The main species of
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"536",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Molecular Targets of CNS Tumors",title:"Molecular Targets of CNS Tumors",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Molecular Targets of CNS Tumors is a selected review of Central Nervous System (CNS) tumors with particular emphasis on signaling pathway of the most common CNS tumor types. To develop drugs which specifically attack the cancer cells requires an understanding of the distinct characteristics of those cells. Additional detailed information is provided on selected signal pathways in CNS tumors.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-736-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6496-8",doi:"10.5772/1047",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"molecular-targets-of-cns-tumors",numberOfPages:688,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"9397c8a0230158cb461c2ffbe6f9857d",bookSignature:"Miklos Garami",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/536.jpg",numberOfDownloads:69824,numberOfWosCitations:54,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:56,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:122,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 7th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"34821",title:"Dr.",name:"Miklos",middleName:null,surname:"Garami",slug:"miklos-garami",fullName:"Miklos Garami",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/34821/images/1863_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Miklós Garami, MD., MSc., PhD.; received his MD, Ph.D. and M.Sc. at Semmelweis Medical University (Budapest, Hungary) in 1991.; 2005. and 2007. He also received his Habilitation from Semmelweis Medical University (Budapest, Hungary) in 2010.\nCurrently he is Associate Professor of Pediatrics; Head of Hungarian Pediatric Cancer Registry; Head of Unit of Pediatric Oncology and Deputy Chairman of 2nd Department of Pediatric, Semmelweis University.\nDr. Miklós Garami was awarded by Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Postdoctoral Fellowship Semmelweis University (Budapest, Hungary) in 1991-1992 and by American Heart Association (Postdoctoral Fellowship University of California at San Francisco (UCSF), California, USA) in 1992-1995.\t\t\nCurrent research activities include: Pediatric oncology, investigating gene expression profiles in pediatric malignancies (CNS tumors, NBL, Ewing sc.), information systems on microcomputers. 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It can infect besides the man, a wide range of sylvatic and domestic mammal hosts producing either tegumentar or visceral lesions.
The life of
The parasites are transmitted by the bite of infected female of phlebotomine sand flies during the blood meal when the insects inject from their proboscis, the metacyclic promastigotes. Those forms are capable to survive inside the phagolysosomes of macrophages and other types of mononuclear phagocytic cells. Once inside of the cells, promastigotes differentiate into amastigotes, a stage that is associated mammal tissues. The amastigotes multiply by simple division and continue to infect other mononuclear phagocytic cells (Figure 1).
Life cycle of
Depending on the parasite and host species in addition to numerous factors related to the hosts’ genetic background, the progress of the infection might be influenced, determining if the patient will become symptomatic or sick, eventually resulting in cutaneous or visceral leishmaniasis.
The geographical distribution of leishmaniasis includes 88 countries and almost 350 million of peoples live in these areas where the disease has been considered one of the most severe problem of public health. The majority of the countries affected are in the tropics and subtropics, consequently leishmaniasis covers a wide range from rain forests in Central and South America to deserts in West Asia [1,2] (Table 1 and 2).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous | \n\t\t\tAsia, Africa | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, rodents | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous | \n\t\t\tEurope, Asia, Africa | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, dogs, rock-hyraxes | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous, mucocutaneous | \n\t\t\tAfrica | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, hyracoids | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tVisceral | \n\t\t\tEurope, Asia, Africa | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, dogs, sylvatic canids | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tVisceral, PKDL | \n\t\t\tAsia, Africa | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tVisceral | \n\t\t\tEurope, Asia, and North America | \n\t\t\t? | \n\t\t\tHuman, horse, cows | \n\t\t
The main species of
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous, mucocutaneous | \n\t\t\tSouth and Central America | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, terrestrial rodents, marsupials, equines, dogs, cats | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous | \n\t\t\tSouth America | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, dogs, rodents* opossums* | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous | \n\t\t\tSouth America | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, sloth, anteater, rodents, opossums | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous | \n\t\t\tSouth and Central America | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, sloth, arboreal animals, monkeys, rodents, hunting dogs | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous, diffuse cutaneous | \n\t\t\tSouth, Central and North America | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, forest rodents | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous, diffuse cutaneous | \n\t\t\tSouth America | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, forest rodents, marsupials, fox | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous, diffuse cutaneous | \n\t\t\tSouth America (Venezuela) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, Rodents? | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCutaneous | \n\t\t\tSouth America (Venezuela) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, domestic cats, rodents? | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tVisceral | \n\t\t\tSouth, Central and North America | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHuman, sylvatic canids and felids, opossums, dogs | \n\t\t
The main species of
Depending on the eco-epidemiological conditions, the leishmaniasis can present sylvatic or domestic transmission cycles (Figure 2). Among the most important factors composing those conditions, we could mention the environmental characteristics (biotic and abiotic factors) as well as the parasite, vector and host species involved.
The sylvatic cycles are quite ancient; they have been molded for millions of years before the emergence of man, through co evolutionary relationships among the parasite, vectors and mammal hosts. Mammal reservoirs and insect vectors have been continuously maintaining the parasites in equilibrium without human involvement.
In our time sylvatic cycles are restricted to wild places where disease outbreaks can eventually occur when people make incursions or settlements in those areas.
Concerning to domestic cycle an intra-domiciliary type (figure 2) of transmission is characteristic and the principal components for the disease establishment and maintenance, are the occurrence of vectors with the capacity of domiciliary human landing/biting, besides humans and domestic animals as mammal hosts [2].
Schematic drawing: eco-epidemiological picture of transmission cycles of Leishmanias.
The earliest steps for the origin of domestic cycles of leishmaniasis probably started around 12.000 years ago, when the ancient human populations began to practice sedentary agriculture and also have introduced domestic animals and livestock causing drastic alterations on the natural habitats.
As a result of such environmental modifications, a large avoidance of the sylvatic animals occurred from the surroundings of human habitations; that together with the insertion of new potential mammal hosts gave rise to a progressive adaptation process in some populations of sylvatic vectors toward a domiciliary behavior. Then little by little certain sand flies populations adopted some introduced species as their new feeding sources [2-4].
In our time, after thousands of years of interaction with domestic mammals as hosts, some vectors hosts species that originally were totally sylvatic, have evolved to exist even in great urban areas, permitting the transmission of the parasite and its maintenance practically restricted to the participation of domestic and/or synanthropic hosts, sand fly and the man [5-7].
So, actually the eco-epidemiological picture of leishmaniasis could be represented as a complex puzzle where each piece is formed by the interaction of a parasite species with their correlated hosts and vectors, in a determined habitat. Nevertheless, it should not be considered as a static process because the occurrence of other parasite species, besides the action of the temporal component they can play a very important role, by influencing the whole process making it possible the occurrence of a variety of transmission patterns that sometimes may result in disease.
Considering the several difficulties to elaborate Leismaniasis control plans, probably the most significant is the high complexity of eco-epidemiological features of the disease. They are greatly influenced by the wide distribution of the parasites, the existence of a large variety of vector species in addition to the pressure of local environmental factors affecting the populations of human hosts, vectors and reservoirs [3-4,8].
The leishmaniasis control measures in use, including spraying to eliminate the adult forms of the vector, diagnosis and treatment of human patients and elimination of seropositive dogs, have failed in preventing new epidemics [9,10].
Therefore, a spatial and temporal approach to analyze endemic foci of the disease could be very a useful method to understand the dynamic of transmission [11,12].
Geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) are important tools that comprise computational systems, which permit to map and analyze environmental factors related to the spatial and temporal distribution environmental components that affect the distribution of diseases [12]. The availability of climatic, geological and phytographic digital data and the accessibility of GIS software also have permitted the implementation of several epidemiological studies in relation to ecological factors and disease prediction, as well as have been providing evidences that its use is indispensable before the elaboration of control plans [5, 11,12].
As examples of GIS software we could mention: ArcGis, TerraView, TerraHidro, Gvsig, etc.
The Remote Sensing is also an important data resource for presentation of vegetation, land cover and land use as well as the categorization of the habitats and population density of insect vectors, parasite and reservoir hosts [12,13].
An important feature available in GIS methodology consists of Kernel’s method. It is considered a new class of pattern analysis algorithms also utilized in GIS, which can operate on a wide-ranging types of data and relationships. Correlation, factor, cluster and discriminant analysis are just some of the types of pattern analysis tasks that can be performed on data as diverse as sequences, text, images, graphs and of course vectors. The method provides also a natural way to merge and integrate different types of data [5,14].
Kernel density estimators belong to a class of estimators called
Differently from conventional histograms where it is necessary to sub-divide the whole data in equal intervals and also to determine the end point of each interval, producing a not smooth representation. On the kernel method those problems can be minimized by the production of a kind of smooth histogram [15] (Figure 3).
Depiction of doghouses geo-referenced and canine leishmaniasis cases in function of serological titers, represented by histograms and Kernel method (ArcGis).
Other attributes of GIS methodology very useful to the study epidemiology of leishmaniasis is the possibility to create digital maps after performing cluster analysis on the populations of vectors and mammal hosts, including the man; and also to represent circumscribed areas in the same maps, indicating potential regions of vector flight or putative hosts’ home ranges [11,14,16] (Figure 4 and 5).
Vegetation, land cover and land use patterns and general distribution of canine leishmaniasis cases, with the respective serological titers, from an endemic focus in Brazil (ArcGis).
Visual interpretation of an aerial mosaic of photographs from an endemic focus in Brazil, showing the area of influence of the vector flight and the general distribution of canine
Clustering is a method also applied in GIS, and comprises a common technique for statistical data analysis used in many fields, including machine learning, data mining, pattern recognition image analysis and bioinformatics.
So, the use of new technologies based on eco-epidemiological indicators is essential on the identification of circumstances that impair the spread and maintenance of the disease and certainly could be used to set priorities for implementing disease control measures, thus reducing operational costs and increasing their effectiveness.
In conclusion, the notorious difficulty in controlling the transmission of leishmaniasis, a disease caused by a parasitic protozoa described at 1903 and that still persists currently showing a re-emerging pattern in some places, indicates that such parasites have been developing a great number of evolutionary advantages and despite all the efforts of scientists an effective control was not achieved yet. It is important to remember that those organisms have been dwelling on earth for millions of years before of us and it certainly represents that they have skills we not elucidated yet.
The first studies on leishmaniasis utilizing the geoprocessing technology were carried out in the 90s. After that, several groups from different parts of the world have studied important epidemiological aspects of this disease through the integration of results obtained from serological techniques, biological characteristics and population analysis of vectors and hosts with environmental factors such as: elevation, temperature parameters, mean monthly precipitation, relative humidity, land surface temperature parameters (including amplitude), normalized-difference vegetation index NDVI and land cover.
In the following section we presented a chronological review including the more relevant papers, originated from studies achieved in the Old World and New World, using the above-mentioned approach.
Elnaiem 1998 [17] in Sudan, investigating the importance of the effect of environmental data (obtained from digital records collected by satellites), such as: rainfall, minimum and maximum temperatures, soil class, vegetation and land-surface-temperature indices, on a population of
Bern et al 2005 [18] studied the spatial patterns and risk factors for anthroponotic visceral leishmaniasis in Bangladesh. Integrating the GIS approach with data related to history, active case detection, and serologic screening, from residents had kala-azar, they observed that the risk was highest for persons 3–45 years of age, and no significant difference by sex. Considering the age-adjusted multivariable models, 3 factors were identified: proximity to a previous kala-azar patient, bed net use in summer and cattle per 1,000 m2. The authors observed no difference by income, education, or occupation; land ownership or other assets; housing materials and condition; or keeping goats or chickens inside bedrooms. The results confirmed a strong clustering occurrence and suggested that insecticide-treated nets could be effective in preventing kala-azar.
In this study, the households were mapped by a GPS and the data were processed into ArcGis. Through the GIS data, distances were determined from the household to the closest kala-azar cases in the previous year. Kernel density estimation was used to estimate cattle per 1,000 m2 in order to calculate the effect of cows, oxen or calves on the kala-azar risk for nearby residents.
Ryan et al 2006 [19], studying visceral leishmaniasis in Kenya, used
Sudhakar et al., 2006 [20] in a study carried out in India, analyzed in Silicon graphic image processing system, using ERDAS software, some data obtained from a remote sensing satellite.
The GIS functions were applied to quantify the remotely sensed landscape proportions of 5 km2 buffer in determined places of high occurrence of sand flies in endemic and nonendemic areas. Through the combination of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) they developed landscape predictors of sand fly abundance an indicator of human vector contact and as a measure of risk prone areas.
It was indicated, that the environmental factors such as type and density of settlements, proximity to these with that of water bodies, marshy areas with succulent weed cover and also crops of high succulent in nature like sugarcane, bananas coupled with local prevailing conditions had definitely interactive influencing effect of vector density and also incidents of vector borne diseases.
Rossi et al 2007 [21] in Southern Italy, applied GIS and SR to analyze the distribution of the
The cumulative density, a term determined by the authors as the number of specimens/m2 of sticky trap/two nights, of this vector species was related as significantly more abundant in the coastal side. The authors suggested that the predominance of green vegetated environments in the coastal side, in contrast with the predominance of urban environment in the Apennine side, could be responsible for the different
Ready 2010 [22] reported that climate change could affect leishmaniasis distribution, by the effect of temperature on parasite development in insect vector, or because of the effect of environmental variation on the range and seasonal abundances of the sand fly species.
He also suggested that bio-climate zones and their vegetation indicators vary regionally, and continuing climate change could alter the patterns of land cover and land use. Thus, the GIS-based spatial modeling of the Emerging Diseases in a changing European Environment was providing analysis of alterations in climate and land cover and their effects on sand flies.
Bhunia et al 2010 [23] in India, through satellite imagery complemented with a GIS database, estimated parameters such as altitude, temperature, humidity, rainfall and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) for correlation with the distribution of Kala-azar. They observed that the highest prevalence was below 150 m of altitude with very few cases located above the 300 m level and a low NDVI value ranges correlated with a high occurrence of the disease. They also showed, that most of the cases occurred in non-vegetative areas or low density vegetation zones highlighting that the low density vegetation zones were significant for the
Khanal et al 2010 [24] in Nepal, merged results from a serological test made in humans and domestic animals with GIS technology to evaluate the exposure to
Bhattarai et al 2010 [25] also in Nepal, with the purpose of determining possible reasons for persistence of VL during inter-epidemic periods, they mapped cases
Salahi-Moghaddam et al 2010 [26] in Iran performed a serological study on a population of dogs from an endemic area.
No significant correlation between topographic conditions and the prevalence of positive cases was observed after regression analysis. Nevertheless, positive correlations were found in relation to the amount of rainfall, between infected dogs with high titers (≥1/640) and the number of days with temperatures below 0 °C during one year. The same correlation was observed when they were considered past meteorological records, conversely the humidity showed an inversely correlated with the
The authors suggested that in mapped areas the prevailing low temperatures could represent an important factor influencing the distribution of leishmaniasis.
More recently, Bhunia et al 2013 [27] in India, assumed that the utilization of GIS and RS technologies on the control of VL dates back to the late 2000s and those control programs have mostly focused on mapping prevalence and association of
Besides, the authors proposed that the multiplicity of satellite and sensors technics offer relevant data to assembly spatial, spectral and temporal scales. They also argued about the advantages of remotely sensed imagery technology in studies in sand fly ecology and vector-borne diseases, by the generation of a proper household breeding documentation at higher spatial resolution.
One of the first works, carried out in the New World that have exploited SR- satellite imagery technology on an epidemiological survey with American Cutaneous Leishmaniasis, was presented by Miranda et al 1996 [28] in Brazil. In that study, the data were plotted on a TM-LANDSAT image a color composition of bands 3, 4 and 5 (see supplementary information on table 3,4 and 5) that were considered useful to identify the relevant vegetation (shrubs and trees) within the boundaries of the studied areas and in their neighborhood about 250 meters from the perimeter of each area. It was suggested, the use of means qualified as presenting a larger view of a geographical area, composed the advantages of remote satellite sensing to study this endemic foci.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.45-0.52 | \n\t\t\tBathymetric mapping, differentiating soil from vegetation and deciduous from coniferous vegetation | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.52-0.60 | \n\t\t\tHighlights peak vegetation, useful for assessing plant vigor | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.63-0.69 | \n\t\t\tDistinguish vegetation slopes | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.77-0.90 | \n\t\t\tAccentuates biomass content and coastlines | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.55-1.75 | \n\t\t\tCategorizes wetness matter of soil and vegetation; permeates thin clouds | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10.40-12.50 | \n\t\t\tThermal mapping and predictable soil wetness | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2.09-2.35 | \n\t\t\tHydrothermally transformed rocks related to mineral deposits | \n\t\t
.52-.90 | \n\t\t\t15 meter resolution, sharper image definition | \n\t\t
Parameters utilized on Landsat 4-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) and Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) methodologies (based on the data obtained from the website http://landsat.usgs.gov).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.43-0.45 | \n\t\t\tcoastal and aerosol analyzes | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.45-0.51 | \n\t\t\tBathymetric mapping, characterizing soil from vegetation and deciduous from coniferous vegetation | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.53-0.59 | \n\t\t\tHighlights peak vegetation, which is functional for plant vigor assessing | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.64-0.67 | \n\t\t\tDistinguishes vegetation slopes | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t085.-0.88 | \n\t\t\tHighlights biomass and coastlines | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.57-1.65 | \n\t\t\tDistinguishes wetness content of soil and vegetation; infiltrates thin clouds | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2.11-2.29 | \n\t\t\tEnriched wetness content of soil and vegetation and thin cloud infiltration | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t.50-.68 | \n\t\t\t15 meter resolution, intense image definition | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.36 -1.38 | \n\t\t\tIncreased detection of cirrus cloud pollution | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10.60 – 11.19 | \n\t\t\t100 meter resolution, thermal mapping and predictable soil wetness | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t11.5-12.51 | \n\t\t\t100 meter resolution, enhanced thermal mapping and predictable soil wetness | \n\t\t
Parameters utilized on Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) methodologies (based on the data obtained from the website http://landsat.usgs.gov).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.5-0.6 | \n\t\t\tSediment-laden water, delimits areas of shallow water | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.6-0.7 | \n\t\t\tCultural features | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.7-0.8 | \n\t\t\tVegetation boundary between land and water, and natural features of landscape | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.8-1.1 | \n\t\t\tInfiltrates atmospheric cloud over best, highlights vegetation, boundary between land and water, and natural features of landscape | \n\t\t
Parameters utilized on Landsat Multi Spectral Scanner (MSS) method (based on the data obtained from the website http://landsat.usgs.gov).
Lima et al 2002 [29] also in Brazil, studied the geographical distribution of notified human TL cases and correlated with the occurrence of the remaining vegetation and water streams, through satellite monitoring (LANDSAT level 4).
They observed that the geographical distribution of cases displayed a higher concentration in the northern and western regions of the studied area and a close relationship between TL and modified native forest areas, gallery forest areas or the remnants of both.
Peterson et al 2004 [30] investigates the potential of ecological niche modeling techniques for interpolating into unsampled areas in order to understand the geographic distributions of vector species. They used multiple subsamples from accessible distributional points to analyze the question of how much sampling is needed to assemble a suitable distributional interpretation for vector species.
The Genetic algorithm for rule-set prediction (GARP) was utilized for modeling the ecological niches. The authors inferred that GARP associates ecological characteristics of known occurrence points to those randomly sampled from the rest of the study region, pursuing the development of a series of decision rules that can best summarize those factors related with the presence of species.
They also demonstrated that moderate sampling densities at sample sizes that possibly could characterize many epidemiological studies, including the distributions of vector or reservoir were sufficient to produce excellent briefs of the geographic distributions of species permits development of geographic predictions for poorly known species to promote the knowledge about geographic aspects of disease systems.
Carneiro et al 2004 [31] in Brazil, used geo-technologies including satellite images, as normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), in the collection and analysis of epidemiological data from an LV endemic area. It was observed that, the power of specific variable such as: demographic density, age, occurrence of sand flies, contaminated dogs, and human living in specific area, as well as the practical value of using NDVI values to identify risk areas.
Salomón et al 2006 [32] in Argentine, utilized the RS to study the spatial distribution of Phlebotominae associated with a focus of tegumentary leishmaniasis. Satellite images were used to estimate the influence of the maximal and minimal flow of a river present on the area of study, on the transmission of the disease. The probable correlation with the gallery forest was also rated.
The images were obtained from LANDSAT 5 TM and 7 ETM, they were georreferenced using satellite ephemeris and the nearest-neighbor method. The Band 5 was also used to discriminate areas covered by the river, and the neighboring the land uncovered of vegetation trough visual identification.
The authors concluded that the fishing spots were significantly overflowed during the transmission peak because the spatial restricted flood could concentrate vectors, reservoirs, and humans in high places.
They also suggested through both spatial distribution of vectors and remote sensing data the higher transmission risk in the area it is still related with the gallery forest, despite of the urban influence.
Margonari et al 2006 [5] in Brazil, applied the GIS methodology integrated with demographic, socio-economic and environmental data to study some aspects of the epidemiology of a visceral leishmaniasis focus.
It was observed that among biogeographic parameters such as: altitude, area of vegetation influence, hydrographic, and areas of poverty, only altitude showed to influence emergence of leishmaniasis because most canine and human cases of leishmaniasis cases were localized between 780 and 880 m above the sea level and at these same altitudes, a large number of phlebotomine sand flies were collected.
Nieto et al 2006 [33] also in Brazil, used models developed within a GIS employing Genetic Algorithm Rule-Set Prediction (GARP) and the growing degree day (GDD)-water budget (WB) concept to predict the distribution and potential risk of visceral leishmaniasis (VL).
It was described a high and moderate prevalence sites for VL were significantly related to areas of high and moderate risk prediction. Indeed the area expected by the GARP model, hinged on the number of pixels that overlapped among eleven annual model years and the quantity of potential generations per year that could be completed by the
In both the GARP and the GDD-WB prediction models suggested that the highest VL risk was characterized by a semi-arid and hot climate (Caatinga), but the risk in the interior forest and the Cerrado was lower and the coastal forest was predicted as a low-risk area due to the unsuitable conditions for the vector and VL transmission.
Neto et al 2009 [34] in Brazil, applied GIS and SR to examine factors associated with the incidence of urban VL. They observed that the annual incidence rates were related to socioeconomic and demographic indicators as well as the vegetation index.
The highest incidence occurred in the peripheral areas of the city and areas with high population growth and abundant vegetation. On the other hand the percentage of households with piped water was inversely associated with the disease incidence.
The authors conclude that spatial distribution of the disease in the area was heterogeneous, and the incidence was associated with the peripheral neighborhoods fullest vegetation cover, considered subject to anthropic action.
Shimabukuro et al 2010 [35] in Brazil, utilized GIS and SR to study the geographical distribution of American cutaneous leishmaniasis and its phlebotomine vectors and generate risk maps. They observed that generally, the sand fly vector species evaluated have presented unique and heterogeneous distributions, although often overlapped. Numerous sand fly species were highly localized, while the others were much more largely spread.
The authors emphasized the complexity and geographical pattern of ACL transmission in the region.
Valderrama-Ardila et al 2010 [36] in Colombia, evaluate through spatial analysis, the environmental risk factors for CL. The applicant predictor variables were land use, elevation, and climatic (mean temperature and precipitation).
They observed that incidence of the disease was higher in townships with mean temperatures in the middle of the county’s range. The frequency was independently associated with forest or shrubs and lower population density. The coverage of forest or shrub have not presented main changes over time.
The results confirmed the effect of weather and land use in leishmaniasis transmission.
Silva et al 2011 [14] in Brazil, studied a dog population from an endemic focus of LV. Through GIS and SR and applying kernel density estimator with Gaussian function and smooth kernel of 100 m radius, they observed local variations related to infection the incidence and distribution of serological titers, i.e. high titers were noted close to areas with preserved vegetation, while low titers were more frequent in areas where people kept chickens.
The authors conclude that the environment plays an important role in generating relatively protected areas within larger endemic regions, but it could also contribute to the creation of hotspots with clusters of comparatively high serological titers indicating a high level of transmission compared with neighboring areas.
Cluster analysis of the serological titers in dogs in the study area showed a non-random distribution, demonstrating that the patterns of transmission of canine VL can undergo local alterations, producing hotspots where the risk of infection was very high compared to neighboring areas.
It was suggested the possibility to predict the specific places of high-risk VL transmission within an endemic area through the mapping of canine serological titers.
Almeida et al 2011 [37] in Brazil, used spatial analysis to identify regions at highest risk of VL in an urban area. They showed from kernel ratios results, that peripheral census tracts were the most heavily affected. The spatial analysis showed that local clusters of high incidence of VL could change their locations depending on the time, suggesting that the pattern of VL is not static, and the disease may occasionally spread to other areas.
The authors also observed a spatial correlation between VL rates and all socioeconomic and demographic indicators evaluated, such as: 1) illiteracy rate; 2) children less than five years of age as a percentage of the total population; 3) mean income of heads-of-households; 4) percentage of permanent private households connected to the water supply; 5) percentage of households with regular garbage collection; and 6) percentage of permanent private households connected to the sewage system.
Foley et al 2012 [38], created a very useful tool that comprises a new map service within VectorMap (www.vectormap.org). Using the words of the authors, “It allows free public online access to global sand fly, tick and mosquito collection records and habitat suitability models, given the short home range of sand flies, combining remote sensing and collection point data, offering a powerful insight into the environmental determinants of sand fly distribution.
Sand fly Map uses Microsoft Silverlight and ESRI’s ArcGIS Server 10 software platform to present disease vector data and relevant remote sensing layers in an online geographical information system format. Users can view the locations of past vector collections and the results of models that predict the geographic extent of individual species. Collection records are searchable and downloadable, and Excel collection forms with drop down lists, and Excel charts to country, are available for data contributors to map and quality control their data.
Sand fly Map makes accessible, and adds value to, the results of past sand fly collecting efforts. It is detailed the workflow for entering occurrence data from the literature to Sand fly Map, using an example for sand flies from South America.
The proper use of a global positioning system (GPS) device and a detailed text description of the locality are encouraged to minimize this uncertainty [39]. The calculation of spatial uncertainty, for example for Martins et al [40], allows data to be matched to appropriate resolution remote sensing data, for modeling or other spatial analyses”.
Saraiva et al 2012 [41] in Brazil, utilizing GIS methodology associated with serological tests, studied a VL focus. They described the occurrence of serologically positive dogs was spread out throughout all geographical area. The places of concentration of serologically positive dogs appeared both in risk areas and outside them.
Overlaying the map of the human and canines cases with factors traditionally related to VL as vegetation, hydrography, and areas of poverty, it was not possible identify a spatial correlation between them, which demonstrates that in urban areas there are still unknown parameters.
Souza et al 2012 [42] in Brazil, carried out a space-time analysis of AVL cases in humans. They conclude by the time series analysis, a positive tendency over the period analyzed, completing that the disease was clustered in the Southwest side of area of study, suggesting it could require special attention with regard to control and prevention measures.
Finally, González et al 2013 [43] in Colombia, have surveyed the spatial distribution of two vector species of
Concerning the climate change projections, they observed an overall reduction in the spatial distribution of the two vector species, progressing a shift in the vertical distribution for one species and restricting the other to certain regions at the sea level.
The authors predicted an outcome for VL vectors in Colombia and suggested that Changes in spatial distribution patterns could be affecting local abundances due to climatic pressures on vector populations thus reducing the incidence of human cases.
In conclusion, the employment of a geospatial approach to interpret eco-epidemiological phenomena related to vector borne diseases have been used for some groups in significant studies. The possibilities of use of that very effective tool, considering the advances on computational knowledge and the possibilities of accessing information at a global level, make this technology indispensable to make a broad analysis objecting the optimizing of planning control campaigns.
Education is the heart of any nation, and as the nation progresses, so must its educational delivery systems. For most part of Fiji’s education system, the traditional approach has been utilized to implement a national curriculum. Looking at the rapid changes to the Fijian lifestyle in the recent years, especially in terms of technological infrastructure, communication, and the mobile revolution that has taken place, there remains a need to re-look at how this implementation and delivery of the Fijian education is taking place.
\nEducational technology is the considered implementation of appropriate tools, techniques, or processes that facilitate the application of senses, memory, and cognition to enhance teaching practices and improve learning outcomes [1]. Januszewski and Molenda [2] define education technology as “the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.” Thus educational technology includes multifaceted implementations that are diverse in nature. These technologies do not only consist of computers and projection devices for teachers, but they include computers and portable devices for the learners, the hardware and software support systems to host and deliver learning resources, the technical expertise required to carry out implementation, and continued support and maintenance and the financial effort that would accompany all these activities.
\nThe Fijian education system is a slow to change enterprise. Legacy practices remain the greatest challenge for any reform to handle. Teacher education, student comprehension, resource availability, and student access are all challenges to the implementation of any educational technology systems in schools. A key challenge that must be kept in mind is the “attitude towards technology and perceived usefulness of technology in teaching, the institutional cultural environment, as well as resources available to support uptake” [3].
\nTherefore, the purpose of this paper is to research on the educational technologies used in classrooms around the world and determine the availability of educational technologies to a Fijian classroom and the relevance of the available technologies in a Fijian classroom. Research by Ghavifekr and Rosdy [4] states that the integration of information, communication, and technology (ICT) will assist teachers to the global requirement to replace traditional teaching methods with a technology-based teaching and learning tools and facilities. Some of these tools could be made available to Fijian teachers to implement the syllabi that they are expected to deliver. Not every single technology that is availed to educators is feasible or logical given the socio-economic background of any educational institution or its students, but their relevance could be regulated to identify which ones are applicable to Fijian schools.
\nThe purpose of this research will be to ascertain if the Fijian classroom is ready to incorporate e-Learning concepts completely or even partially into its teaching and learning methods. The intention of this research is to outline the myriad of technologies and devices heralded for e-Learning in classrooms around the world and relate them to the Fijian classroom situation.
\nThis study would help understand where the Fijian classroom stands in comparison with classrooms around the world today in the case of the use of educational technologies and to determine their relevance through user feedback on acceptance of change.
\nThe subproblems are as follows:
What are key educational technologies used in classrooms around the world today?
Are the educational technologies that are used around the world today available for the Fijian classroom?
How many of the key educational technologies available for the Fijian classroom are relevant for them?
Educational technologies remain one of the major contributing factors to improve the performance of students as well as facilitate teacher in teaching and learning. Educational technology is not restricted to individual computer use. It can involve other equipment such as tablets and mobile devices as well as tools made available via the Web, such as the cloud and its applications [5, 6]. It is a known fact that the application of educational technology enhances skills and cognitive characteristics [7], and if such a tool exists, then it must be incorporated into the educational pedagogy.
\nWhile there are a number of educational technologies used in classrooms around the world, their availability and relevance of the available technologies in a Fijian classroom need to be looked at. This research is needed because as mentioned in earlier “Modernising an education system should work with both, the syllabi as well as the methods employed by teachers to implement them,” the use of educational technologies plays a major role in the delivery of these syllabi that have been entrusted by the Ministry of Education [8, 9]. “Learning, teaching, and assessment enabled by technology require a robust infrastructure” [10]. This robust infrastructure is a reference to the educational technologies that can exist in any classroom.
\nTechnology gives teachers the ability to tailor instructional materials and assessments to directly address their students’ learning needs and offers access to more authentic material to assist in the development and delivery of lessons; they can potentially contribute to reshaping teaching and learning practices, and they might be able to replace a wide array of previous pedagogical tools, such as blackboards, textbooks, student and teacher notebooks, and laboratories [11, 12]. It is time that the “education system should soon give up on its obsession with textbooks and come out from the old-fashioned way of teaching students for an outcome-based education” [13].
\nThis reality is visible all around the nation, where textbooks govern the delivery of education to students. With time, age, and budget that foot us with the rest of the world given our size, Fiji needs to start embracing innovative methods of delivery to prepare critical thinkers once students enter university, instead of beginners finding their feet with educational technology while they are undergraduates. An undisputable fact is that today’s generation will grow up with a myriad of educational technologies around them and as such need to “cope with these changes and bridge the gap between the world outside school and inside school” [14]. The truth remains that “it is becoming increasingly easy for learners to bypass traditional bricks and mortar language schools and courses; in this scenario, the role of the teacher becomes that of guide, facilitator and consultant…” [15]. Thus, teachers need to be technologically prepared to guide students in the right direction and learn how to discover the correct information in the context of their delivery [16].
\nLund et al. [17] have brought about a concern in teacher education with regard to helping students develop a profession-based digital competence relevant to teaching. While we herald the importance of so many benefits and needs for educational technology, an important fact that must be borne in our minds is the need to have teachers versed in using educational technology to prepare and implement lesson [16]. The entire exercise and investment would prove futile should the educator fail to comprehend the tools at their disposal.
\nNot only should we be concerned with implementing and using educational technology and claiming it as a yardstick for success, it is imperative that “educators need to learn how student learning changes with e-Learning, and how to alter their teaching methodologies with pedagogical approaches that take advantage of the opportunities afforded by-learning” [18, 19, 20]. Teaching using educational technology is not a one-way street, it is by far more complex than the traditional learning system given that the electronic methods appear as the third leg of the educational process and thus be balanced.
\nFinally, “in a high-tech economy, technological innovation needs to move hand in hand with investing in teachers, which is a far better long-term solution. Students will be made future ready through a blend of technology and teachers, the best of both worlds which will be needed to teach future generations” writes [16, 21].
\nSee Table 1.
\n\n | Article ID | \nTopic area | \nResearch approach | \nData analysis | \nMajor findings | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \n[6] | \nEducational technologies | \nLongitudinal data and student experience and expectation of technology (SEET) survey | \nSurvey focuses on the current use and future use as well | \nDiscovers that there was an increase in technologies for learning over 3 years | \n
2. | \n[7] | \nImportance of educational technologies | \nEmpirical research on educational technologies in classrooms | \nImportance of educational technologies in classrooms | \nThe presence of technologies is growing in the classroom | \n
3. | \n[10] | \nChanges in educational technology | \nTime series data analysis of national feedback to the Office of Educational Technology | \nChanges in the use of educational technologies in classrooms compared to 2016 | \nIncrease in the use of educational technologies in classrooms | \n
4. | \n[12] | \nEducational technologies to deliver textbooks | \nQualitative study | \nDelivery of texts using educational technologies | \nIncreased access to textbooks for education | \n
5. | \n[13] | \nEducational technologies are transforming education | \nTime series analysis of technological improvements in reaching an audience | \nFocus on the increased reach and content available for delivery using educational technologies | \nAstronomical increase in reach and content creation for curricula over the past years | \n
6. | \n[14] | \nEducational technologies to innovate teaching | \nReview of journal articles | \nCompare innovative techniques | \nInnovative techniques are readily available to improve teaching and learning | \n
7. | \n[15] | \nCurrent and future trends in technology | \nReview and study of educational technology trends over time | \nComparison of past, present, and future technologies | \nExponential increase in types and availability of educational technologies | \n
8. | \n[17] | \nProfessional digital competence | \nResearch of educational technology reports | \nCompare reports on the need for digital competence | \nGreater need for digital competence for educators over the past years | \n
9. | \n[18] | \nResurgence of e-Learning | \nStudy on educational technologies over time | \nComparison of reports over time to evidence the steady presence of educational technologies over the years | \nDespite expert predictions of the failure of educational technologies in education, it remains | \n
10. | \n[21] | \nThe future of education is ease of access and ease of learning using educational technology | \nReview of journal article | \nTechnology is improving over the years to make delivery of education and access easier | \nEducational learning is slowly becoming the key delivery tool | \n
Review of existing literature on educational technologies.
Educational technologies have three domains of use [7]:
Technology as a tutor (computer gives instructions and guides the user)
This involves the use of any form of technology to assist and educate a user through lesson/ lessons. This method is utilized to deliver self-paced education and is ideal for tertiary level courses and distance learning or to deliver syllabi to remote areas without any access to educator. This approach uses a drill and practice implementation whereby the user can keep repeating the lesson until the required mastery is achieved. An example of this would be a typing tuition application, allowing for self-paced, timed lessons. There are, of course, numerous advanced applications that are available for self-paced learning [22].
Technology as a teaching tool
This educational technology approach is by far the more popular approach used around Fiji. It involves educators utilizing technology to deliver curriculum to learners through, for example, the use of Microsoft PowerPoint to present slides and portable document formats to supply notes, worksheets, activities, and textbooks. This requires deep engagement by the educator to prepare lessons for delivery. This, of course, could be substituted with ready designed courses that are provided for a fee [22]. This tool can be expanded into numerous hardware aids that exist for educators to utilize in classrooms. Some common examples of lesson delivery hardware equipment are interactive whiteboards, overhead data projectors with portable computers, and smart screens [23].
Technology as a learning tool
These normally consist of computer hardware that is used by students to gain access to the resources that are prepared and shared by educators. These resources may be placed on a server, and the student is required to be part of the domain via proper credentials. Some examples of these tools are personal computers (PCs), laptops, tablets, and smartphones. These can also be used to gain access to tutorial activities for learners to access and progress academically [23].
See Table 2.
\n\n | Technology | \nUse | \n
---|---|---|
1. | \nElectronic whiteboard | \nThese are best used for group presentations. The board may be connected to a PC or a laptop | \n
2. | \nFlipped learning | \nStudents can use their devices to watch videos of lessons and then have discussions later | \n
3. | \nDesktops and laptops | \nThese more common devices can be used to gain access to the resources available for educational learning | \n
4. | \nProjectors | \nOverhead data projectors allow an educator to share the contents of their screen to the class | \n
5. | \nVideo conferencing classroom technologies | \nStudents in different locations can be present in classroom lessons in real time using technologies like Skype, Google Hangouts, and Zoom | \n
6. | \nMobile learning | \nMobile devices are portable and allow access to classrooms and apps wherever/whenever needed. This medium is popular in distance learning | \n
7. | \nTelevision | \nThese can be used to play educational videos or demonstrations to share lessons | \n
8. | \nComputer networking | \nAllow students to share resources and for teacher to monitor student activity on the shared network | \n
9. | \nDistance learning | \nStudents can gain remote access to classes if restricted by some event | \n
10. | \nVirtual field trips | \nStudents can go onto seemingly real-life environments, for example, Google classroom | \n
11. | \nWord processing applications | \nStudents’ first exposure to technology in Fiji is Microsoft Word | \n
12. | \n3D printing | \nBoth students and teachers can design 3D object for everyday marking | \n
Modern educational technologies [24].
The framework was drawn up in relation to evaluation of the adoption and use of educational technology in the Fijian classroom. The research was based on e-Learning in Fijian schools in terms of the following: implementation, benefits, challenges, and use (e-Learning for teaching or a complete implementation of e-Learning including both delivery and students’ ends) (Figure 1).
\nModel.
The intention of this framework was to take a snapshot of the presence of e-Learning in some Fijian school. This was undertaken using a convenience sample method to identify the current state of e-Learning in the sample of schools. The implementation and challenges will be evaluated once the convenience sample was received. From the sample, the benefits and use would be identified as they would be different for each sample. While the generic ideas on the implementation, challenges, benefits, and use are easily available, the research pinpointed these to the frame of a Fijian classroom. The key outcomes of this research were to identify the depth of the adoption or e-Learning in the sample, benefits and challenges, and the current use of e-Learning.
\nThe approach to this paper was to review journal articles to discover and elaborate on educational technologies, its presence, and use. The types of educational technological hardware were also researched on and the more common ones identified. Following this, a type of nonprobability sampling method was used to gather data on the stance of some Fijian school on the use, implementation, benefits, and implementation for teaching and learning purposes. This method is referred to as convenience sampling. Convenience sampling (grab sampling, accidental sampling, opportunity sampling, haphazard sampling) is a type of nonprobability sampling in which people are sampled simply because they are “convenient” for researchers [25]. The survey questionnaire was delivered to respondents using an electronic questionnaire via www.surveymonkey.com. The sample was biased to schools in urban and suburban areas. This survey method is best used if a researcher desires to launch a pilot study for a case where minimal historical data or research is present. The responses of the survey were analysed under the theoretical framework based on implementation, benefits, challenges, and use. Additional information was gathered using empirical methods of conversations with some respondents to provide additional information.
\nThe intention of the research that was conducted was to establish the status of educational technologies in some schools around Fiji. The Fijian classroom is still in the early stage of modern evolution of teaching practices. While majority of schools in Fiji are still contented with the cheap method of chalk and blackboards for delivery, many Fijian educational leaders are looking forward to modernizing their schools with educational technologies to initiate e-Learning in their school.
\nThe survey data was reviewed with respect to the four areas involved in the adoption and use of educational technology in Fijian classroom—implementation, benefits, challenges, and uses.
\nFijian administrators have realized that educational technologies are a step forward in the Fijian classroom and are taking steps to slowly introduce educational technologies to support e-Learning in segments. They recognize the relevance of educational technologies to the Fijian classroom and are making efforts to step forward into the future.
\nIf you have answered Yes to Question 4, state the benefits from implementing such a system. | \nThe following benefits were summarized from the responses gathered: \n
| \n
The benefits listed are summarized from the responses received from Fijian educators. They are vividly clear on the benefits attained from the uses of such technologies in the least, delivery of lessons. The future solutions provided by the use of educational technologies remain a common identifier.
\nIf you have answered Yes to Question 4, state the challenges faced during the implementation of such a system. | \n\n
| \n
Given the challenges outlined, the relevance of educational technologies to the Fijian classroom faces its key argument. These outline the present state of educational technology implementation in Fiji. These issues are real and diminish the swiftness with which educational technologies need to be introduced. These are the key areas that need to be addressed thoroughly before the relevance of educational technologies in a Fijian classroom I recognized.
\nIf you have answered Yes to Question 3, which educational technology for e-Learning approach has been implemented in your school? | \n\n
| \n
The key fact here remains that educational technologies have limited implementation in the sample. The limit of use remains with teacher delivery only. The true potential of educational technologies in the form of e-Learning remains to be seen.
\nBased on the data analysed and literature reviewed, a comparison was made with present technologies and researched data; it is evident that some forms of educational technologies are being utilized albeit its limited use in most Fijian classrooms. It also remains non-existent in many schools but these schools were not sampled. Awareness and desire to implement and utilize educational technology remain elevated. The benefits of such implementations far outreached the challenges. The greater belief is that students will benefit vastly should teachers take care in using technology and implementing carefully despite the challenges faced.
\nAn immense need for stakeholder participation and investment was outlined in order to realize the potential of educational technology and eventually e-Learning implementations. Fijian administrators are quite intrinsically aware of the benefits of educational technology since they have been beneficiaries of such tools in their time in universities as students and as such recognize the relevance of educational technologies in their classrooms.
\nBased on the feedback, educational technologies’ relevance in a Fijian classroom cannot be questioned. Times have changed as students’ exposure to a myriad of technology requires them to be placed in classrooms of similar nature. Students would possibly draw more benefits from such initiative since most challenges do not involve them directly instead concern other stakeholders.
\nTo conclude, educational technologies can no longer be ignored as emerging technology since its relevance and presence to Fijian classrooms are realized by educators. Given the types of educational technologies available around the world and those that have been sourced by the sample, it is clear that most solutions are present in the Fijian classroom and have been acquired and used by some schools already. While not all technologies are readily available or affordable, research shows that Fijian classrooms are slowly investing in educational technology. While acceptance of these technologies constitute for an in-depth research, the relevance to our education system remains divided. Even though the benefits are outlined and some form of educational technology implementation has been made, the challenges faced are also real.
\nThe cost of investment is the single primary deterrent to making educational technology and subsequently e-Learning more relevant given that not enough investment or confidence is being placed into such advancement by the key financial stakeholders. Looking at the research, the implementations are limited for each school. Only one school in the sample has a complete installation of educational technologies. The rest of the schools have very few classrooms engaged.
\nThis simply indicates that the Fijian classroom is not quite ready to completely embrace educational technologies into their operations given the challenges are few but immense. The leap in effort from all stakeholders is imperative for educational technology and eventually e-Learning to find their relevance in a Fijian classroom.
\nThe following questions, when answered, indicate a possible future direction.
\nAre there any accelerated efforts for plan and preparation for educational technologies for the nation’s classrooms from the key stakeholders?
\nAre there milestone requirements of authorities for schools to implement educational technologies in stages for the benefit of students?
\nAre national syllabi team planning and delivering content and tools that are compliant to educational technology standards?
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