe12O19 sample. (b) Saturation magnetization (M
A Hall bar was fabricated on the Bi2Se3/BaM bilayer film. Figure 15c shows that, similar to the Hall bar setup of the Pt/BaM experiment discussed in the previous section, the AHE contribution to the Hall bar resistance,
Figure 16a shows the SOT switching experiment configuration. An external field
SOT-induced switching in Bi2Se3/BaM. (a) Experimental configuration. (b to e) AHE resistance (R
Figure 16c,d, and e shows the results of the same experiment performed at decreasing temperatures. The figures clearly indicate that the current required for magnetization switching becomes smaller as temperature decreases. This is due to the enhancement of the topological surface states in Bi2Se3 as T decreases.
Figure 17 further demonstrates the effect of SOT on the magnetization switching of the BaM film. The experiment was performed at T = 3 K; the external field was applied at 45 degrees angle out of the plane of the film as shown in the inset of the figure. The blue hysteresis loop is the result of applying a negative charge current that generated a SOT acting against
Effects of I
The efficiency of SOT switching can be calculated using the following expression [58]:
where
SOT efficiency (
Magnetic insulators with perpendicular anisotropy have become an important class of materials in the development of spintronic devices. For magnetic domain devices, the low-damping and large anisotropy features can enable high-speed domain-wall motion with a small current threshold, fueling the development of domain-wall memory and logic devices. Moreover, low-damping is significant for SOT oscillator applications, where the current threshold for self-oscillations decreases with damping. Recent experiments show that spin waves can be used to control magnetic domains through spin-orbit torques [60, 61]; this effect can be amplified and become more efficient in magnetic insulators. The strong magnetic anisotropy also allows the engineering of spin-wave dispersion relation without the need for large bias magnetic fields [62]. This will expand the horizon for magnonic and spin-wave devices, allowing the development of new magnon-photon coupling devices for quantum transduction and microwave photonic systems [63, 64].
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
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",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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