Conditions and comparative efficiency of different feedstocks for biofuel production.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6972",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Soybean for Human Consumption and Animal Feed",title:"Soybean for Human Consumption and Animal Feed",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Soybean is the main oilseed crop worldwide, a staple crop for protein-rich food and feed as well as a significant source of nutraceutical compounds with many different medical benefits. Soybean for Human Consumption and Animal Feed highlights the state of research in soybean nutritional attributes as well as science-based approaches defining the future of soybean for human consumption and animal feed. Over seven chapters, this book presents a comprehensive picture of the potential of soybean for human and animal diets and health as well as quality stock for pharmaceutical and functional food industries with an emphasis on the importance of genetic improvement of soybean germplasm in enhancing healthy and safe properties of final soy products.",isbn:"978-1-83881-019-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-018-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-020-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73719",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"soybean-for-human-consumption-and-animal-feed",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4bc6f95dc8630c9a8be84bb46286c445",bookSignature:"Aleksandra Sudarić",publishedDate:"December 2nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6972.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5389,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:47,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 25th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 23rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 13th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 12th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"21485",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sudarić",slug:"aleksandra-sudaric",fullName:"Aleksandra Sudarić",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21485/images/system/21485.jpg",biography:"Dr. Aleksandra Sudarić was born in Osijek, Croatia. She received an MSc in Plant Genetics and Breeding in 1996 from the University of Zagreb and a PhD in Plant Breeding in 1999 from the University of Osijek. Dr. Sudarić is a senior research scientist at the Agricultural Institute Osijek (Croatia), Department for Breeding and Genetics of Industrial Plants where she studies the breeding and seed production of soybean. She is presently coordinator of the soybean breeding program at the Institute. In addition, she completed the training for application of DNA-based marker technology at the University of Guelph in Guelph (Canada). Her main research interests are in the genetic improvement of quantity and quality characteristics of soybean and soybean adaptation to mega-environments. Dr. Sudarić has authored more than 100 papers (scientific, professional, and popular), several book chapters, books, and manuscripts about soybean as well as developed twenty-six soybean varieties.",institutionString:"Agricultural Institute Osijek",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Agricultural Institute Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"36",title:"Food Science",slug:"food-science"}],chapters:[{id:"73415",title:"Introductory Chapter: Soybean - Quality and Utilization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93942",slug:"introductory-chapter-soybean-quality-and-utilization",totalDownloads:547,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Aleksandra Sudarić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73415",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73415",authors:[{id:"21485",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Sudarić",slug:"aleksandra-sudaric",fullName:"Aleksandra Sudarić"}],corrections:null},{id:"69396",title:"Soybean Amino Acids in Health, Genetics, and Evaluation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89497",slug:"soybean-amino-acids-in-health-genetics-and-evaluation",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Soybean is an important source of protein and amino acids for humans and livestock because of its well-balanced amino acid profile. This chapter outlines the strengths and weaknesses of soybean as a complete amino acid source as well as the relative importance of individual amino acids. Special attention is paid to the sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine. Breeding and genetic engineering efforts are summarized to highlight previous accomplishments in amino acid improvement and potential avenues for future research. Agronomic properties and processing methods that affect amino acid levels in soybean food and feed are also explained. A brief introduction into current amino acid evaluation techniques is provided. By understanding the complexities of amino acids in soybean, protein quality for humans and livestock can be maximized.",signatures:"William Monte Singer, Bo Zhang, M.A. Rouf Mian and Haibo Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69396",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69396",authors:[{id:"308970",title:"Mr.",name:"William",surname:"Singer",slug:"william-singer",fullName:"William Singer"},{id:"309005",title:"Dr.",name:"Bo",surname:"Zhang",slug:"bo-zhang",fullName:"Bo Zhang"},{id:"310776",title:"Dr.",name:"M.A. Rouf",surname:"Mian",slug:"m.a.-rouf-mian",fullName:"M.A. Rouf Mian"},{id:"310777",title:"Dr.",name:"Haibo",surname:"Huang",slug:"haibo-huang",fullName:"Haibo Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"69807",title:"Improving Seed Quality of Soybean Suitable for Growing in Europe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89922",slug:"improving-seed-quality-of-soybean-suitable-for-growing-in-europe",totalDownloads:1010,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The potential of soybean for food, feed, and pharmaceutical industry arises from the composition of its seed. Since European countries import 95% of the annual demand for soybean grains, meal, and oil, causing an enormous trade deficit, the governments in Europe had started to introduce additional incentives to stimulate soybean cropping. To rebalance the sources of soybean supply in the future, production must be followed by continuous research to create varieties that would make European soybean more appealing to the processing industry and profitable enough to satisfy European farmers. This chapter is giving an overview of the European soybean seed quality research and an insight into soybean seed quality progress made at the Agricultural Institute Osijek, Croatia. The studies presented are mainly considering maturity groups suitable for growing in almost all European regions. The most important traits of soybean seed quality discussed are protein content and amino acid composition, oil content and fatty acid composition, soluble sugars, and isoflavones. Defining quality traits facilitates the parental selection in breeding programs aiming to improve the added value properties of final soybean products and enables the exchange of materials between different breeding and research institutions to introduce diversity, which is a prerequisite for genetic advance.",signatures:"Aleksandra Sudarić, Maja Matoša Kočar, Tomislav Duvnjak, Zvonimir Zdunić and Antonela Markulj Kulundžić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69807",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69807",authors:[{id:"21485",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Sudarić",slug:"aleksandra-sudaric",fullName:"Aleksandra Sudarić"},{id:"311324",title:"Dr.",name:"Maja",surname:"Matoša Kočar",slug:"maja-matosa-kocar",fullName:"Maja Matoša Kočar"},{id:"311331",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomislav",surname:"Duvnjak",slug:"tomislav-duvnjak",fullName:"Tomislav Duvnjak"},{id:"311332",title:"Dr.",name:"Zvonimir",surname:"Zdunić",slug:"zvonimir-zdunic",fullName:"Zvonimir Zdunić"},{id:"311333",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonela",surname:"Markulj Kulundžić",slug:"antonela-markulj-kulundzic",fullName:"Antonela Markulj Kulundžić"}],corrections:null},{id:"72688",title:"Respiratory Health Risks from Exposure to Dust from Soybean and Its Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92839",slug:"respiratory-health-risks-from-exposure-to-dust-from-soybean-and-its-products",totalDownloads:776,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Soybean and its processed forms have become an increasingly important part of agriculture, where they are widely used as an animal feedstuff and in an extensive range of human food products. This entails transportation from producer countries, largely the USA and South America, to importer destinations such as the EU and China. Soya is recognised as a dietary allergen, containing a number of identified allergenic proteins. Inhaled soya dust generated by occupational activities also causes respiratory health problems. Reports of “asthma epidemics” in harbour cities identified ill health in the community but were related to occupational activities of unloading/loading bulk soya without appropriate dust control measures. Inhaled allergens in already-sensitised individuals can cause a range of allergic symptoms in the eyes, nose, and respiratory tract, including occupational asthma (OA). Soybean dust can also cause health problems related to lung irritancy. Endotoxin and fungal contamination associated with soya are also potential respiratory hazards. This chapter reviews published data on ill health and symptoms from airborne exposure to allergens in dust from soybean and derivative products and the levels of exposure to dust and major allergens from a range of occupational activities. Other potential health hazards associated with soybean, such as endotoxin and fungal contamination, are also highlighted.",signatures:"Howard J. Mason",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72688",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72688",authors:[{id:"317237",title:"Dr.",name:"Howard",surname:"Mason",slug:"howard-mason",fullName:"Howard Mason"}],corrections:null},{id:"72429",title:"The Potential Impacts of Soy Protein on Fish Gut Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92695",slug:"the-potential-impacts-of-soy-protein-on-fish-gut-health",totalDownloads:608,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Soy protein is the major source of protein as fishmeal replacement in fish feed because of its worldwide availability and low price. However, the presence of high carbohydrate content along with saponins, lectins, and phytates can have a negative impact on fish gut health. Based on the literature and our lab studies, dietary soybean meal can cause a dose-dependent type of distal intestine inflammation called enteritis in commercial fish species including salmonids. This leads to reduced absorptive capacity, increased mucus secretion, hyperpermeability, and leucocyte infiltration in the lamina propria and submucosa, also inducing the pro-inflammatory cytokine genes expression, including Il-1β, Il-8, and Tnf-α. In addition, dietary soy may alter the composition and population of the gut microbiota via providing nutrients and energy that preferentially support the growth of some gut bacteria. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge of the effects of soy protein on the enteritis and gut microbiota.",signatures:"Vikas Kumar, Md. Sakhawat Hossain, Janice A. Ragaza and Marina Rubio Benito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72429",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72429",authors:[{id:"310392",title:"Prof.",name:"Vikas",surname:"Kumar",slug:"vikas-kumar",fullName:"Vikas Kumar"},{id:"310393",title:"MSc.",name:"Marina",surname:"Benito",slug:"marina-benito",fullName:"Marina Benito"},{id:"318034",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Sakhawat",surname:"Hossain",slug:"md.-sakhawat-hossain",fullName:"Md. Sakhawat Hossain"},{id:"318035",title:"Dr.",name:"Janice",surname:"Ragaza",slug:"janice-ragaza",fullName:"Janice Ragaza"}],corrections:null},{id:"68701",title:"Nondestructive Evaluation of Inoculation Effects of AMF and Bradyrhizobium japonicum on Soybean under Drought Stress From Reflectance Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88673",slug:"nondestructive-evaluation-of-inoculation-effects-of-amf-and-em-bradyrhizobium-japonicum-em-on-soybea",totalDownloads:601,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Precise estimation of leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) and leaf water content (LWC) of soybean, using remote sensing technology, provides a new avenue for the nondestructive evaluation of inoculation effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Bradyrhizobium japonicum (BJ) on soybean growth condition. In this study, a series of pot experiments were conducted in the greenhouse, soybean inoculated with Glomus intraradices (G.i, one of AMF species), G.i and BJ, and non-inoculation were planted under drought stress (DS) and normal irrigation (NI) conditions. Leaf spectra and LCC and LWC were measured on the 28th and 56th days after inoculation. Two new simple ratio (SR) indices, derived from the first derivative spectral reflectance at λ1 nm (Dλ1) and the raw spectral reflectance at λ2 nm (Rλ2), were developed to estimate LCC and LWC. The results indicate that under DS, plants inoculated with G.i had higher LCC and LWC than the non-inoculated plants, followed by the counterparts co-inoculated with G.i and BJ. Linear estimation models, established by the D650/Rred edge and D1680/R680, achieved great improved accuracy for quantifying LCC and LWC of soybean under inoculation and drought stress treatments, with determination of coefficient of 0.63 and 0.76, respectively.",signatures:"Weiping Kong, Yinli Bi, Wenjiang Huang, Lingli Tang, Chuanrong Li and Lingling Ma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68701",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68701",authors:[{id:"247987",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenjiang",surname:"Huang",slug:"wenjiang-huang",fullName:"Wenjiang Huang"},{id:"250651",title:"Dr.",name:"Weiping",surname:"Kong",slug:"weiping-kong",fullName:"Weiping Kong"},{id:"308543",title:"Dr.",name:"Yinli",surname:"Bi",slug:"yinli-bi",fullName:"Yinli Bi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73649",title:"Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) Production in the Cameroonian Cotton Basin between the Dynamics of Structuring an Agricultural Value Chain and Sustainability Issues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93981",slug:"soybean-em-glycine-max-em-em-l-em-em-merr-em-production-in-the-cameroonian-cotton-basin-between-the-",totalDownloads:464,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the past ten years, the Cameroonian cotton front, in the Sudano-Sahelian region, has experienced dynamics in soybean production, resulting in significant changes in agro-systems. From a simple hut culture not referenced in regional agricultural statistics, since 2010, soybean ranks 2nd in legumes cultivated after peanuts, followed by cowpea and voandzou, yet culturally and economically more adopted by the populations. The rapid development of cultivated areas from 6,705 ha in 2008 to 15,020 ha in 2018 is indicative of the enthusiasm shown by farmers for this speculation which, despite the almost lack of supervision on the part of public authorities, now structures a real value chain with challenges for improving farmers’ incomes, in a space where more than 80% of working people live from agricultural activities. The objective of this research is therefore to analyse the sustainability challenges of a productive and market dynamics built around speculation subject to strong demands of international competitiveness. The results show that the viability of this dynamics remains precarious through a set of constraints inherent in the proven inability of farmers to empower themselves to optimise production and control marketing, as well as the poor technical supervision of cultivation.",signatures:"Eric Joël Fofiri Nzossié and Christophe Bring",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73649",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73649",authors:[{id:"320682",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Joël",surname:"Fofiri Nzossie",slug:"eric-joel-fofiri-nzossie",fullName:"Eric Joël Fofiri Nzossie"},{id:"320685",title:"Prof.",name:"Christophe",surname:"Bring",slug:"christophe-bring",fullName:"Christophe Bring"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1484",title:"Soybean",subtitle:"Molecular Aspects of Breeding",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3bd8fd078e7df24f2eed6dc7bc226475",slug:"soybean-molecular-aspects-of-breeding",bookSignature:"Aleksandra Sudaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1484.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21485",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Sudarić",slug:"aleksandra-sudaric",fullName:"Aleksandra Sudarić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10237",title:"Innovation in the Food Sector Through the Valorization of Food and Agro-Food By-Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c3a5a3c7f7999d68f04ae49ff0553f3d",slug:"innovation-in-the-food-sector-through-the-valorization-of-food-and-agro-food-by-products",bookSignature:"Ana Novo de Barros and Irene Gouvinhas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10237.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260510",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",surname:"Novo de Barros",slug:"ana-novo-de-barros",fullName:"Ana Novo de Barros"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Rosen, Mandi D. Conway, Charles P. Ingram, Robin D. Ross and Leonardo G. Montilla",dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"274007",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandi D.",middleName:null,surname:"Conway",fullName:"Mandi D. 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Ross and Leonardo G. Montilla",dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"274007",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandi D.",middleName:null,surname:"Conway",fullName:"Mandi D. 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\r\n\tBismuth-based nanostructured materials have received increasing research interest in the past decades, especially for their applications in photocatalysis and electrocatalysis. New bismuth-based nanostructured materials have been fabricated, and their optical and electronic structures can be fine-tuned via various synthetic approaches. These bismuth-based materials have been widely applied in photocatalysis (NOx removal, VOCs purification, CO2 reduction, water splitting, organic pollutants degradation, heavy metals reduction) and electrocatalysis (nitrogen fixation, CO2 reduction, water electrolysis, organic synthesis). The rapid development in this field needs a comprehensive summary to reflect the new advances in recent years. The aim of this project is to invite researchers worldwide to contribute to this field and promote the developments in the synthesis, characterization, structure-property relationship determination, and application of bismuth-based catalysts, proposing organized materials, challenges, and prospects to guide future works. The content of this book could attract broad interest from diverse fields of materials, catalysis, chemistry, environment, medicine, energy, and engineering.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-048-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-047-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-049-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"951c872d9d90e13cfe7d97c0af91845e",bookSignature:"Dr. William Wilson Anku",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11467.jpg",keywords:"Semiconductor, Synthesis, Morphology, Shape Control, Metal Doping, Surface Modification, Catalysis, Photocatalysis, Photoelectrochemical, Nitrogen Fixation, Energy Conversion, Environmental Remediation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"15 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. William Wilson Anku is a Research Scientist at CSIR- Water Research Institute, Accra-Ghana. He has co-authored 37 papers in renowned peer-reviewed scientific publications with over 590 citations resulting in an H-index of 12.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196465/images/system/196465.jpg",biography:'Curriculum Vitae\n of \nDr William Wilson Anku\n________________________________________\nCSIR- Water Research Institute,\nP. O. Box AH 38, \nAchimota-Accra, Ghana\n\nPrimary Email Address: williamanku85@gmail.com \nAlternate Email Address: williamanku@csir.org.gh \nMobile Numbers: +233547507987/+233577035326 \nGoogle Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=tK_Q8UQAAAAJ&hl=en\nORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5551-6130\nResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/William_Wilson_Anku/research\n\nPersonal Information:\nSurname: Anku\nFirst Names: William Wilson\nGender: Male\nCitizenship: Ghanaian\nDate of birth: 20/12/1976\n\nResearch Interests:\n1. Design of nanoparticles with unique structural and physical properties, and the assessment of their structure-property relationships. \n2. Development and evaluation of photocatalytic, ion exchange, adsorption/filtration properties of metal oxide semiconductors and agro-industrial wastes-based nanomaterials for their practical application in water/wastewater treatment \n3. Water/wastewater treatment\t\n\nEducation:\n2015 – 2018: PhD Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.\n2005 – 2008: MSc Environmental Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science &\n Technology, Ghana.\n1999 – 2003: BSc Chemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Ghana\n1995 – 1997: Secondary School Certificate, Saint Augustine’s College, Cape Coast, Ghana. \n\nEmployment History:\n1.\tResearch Scientist (March 2019-present): CSIR-Water Research Institute, \nAccra-Ghana.\n2.\tPostdoctoral Research Fellow (February 2018 – January 2019): Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa \n3.\tTeaching Assistant/Tutor (June 2015 – November 2016): Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa \n4.\tChemistry Tutor (January 2007-September 2014): Effiduase Senior High School, Effiduase-Ashanti (Ghana Education Service).\n\nSupervision of junior researchers at the graduate and postgraduate level:\n1.\tPhD thesis supervision:\n(a) Student Name: Michael Kumi\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg (UJ), South Africa.\nThesis title: Integrated bone and biochar bed for contaminant removal from groundwater. (In progress).\n\n(b) Student Name: George Atongo Atia\n Institution: Department of chemistry, KNUST, Kumasi\n Thesis title: Fabrication of CNTs-metal oxide/polymer chemical sensors for gas sensor\n application and computational studies. (In progress).\n\n2.\tMSc Thesis supervision:\n(a) Student Name: Esther Acheampong \nInstitution: Department of Chemical Engineering, KNUST, Kumasi\n Thesis title: Synthesis of polysulphide intercalated layered double hydroxides for\n adsorption processes. (Completed).\n\n(b)\tStudent Name: Sechaba Menyadi\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, UJ, South Africa.\nThesis title: Improving the thermoelectric performance of zinc oxide with Al3+, In3+ \nand 2D materials through the formation of superlattice structures. (Completed).\n\n(c)\tStudent Name: Nokuthula Ndaba\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, UJ, South Africa.\n Thesis title: Isolation and characterization of Drimia delagoensis phytochemicals and\n their application in diabetic foot ulcer treatment. (Completed).\n\nExternal examination of PhD/MSc theses and proposal reviews:\n1.\tExternal examination of a PhD thesis from the Chemical Engineering Department of Vaal University of Technology, South Africa, 2021.\n2.\tExternal examination of PhD thesis from the Physics and Chemistry Departments of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, KNUST-Ghana, 2020.\n3.\tReviewer for the 2021-2022 Graduate Women in Science (GWIS) National Fellowship Program of the USA.\n\nScientific Reviewing Activities:\nServing as a reviewer for the following journals:\nACS Applied Materials and Interfaces, ACS Applied Nanomaterials, ACS Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, Journal of Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, Electroanalysis, Journal of Molecular Catalysis A, Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry, Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, Recent Innovations in Chemical Engineering, Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Fibers and Polymers, Catalysis letters, Desalination and water treatment, Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry.\n\nProfessional Associations:\n•\tResearch Scientist Association of Ghana\n•\tSouth African Chemical Institute (SACI)\n\nLeadership and volunteering activities:\n•\tVice President of Water Research Institute Branch of Research Staff Association (RSA) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana (2021-2022).\n•\tEditorial board member of RSA-CSIR, Southern Zone (2021/2022).\n•\tEnvironmental Science Department Representative of Graduate Students Association of Ghana: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) branch (2005-2006).\n•\tVice President of Volta Region Students Association: KNUST branch (2002-2003).\n•\tNational Public Relations Officer of Ghana Students Chemical Society: KNUST branch (2002-2003).\n•\tGeneral Secretary of Volta Region Students Association: KNUST branch (2001-2002).\n•\tVolunteer Teacher at Asukawkaw Senior High School in the Volta Region of Ghana (May-August 2002)\n\nPrizes, awards, fellowships:\n•\tPostdoctoral research fellowship: Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, 2018.\n•\tPhD studentship: Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, 2015-2018.\n•\tStudents travel fund award: National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa, 2016.\n•\tBest poster presenter at the 5th UJ Cross Faculty Symposium held at UJ-Bunting Road Campus, South Africa on 13th October 2015.\n•\tSecond best poster presenter at the 3rd conference on “Emerging Frontiers for Sustainable Water” held at the Protea Hotel Wanderers, in Johannesburg, South Africa from 3-5 August 2015. \n\nPublication Record:\nA.\tBook Chapters\n1.\tOtun, Kabir Opeyemi, Idris Olayiwola Azeez, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, William Wilson Anku, Uyiosa Osagie Aigbe, Kingsley Eghonghon Ukhurebor, and Robert Birundu Onyancha. "Sensing the Presence of Inorganic Ions in Water: The Use of Electrochemical Sensors." In Modified Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications, pp. 65-89. Springer, Cham, 2022.\n2.\tAnku, William Wilson, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Ikenna Chibuzor Emeji, Uyiosa Osagie Aigbe, Adelaja Otolorin Osibote, Peter Ogbemudia Osifo, and Suprakas Sinha Ray. “Functionalized nanomagnetic materials for environmental applications”. In Functionalized Nanomaterials Based Devices for Environmental Applications, pp. 127-145. Elsevier, 2021.\n3.\tKhoele, Khotso, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Ikenna Chibuzor Emeji, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray, David Jacobus Delport, and Peter Ogbemudia Osifo. “Dynamic Degradation Efficiency of Major Organic Pollutants from Wastewater”. Springer, Cham, In book: Nanostructured Metal-Oxide Electrode Materials for Water Purification, pp. 1-18, 2020.\n4.\tAnku, William Wilson, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Suprakas Sinha Ray, and Peter Ogbemudia Osifo. “Application of Modified Metal Oxide Electrodes in Photoelectrochemical Removal of Organic Pollutants from Wastewater”. Springer, Cham. In book: Nanostructured Metal-Oxide Electrode Materials for Water Purification, pp. 151-166, 2020.\n5.\tWilliam W Anku, Ephraim M Kiarii, Sudheesh K Shukla, and Penny P Govender. “Photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceuticals using graphene based materials”. Springer, Cham. In book: A New Generation Material Graphene: Applications in Water Technology. pp 187-208, 2018.\n6.\tWilliam W Anku, Samuel OB Oppong and Penny P Govender. “Bismuth-based nanoparticles as photocatalytic materials”. InTechOpen. In book: Bismuth: Advanced Applications and Defects Characterization. pp 25-44, 2018.\n7.\tWilliam W Anku, Messai A Mamo and Penny P Govender. “Phenolic compounds in water: sources, reactivity, toxicity and treatment methods”. InTechOpen. In book: Phenolic Compounds-Natural Sources, Importance and Applications. pp. 420-443, 2017. \n\nB.\tPeer-Reviewed Journal Publications \n\n1. Ahiahonu, Elvis K., William W. Anku, Ashira Roopnarain, Ezekiel Green, Penny P. Govender, and Mahloro H. Serepa‐Dlamini. Bioresource potential of Tetradesmus obliquus UJEA_AD: critical evaluation of biosequestration rate, biochemical and fatty acid composition in BG11 media. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology (2021).\n2. Ahiahonu, Elvis Kodzo, William Wilson Anku, Ashira Roopnarain, Ezekiel Green, Penny Poomani Govender, and Mahloro Hope Serepa-Dlamini. Bioprospecting wild South African microalgae as a potential third-generation biofuel feedstock, biological carbon-capture agent and for nutraceutical applications. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery (2021): 1-16.\n3. Obiri, Samuel, Gloria Addico, Saada Mohammed, Wilson William Anku, Humphry Darko, and Okrah Collins. Water quality assessment of the Tano Basin in Ghana: a multivariate statistical approach. Applied Water Science 11 (2021): 1-8.\n4. Oppong, Samuel Osei-Bonsu, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, and Penny P. Govender. Insights into the complementary behaviour of Gd doping in GO/Gd/ZnO composites as an efficient candidate towards photocatalytic degradation of indigo carmine dye. Journal of Materials Science 56 (2021): 8511-8527.\n5. Ama Onoyivwe Monday, Khotso Khoele, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray, Peter Ogbemudia Osifo, and David Jacobus Delport. Synthesis and Application of MnO2/Exfoliated Graphite Electrodes for Enhanced Photoelectrochemical Degradation of Methylene Blue and Congo Red Dyes in Water. Electrocatalysis.11 (2020): 413-421.\n6. Anku, William Wilson, Eric Selorm Agorku, Samuel Osei-Bonsu Oppong, and Anthony Yaw Karikari. "MWCNTs attached neodymium doped-ZnO photocatalysts for efficient removal of dyes from wastewater. SN Applied Sciences. 5 (2020): 1-13.\n7. Karikari Anthony Yaw, Asmah Ruby, Anku, William Wilson, Amisah Steve, Agbo Nelson Wheatson, Telfer C Trevor, Ross, Glenn Lindsay. Heavy Metal Concentrations and Sediment Quality of a Cage Farm on Lake Volta, Ghana. Aquaculture Research. 5 (2020): 2041-2051.\n8. Manyedi, Sechaba, William W. Anku, Ephraim M. Kiarii, and Penny P. Govender. Thermoelectric, Electronic, and Optical Response of Nanostructured Al‐doped ZnO@ 2D‐TiC Composite. ChemistrySelect 5 (2020): 13144-13154.\n9. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, and Penny Poomani Govender. Composite 2D Nanointerfaces for Electrochemical Biosensing: An Experimental and Theoretical Study. ACS Applied Biomaterials. 12 (2020): 8676-8687.\n10. Onoyivwe Monday Ama, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray. Photoelectrochemical degradation of methylene blue dye under visible light irradiation using EG/Ag-ZrO2 nanocomposite electrodes. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 14 (2019) 9982-10001. \n11. Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Khotso Khoele, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray. Photoelectrochemical Degradation of 4-Nitrophenol using CuOZnO/exfoliated graphite Nanocomposite Electrode. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 14 (2019) 2893 – 2905.\n12. Ndaba, Nokuthula, Marthe Carine Fotsing, William Wilson Anku, and Penny Poomani Govender. In vitro and in silico studies of the antifungal properties of the bulb and leaves extracts of Drimia delagoensis Baker (Jessop). Advances in Traditional Medicine, (2019): 1-7.\n13. Samuel Osei-Bonsu Oppong, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Ephraim\nMuriithi Kiarii, Penny Poomani Govender. Experimental and Computational Design of Highly Active Ce–ZrO2–GO Photocatalyst for Eosin Yellow Dye Degradation: The Role of Interface and Ce3+ Ion. Catalysis Letters. (2019) 1-18.\n14. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, Penny Govender. Hierarchically assembled Two-dimensional Gold-Boron Nitride-Tungsten Disulphide nanohybrid interface system for electrobiocatalytic applications. Materials chemistry and physics, 226 (2019) 129-140.\n15. Madima Ntakadzeni, William Wilson Anku, Penny Poomani Govender, Leelakrishna Reddy. Mo3S4 nanorod: An effective photocatalyst for the degradation of organic dyes in aqueous solution. Recent innovations in chemical engineering, 12 (2019) 61-9.\n16. Madima Ntakadzeni, William Wilson Anku, Neeraj Kumar, Penny Poomani Govender, Leelakrishna Reddy. Pegylated MoS2 nanosheets: A dual functional photocatalyst for photodegradation of organic dyes and photoreduction of chromium from aqueous solution. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 14 (2019) 142-152.\n17. S. O.B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, F. Opoku, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Photodegradation of Eosin Yellow Dye in Water under Simulated Solar Light Irradiation using La-Doped-ZnO Nanostructure Decorated on Graphene Oxide as an Advanced Photocatalyst. ChemistrySelect 3 (2018) 1180-1188.\n18. W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Graft gum ghatti caped Cu2O nanocomposite for photocatalytic degradation of naphthol blue black dye. Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic polymers and Materials (2018) 1540-1551.\n19. C.N. Peter, W. W. Anku, R. Sharma, G. M. Joshi, S. K. Shukla, P. P. Govender. N-doped ZnO/graphene oxide: a photo-stable photocatalyst for improved mineralization and photodegradation of organics dye under visible light. IONICS (2018) 327-339.\n20. C.N. Peter, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla, P. P. Govender. Theoretical studies of the Interfacial charge transfer and the effect of vdW correction on the interaction energy of non-metal doped ZnO and graphene oxide interface. Theoretical Chemistry Accounts 137 (2018) 75-84.\n21. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, Penny Poomani Govender. Hierarchically assembled two-dimensional hybrid nanointerfaces: A platform for bioelectronic applications. Electroanalysis. Electroanalysis 30 (2018) 2339-2348.\n22. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Cobalt doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine and eosin Y dyes. Progress in Natural Science: Materials International 26 (2017) 354-361.\n23. S. O. Oppong, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Synthesis and characterisation of neodymium doped-zinc oxide–graphene oxide nanocomposite as a highly efficient photocatalyst for enhanced degradation of indigo carmine in water under simulated solar light. Research on Chemical Intermediates 43 (2017) 481-501.\n24. W W Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S K Shukla and P P Govender.Comparative photocatalytic degradation of monoazo and diazo dyes under simulated visible light using Fe3+/C/S doped-TiO2 nanoparticles. Acta Chimica Slovenica 63 (2016) 380-391.\n25. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Chitosan–sodium alginate encapsulated Co-doped ZrO2–MWCNTs nanocomposites for photocatalytic decolorization of organic dyes. Research on Chemical Intermediates 42 (2016) 7231–7245.\n26. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Palladium-doped–ZrO2–multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite: an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. Applied Physics A 122 (2016) 579-587.\n27. W W Anku, S. O. B Oppong, S K Shukla and P P Govender. Influence of ZnO concentration on the optical and photocatalytic properties of Ni-doped ZnS/ZnO nanocomposite. Bulletin of Materials Science 39 (2016) 1745-1752.\n28. S. O. B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Photocatalytic degradation of indigo carmine using Nd-doped TiO2-decorated graphene oxide nanocomposites. Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology 80 (2016) 38–49.\n29. M. Mzoughi, W. W. Anku, S. O. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Neodymium Doped ZrO2-graphene Oxide Nanocomposites: A Promising Photocatalyst for Photodegradation of Eosin Y Dye. Advanced Materials Letters 7 (2016) 946-950.\n30. S. O.B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, K. S. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Lanthanum doped-TiO2 decorated on graphene oxide nanocomposite: A photocatalyst for enhanced degradation of Acid Blue 40 under simulated solar light. Advance Materials Letters 8 (2016) 432-438.\n\nConference Presentations\n1.\tSession Co-chairs: William Wilson Anku and Saada Mohammed. Session Title: Innovative sample preparation and detection techniques for legacy and emerging pollutants in different environmental matrices. Virtual SETAC Africa 10th Biennial Conference held from 20-22 September 2021.\n\n2.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Hetero-elements doped TiO2 for comparative photocatalytic degradation of monoazo and diazo dyes. SPEA9- 9th European Meeting on Solar Chemistry and Photocatalysis: Environmental Applications. Held in Strasbourg, France from 13th to 17th June 2016. \n\n3.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Cobalt-doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine dye. 4th YWP-ZA Biennial Conference and 1st Africawide YWP Conference. Held at the CSIR-Pretoria, South Africa from 16th to 18th November 2015. (Won second best presenter award).\n\n4.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Palladium doped-ZrO2-multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite as an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. 5th UJ Cross Faculty Symposium. Held at UJ-Bunting Road Campus on 13th October 2015. (Won best presenter award).\n\n5.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Cobalt-doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine dye. UJ Harvest festival. Held on 17 September 2015 in Perskor Building, DFC.\n\n6.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Palladium doped-ZrO2-multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite as an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. 3rd conference on Emerging Frontiers for Sustainable Water. Held at the Protea Hotel Wanderers, in Johannesburg, South Africa from 3-5 August 2015.\n\nReferences\n1. Prof Penny Govender\nDirector: Research Capacity Development (RCD)\nPostgraduate School: Research & Innovation, 101, Akanya Building\nAPK campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa\nTel: 27845002689. Email: pennyg@uj.ac.za\n\n2. Dr. Anthony Yaw Karikari\nDeputy Director: \nCSIR-Water Research Institute, P.O. Box M38, Achimota-Accra, Ghana\nTel: 233208184215, E-mail: aykarikari@hotmail.com\n\n3. Dr Monday Onoyivwe Ama\nResearch Scientist: CSIR-National Centre for Nanostructured Materials,\nMeiring Naude Road Brummeria, Block 19B, Pretoria 0001, South Africa \nTel.: +27733300486, Email: onoyivwe4real@gmail.com',institutionString:"CSIR-Water Research Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Compared with the current global energy consumption of 400 exajoule, an increase of 200 exajoule is expected by 2025 [1]. Biofuels have gained much importance due to the depleting fossil fuel resources and the over-accumulation of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the environment. Biofuels can play a part to achieve targets to replace fossil fuels to reduce carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere and to attain environmental and economic sustainability. Though bioenergy is already contributing more than 10% of global energy supplies huge potential is there to uplift its contribution. Lignocelluloses are accounted for more than 20 billion metric tons of biofuels worldwide. Owing to the outstanding features of these biofuels i.e. enhanced octane number: MON (motor octane number) and RON (research octane number), they are the most desired source of biofuel. Further, they would prove an environmentally friendly fuel source having the ability to generate less black smoke with fewer hydrocarbon emissions and NOx [2]. Hence, fuels of the renewable kind (bioethanol and biodiesel) are subjects of increased attention in this context [3]. For the development of efficient and viable alternative fuel having the ability to provide environmental safety and energy gain, the fundamental procedures need to be improved [4]. Normally, biofuels are produced either by biochemical or thermo-chemical strategies. Production by the biochemical method includes biomass retreatment, biomass handling, fermentation, and hydrolysis. The thermochemical processes can convert non-food and food biomass to fuel through gasification and pyrolysis [5]. A combination of both of these processes (biochemical or thermo-chemical) has been worked out by various research groups and has proved to be effective for the economic production of biofuel [6].
Sugarcane, being a C4 plant is photosynthetically more competent to produce higher content of dry mass. Commercial production of sugar from sugarcane was initiated in India and China almost 2500 years back whereas it was domesticated in Western Europe during the 18th century [7]. Various Saccharum species prevail all around the world. These include
Production of different versions of biofuels
Feedstock | Conditions | Biofuel production (l/ha) | References |
---|---|---|---|
Corn | Hydrolysis/fermentation | 3,800 | [12] |
Sugarcane | Fermentation | 7,200 | |
Sugar beet | Hydrolysis/fermentation | 7,900 | |
Wheat | Hydrolysis/fermentation | 1700 | |
Cassava | Hydrolysis/fermentation | 137 |
Conditions and comparative efficiency of different feedstocks for biofuel production.
Perennial grasses like
Another biofuel type is biodiesel that can be mixed with fossil fuels or is used directly in the engines with certain modifications [18]. The maximum oil content was determined in canola crops. Similarly, flax and camelina also appeared to be a promising source of biofuel (biodiesel) in terms of alternate energy crops. In terms of land use and competition with food crops, Camelina sativa proved to be more promising. This crop has fewer problems in comparison with Glycine max and canola and has high land-use efficiency. Further, it can be successfully grown in rotation with wheat or other winter cereals. LCA (life cycle analysis) of
Biofuels are classified into different generations or groups based on their method of production and raw material used (Figure 1). In first-generation biofuels, cultivated crops providing polysaccharides and starch are the main raw material used in the production [26] but this generation is not much appreciated due to various reasons such as the increased amount of inputs use, cultivated crops used for biofuels are decreasing the availability of the food and cultivable land for food production. The first-generation biofuel is produced from sugars or starch. Globally, sugarcane contributes 21 million m3 of ethanol whereas 60 million m3 comes from corn and grains. The important step is liquefication of sugar residues followed by hydrolysis that release sugar-monomers which are converted into CO2 and ethanol by yeast fermentation. Ethanol yield can be increased by augmenting the sugar contents of sugarcane. It is very difficult to enhance sugar production as sugarcane owns one of the most complex genomes with extremely complicated genetic networks and pathways. Moreover, modification in one process can decline the expression profiles of the other desired traits resulting in an unsolicited tradeoff. First-generation biofuels are criticized for food security as there are increasing concerns that the diversion of sugarcane towards ethanol production will reduce sugar availability, which could cause a consequent rise in prices. So, second-generation biofuels are now being used to generate energy so that co-generation would help to minimize competition with sucrose supplies. Second-generation biofuels are produced from different lignocellulose (substrate). Sugarcane bagasse and leaves are used as a by-product to produce ethanol. Various studies showed that assimilating either biochemical or thermochemical routes significantly enhances ethanol production, as compared with first-generation ethanol production. A Norwegian company (Borregaard) is the largest producer of second-generation bioethanol all over the World, with an annual production of 20,000 m3. Milling, pretreatment (thermophysical), fermentation, distillation, and processing are the fundamental steps to produce bioethanol from lignocelluloses hence, needs due consideration to improve its production [27]. In comparison to the first generation, second-generation biofuels are cost-effective as they utilize mostly those parts of the plants that are not used as food or are considered waste. Such as crop waste or municipal wastes [28] but still there is a need to produce these biofuels at a consumer’s acceptable price. Many researchers are aiming to increase the production efficiency of this type of biofuels produced but chemical or enzymatic methods are found to be more efficient. In third-generation biofuels algae is the main substrate while in fourth-generation biofuels microorganisms and genetically engineered crops and algae are used as raw material. Biofuels produced from algae are less stable and less cost-efficient. While fourth-generation biofuels are under development [29].
Comparison among different generations of biofuel production based on their method of production and raw material used.
Energy cane, unlike conventional sugarcane, contains more fiber content than sucrose. Alexander [30] coined the term “Energy Cane Management” and proposed that sugarcane being a high biomass producer is a potential candidate for the production of bioethanol. The high biomass production is a valuable biological factor of sugarcane that contributes to the high positive LCEB (life cycle energy balance) of bioethanol produced from it with a positive balance of GHGE (greenhouse gas emission). Sugarcane biofuel generates low net greenhouse gases (GHG) and hence reduced adverse environmental impact in terms of pollution indicators. In Brazil, net greenhouse gases emission was estimated to be reduced by 25.8 million tons CO2 equivalent in 2007. This was only because of the replacement of non-renewable energy sources with renewable energy sources [31].
Sugarcane is the most economical source of bioethanol with 9.8% fermentable sugars in its juice whereas sweet sorghum has 11.8% fermentable sugars. Sugarcane bagasse contains 22% lignin, 24% hemicellulose, and 43% cellulose whereas sweet sorghum has 21% lignin, 27% hemicellulose, and 45% cellulose with theoretical ethanol production of 12,938 and 5,804 kg per ha respectively. Though sugarcane has higher productivity as compared with its counterparts (sweet sorghum, sugar beet) yet further improvement in its fiber and sugar contents is desired to transform it into energy cane [32].
The sucrose contents present in sugarcane is about 50% of the culm dry mass whereas fiber contents are about 14%. Besides, the following features make sugarcane an ideal choice as an energy crop: drought tolerance, cold tolerance, pest and disease resistance, less flower production, erect growth habit, ratooning ability, and fast early growth [33]. Brazil is a pioneer country in launching sugarcane as an energy crop and produced about 23.4 billion liters of bioethanol in 2014 and fulfilled 15% of the country’s electricity needs from sugarcane. Brazil is expecting to meet 30% (equivalent to hydropower) of energy needs from sugarcane during the current year. Thus biofuels are outcompeting the fuel market owing to their potential to fulfill future energy needs with the ability to contribute towards a safer climate. It is mandatory now in European Union and the United States to use biofuel as a fuel source. It was obligatory in the EU, to use at least 10% of the transport fuel from renewable sources by 2020. They have planned to produce 36 billion gallons of biofuel by 2022 compared with 4.7 billion gallons in 2007. Though the dominant source of production will be non-corn starch feedstock [34]. Considering this scenario, bioenergy, and energy cane seem to be the most desirable source of bioethanol all over the world.
Since the last two decades, biofuels have proved their worth by reducing greenhouse gases and contributing to energy self-sufficiency along with increased agricultural yield. Developed countries have enthusiastically introduced subsidies for rapid adoption of this technology but the net gains have been unsatisfactory because of rising prices of fossil fuels, high agricultural inputs, processing, transport, etc., and food crisis lead to controversy about biofuels. Researchers are of the view that competition for the production of biofuel will not only result in competition with food crops but will also lead to additional pressure for land, water, fertilizer, and other natural resources to produce feedstock. This demands reclamation of the salt-affected/waterlogged soils for the cultivation of energy crops. This will make possible the cultivation of uncultivable land resulting in enhanced production of feedstock. Further, the cultivation of neglected non-food plant species will result in their conservation thus securing biodiversity, etc. This also demands the development of developing new accession of different plant species, suitable for energy production having wide-spread adaptability to produce more biomass with least nutrients [35].
Fermentation is the most established technology for the production of biofuel from sugarcane and other feed/food crops, all over the world. In our country too, ethanol is produced from sugarcane molasses, etc. The average ethanol production is one-liter ethanol from 12 to 14 kg of sugarcane [36]. Also, bagasse is a prominent source of heat and energy. Sugarcane production requires significant investment in the form of energy and inputs including farm machinery, labor, fertilizers, and pesticides. The development of input efficient varieties with better ability to produce energy and sucrose are core challenges for the transformation of conventional sugarcane into energy cane.
Since the advent of molecular biology, researchers are striving hard to help mankind by fulfilling their needs and uplifting living standards. Engineering plant genome for tailoring targeted cellular mechanisms and to express desired recombinant protein has proved its worth and more than 190 million hectares of agricultural land is occupied by transgenic crops. The concept of producing industrial enzymes, therapeutics, and nutraceuticals in plants further validated the worth of plants being transformed into bio-factories. Likewise, sugarcane is an ideal candidate for the expression of desired recombinant proteins and to engineer endogenous cellular mechanisms for enhanced production of sucrose and bioethanol [8].
After addressing recalcitrance in this complex grass [37, 38, 39], efforts have been made to engineer its nuclear [40] as well as plastid genome [41] for the expression of valuable proteins in this C4 plant. The first transgenic sugarcane was developed by Bower and Birch in 1992 [42]. Thereafter, efforts were made for herbicide tolerance [43] flowering inhibition [44], disease or pest resistance [45], drought tolerance [46], and for the expression of cellulosic enzymes in its leaves [47]. Some new genes for cold and drought tolerance are being identified in other genus and species like
Manipulating growth hormones and biomass synthesis pathways (Table 2) may play a vital role in plant cellulose content and total biomass leading to the development of energy cane [67]. Initial hydrolysis of cell wall polysaccharides may be increased up to 46% by reducing the cross-links of the cell wall in maize [68]. Lignin contents are the main hurdle in saccharification during conversion to ethanol and it accounts for 25% of sugarcane total lignocellulosic biomass [69]. For the saccharification process, lignin contents are needed to be removed as they prevent cellulase from accessing the cellulose molecules [67]. Almost 10 different enzymes are involved in the lignin biosynthesis pathway in sugarcane making it more complicated to engineer [70]. Some genes targeting enzymes (involved in the lignin biosynthesis pathway) like COMT (caffeic acid
Sr. # | Name of the gene | Putative role of the gene | Possible outcome/role | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Production of sucrose isomer isomaltulose | Increased sugar accumulation | [32] | |
2. | catalyze MLG biosynthesis | Cell wall biosynthesis | [49] | |
3. | Lignin reduction | Biofuel production | [50] | |
4. | Laccase enzyme activation | Detoxification of sugarcane bagasse increased second-generation biofuel | [51] | |
5. | Lignin biosynthesis | Increases lignocellulosic material | [52] | |
6. | Methylation of 5- hydroxconiferyldehyde | Increases lignocellulosic material | [52] | |
7. | Pathway fluxes indicate the manipulation of the expression of a gene | Lignin modification | [53] | |
8. | LIGNIN S/G ratio | Increased biofuel production | [53] | |
9. | encode monolignol biosynthesis enzymes | Lignin biosynthesis | [54] | |
10. | Encode phenylalanine ammonia-lyase | Lignin biosynthesis | [55] | |
11. | Encodes shikimate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase | Lignin biosynthesis | [56] | |
12. | lignin biosynthesis | Lignin reduction upto 16.5% | [57] | |
13. | Lignin biosynthetic pathways | Second-generation biofuel production | [57] | |
14. | Synthesis of G and S monomer of lignin | Lignin biosynthesis | [58] | |
15. | production of the lignin S monomer | Lignin biosynthesis | [59] | |
16. | monolignol biosynthetic pathway control | Lignin biosynthesis | [59] | |
17. | Control transcriptional control of ubiquitin promoter | Increases Biomass production | [60] | |
18. | cellulose biosynthesis | Increases cellulose synthesis | [61] | |
19. | Biomass synthesis | Increase biomass synthesis | [61] | |
20. | Cellulose synthesis | Increased cellulosic contents by 2–6% | [61] | |
21. | catalyze MLG biosynthesis | Cell wall biosynthesis | [62] | |
22. | Lignin production | Increases lignin biosynthesis | [63] | |
23. | Lignin biosynthesis | Second generation biofuel production | [64] | |
24. | Supresses spd1 | Increased biofuel | [64] | |
25. | Lc biomass | Cellulase production | [65] | |
26. | Liginin biosynthetic pathways | Ethanol production | [66] |
Potential candidate genes that can be engineered to enhance biofuel production.
Biofuel production cost can be decreased by
Omics is genuinely an innovative area of research in the field of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and their applications for the improvement of sugarcane to energy cane. Understanding the genetic regulation and mechanisms involved in photosynthesis, nutrient assimilation, disease resistance, sucrose transportation. Advancement in genome mapping, DNA microarray, expression profiling, RNAi (RNA interference), and data mining tools can play a central role in the development of future energy cane. Interventions in next-generation sequencing (NGS) has not only reduced the cost of whole-genome sequencing but have made it possible to sequence complex genomes like sugarcane [75]. It is of particular importance for the aneuploid, polyploid genome of sugarcane for the identification of various alleles of the same gene. This has also helped to devise molecular markers paving the way to tackle bottlenecks in sugarcane breeding. Numerous transcript sequence clusters of sugarcane do not contain information of full-length coding sequences, NGS is expected to resolve the issue by making it possible to get information of complete gene sequences [76].
With the advent of recent techniques, conventional breeding can now be integrated with genomic tools to harvest maximum advantage of these innovations. The earlier genomic research led to the development of molecular markers, elucidated genome structure of modern genotypes, and phylogenetic relationship among the complex Saccharum species. EST-SSRs have been successfully utilized to understand genetic relationships and genetic diversity. Genome mapping research has helped to determine marker-trait associations and to validate chromosomal localization of valuable genes [77]. The development of new markers and their incorporation in genetic maps will accelerate breeding programs leading to the development of an approved version of sugarcane. Understanding complex connections among genetics, genes, proteome, and metabolome requires integrated research on omics, bioinformatics, and computational biology. A great many sugarcane genes involved in molecular mechanisms of stress (cold, drought, and salinity stress), plant growth, and development have been explored [78]. During the recent decade, transcriptomic research has led to the identification of more than 33000 genes, involved in critical biological functions in this energy crop [79].
Plant genomic databases are valuable resources to mine candidate genes for the improvement of crop plants through molecular breeding. Many databases have been developed for various plant species. These include Gramene [80] TropGENE [81], Plant GDB [82], GRASSIUS [83], Phytozome [84], MOROKOSHI [85], Plant TF database [86], PLAZA [87] and KBase [88]. SUCESTFUN is a specific platform for sugarcane/energy cane breeders (http://sucest-fun.org/) [89] and was developed keeping in view the five major objectives: gene annotation, expression profiling, genome sequencing, functional genomics, and integration of public resources. The database was initially based on 43,141 Sugarcane Assembled Sequences (SAS) from the SUCEST Project [90] followed by the generation of 17,500 ORFeome genes using RNA-seq from the hybrid and ancestral varieties of sugarcane [91]. The retrieved data was of great value for single nucleotide polymorphism analysis, protein characterization, identification of splicing variants, and evolutionary studies.
The first transcriptomic analysis was performed to investigate differences between immature and mature leaves and internodes, [92] followed by the genes involved in sucrose transportation, source-sink interactions, tissue profiling of transcriptionally active transposable elements, transcription elements, stress-responsive factors, and resistance gene analogs [93]. Numerous differentially expressed transcripts involved in photosynthesis, assimilate partitioning, cell wall synthesis, phosphate metabolism, and stress were identified through an oligonucleotide array [94]. The advent of micro-arrays appeared a great milestone in expression profiling where GeneChipR Sugar Cane Genome Array produced by Affymetrix assaying up to 4715 non-redundant random ESTs.
The available sugarcane genomic resources can be employed to identify genes involved in sugarcane cell wall (SCW) biosynthesis. NAC and MYB transcription factors and gene regulatory network (GRN) involved in SCW biosynthesis. The genes identified through genomic and transcriptomic approaches could either be used as DNA markers or develop value-added transgenic sugarcane [95]. Proteomics approaches have explored the role of DEPs (differentially expressed proteins) in signal transduction pathways for stress tolerance by proteomic approaches i.e. 2D-DIGE (two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis) [96] and iTRAQ (isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation) [97]. More recently, metabolite analysis provides a deeper understanding of the complex regulatory processes of potential metabolites including saccharides and other derivatives helping out to predict resistance mechanisms through the use of high-throughput technologies that can determine metabolic phenotypes [98, 36]. Hence, these advancements can play a crucial role in the development of future energy cane (Figure 2).
Schematic sketch showing different research strategies to uplift biofuel production from sugarcane.
Fuel energy is an inevitable necessity of life and is anticipated to gain key standing in the world’s economy. Exhausting reserves and the ruthless burning of fossil fuels have forced researchers to explore alternative energy resources for the biosecurity of living beings. Biofuels are potential candidates that provide an eco-friendly and sustainable energy source to meet the energy demand of the whole world. The major contributors to global biofuel are maize and sugarcane in addition to sorghum and other grasses. Research efforts are direly needed, not only to increase biomass production but also the betterment of industrial processes involved in the production of biofuel including biodiesel. Advancements in omics and other innovative disciplines have opened new horizons paving the way to develop future energy crops resulting in the replacement of fossil energy with renewable energy.
Object tracking is defined as a problem of estimating the object’s trajectory, done by means of a video image. There are several tools for tracking objects and are used in various fields of research, such as computer vision, digital video processing, and autonomous vehicle navigation [1]. With the emergence of high-performance computers, high-resolution cameras, and the growing use of so-called autonomous systems that, in addition to these items, require specialized tracking algorithms, increasingly accurate and robust for automatic video analysis, has currently been the target of numerous research on the development of new object tracking techniques [2, 3].
Object tracking techniques are applicable to motion-based reconnaissance cases [4], automatic surveillance systems [5], pedestrian flow monitoring in crosswalks [6], traffic control [7], and autonomous vehicular navigation [8]. Problems of this type are highly complex due to the characteristics of the object and the environment, generating many variables, which impairs performance and makes the application of tracking algorithms unfeasible to real-world situations. Some approaches seek to resolve this impasse by simplifying the problem, reducing the number of variables [9]. This process, in most cases, does not generate good results [10, 11], making it even more difficult to identify the main attributes to be selected to perform a task [12, 13].
Most of the object tracking problems occur in open environments, so-called uncontrolled [14]. The complexity of these problems has attracted the interest of the scientific community and generated numerous applied research in various fields of research. Current approaches, such as the ones that use convolutional neural networks—CNN, deal well with the high number of variables of these types of problems, providing space–temporal information of the tracked objects, through three-dimensional convolutions [15, 16, 17]. This ends up creating an enormous number of learnable parameters, which ends up generating an overfitting [11]. A solution to reduce this number of learnable parameters was combining space–time data, extracted using the optical flow algorithm, used in the Two-Stream technique [18, 19, 20]. However, this technique presents good results only for large datasets, showing itself to be inefficient for small datasets [15, 21].
In recent years, research using machine learning has been applied to tracking problems, gaining notoriety due to the excellent results obtained in complex environments and attribute extraction [21, 22, 23]. Deep learning stands out among these techniques for presenting excellent results to unsupervised learning problems, [24], object identification [25], semantic segmentation [26]. Random trees are also examples of machine learning techniques, and their excellent results, due to their precision and great capacity to handle a large volume of data and low overfitting tendency [27, 28], and widely used in research areas such as medicine, in the prediction of hereditary diseases [29], agriculture to increase the productivity of a given plantation crop and in astronomy, acting on the improvement of images captured by telescopes, in the spectrum electromagnetic radiation not visible to the human eye [30]. The possibilities of applications, and new trends and research related to machine learning techniques, with particular attention to random trees, allow the development of algorithms that can be combined with existing ones, in the case of optical flow algorithms, (belonging to computational field of view) taken advantage of in this way, the advantages of each [31, 32, 33].
Developing an algorithm whose objective is to track objects, using the particular advantages of these techniques in a combined way, justifies creating a tracking algorithm that combines the optical flow technique, adapted in this work in terms of the Gaussian curvature associated with a minimal surface, with a random trees waiting for it to capture on this surface a minimum number of optical flow vectors that characterize the moving object, accurately and with low computational cost, contributing not only in the fields of computational vision but in other branches of science, such as in medicine, it can help in the early identification of infarctions.
Due to the large number of studies related to the technique of object tracking, only a small number surrounding this theme will be addressed. The focus of this project is not to make a thorough study on the state of the art. With this in this item, the main works in the literature, associated with the tracking of objects, will be presented. Among the various approaches used for this context, we highlight those focused on the techniques of optical flow, and others belonging to machine learning, such as those that use identifications of patterns, which allow relating, framing, and justifying the development of this proposal and its importance, through its contribution, to the state of the art.
Object tracking is defined as a process that allows you to uniquely estimate and associate the movements of objects with consecutive image frames. The objects considered can be from one, the set of pixels belonging to a region of the image. The detection of pixels is done by a motion detector or objects, which allows to locate objects with similar characteristics that move, between consecutive frames.
These characteristics of the object to be tracked are compared with the characteristics of a reference object modeled by a classifier over a limited region of the so-called region of interest frame, where the probability of detection of the object is greater. Thus, according to [33], the detector of traced objects, locate several objects on the different parts of the region of interest and performs the comparison of these objects with the reference object. This process is performed for each frame and each object detected, candidate to be recognized as the greatest possible similarity, to the reference object can be represented, through a set of fixed-size characteristics, extracted from this region containing a set of pixels, which can be represented by a numerical array of data.
Thus, mathematically, the region containing a set of pixels belonging to the regions of the object of interest, where the characteristics that allow to test whether the region of the frame, in which the object to be traced is, is given by:
where,
According to the works of [34, 35], learning methods are used to adapt the changes of movement and other characteristics such as geometric aspect and appearance of the tracked object. These methods are usually used adaptive tracked object trackers and detectors. The following will be presented other types of object trackers, found in the literature.
According to [36], a classifier can be defined with a
The classifier aims to determine the best way to discriminate the data classes, on the space of characteristics. The test data form a set containing the characteristics of the candidate objects, which have not yet been classified. The position of the object to be tracked in the frame is defined as the position corresponding to the highest response of the detector of the object to be tracked on the
where the variable
Offline-trained classifiers are generally employed in object detectors designed to detect all new objects of interest that enter the camera’s field of view [37]. The training set
In [38], trackers that use the detection tracking technique deal with object tracking, as a binary classification problem whose goal is to find the best function
In [39], were developed trackers that used detectors of objects to be tracked, formed by classifiers in committee formed by binary classifiers said weak. For [40], a binary classifier is defined as a classifier, used in problems where the class
A classifier is said to be weak, when it has a probability of “hitting” a given data class, only slightly higher than a random classifier. The detector of the object to be tracked must separate the crawled object from the other objects and the environment. Its purpose and determine the position of the tracked object, according to the equations (1)–(3)
For [43], the term monitoring system, refers to the process of monitoring and autonomous control, without human intervention. This type of system has the function of detecting, classifying, tracking, analyzing, and interpreting the behavior of objects of interest. In [44, 45], this technique was used combined with statistical techniques for controlling people’s access to a specific location. It was also observed the use of intelligent monitoring systems, applied to building, port, or ship security [46, 47].
The functions comprised by a monitoring system are so-called low- and high-level tasks. Among some high-level tasks, we highlight the analysis, interpretation and description of behavior, the recognition of gestures, and the decision between the occurrence or not of a threat. Performing high-level tasks require that for each frame, the system needs to perform low-level tasks, which involve direct manipulation of the image pixels [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. As an example, we highlight the processes of noise elimination, detection of connected components, and obtain information on the location and geometric aspect of the object of interest.
A monitoring system consists of five main components, which are presented in Figures 9. Some monitoring systems may not contain all components. The initial detector aims to detect the pixel regions of each frame that have a significant probability of containing an object to be tracked. This detector can be formed by a motion detector that detects all moving objects based on models of objects previously recorded in a database or based on characteristics extracted offline [40, 41]. The information obtained by the initial detector is processed by an image processor], which will have the function of eliminating noise, segmenting, and detecting the connected components.
The regions containing the most relevant pixels are analyzed and then classified as objects of interest by the classifier [50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. Objects of interest are modeled and are now called reference objects so that the tracker determines its position frame by frame [55, 56]. The information obtained by the initial detector is processed by an image processor], which will have the function of eliminating noise, segmenting, and detecting the connected components.
A tracker, an integral part of a detector, is defined as a function that allows estimating the position of objects at each consecutive frame, through and defines the region of the object of interest, for each
Main component of a monitoring.
Several techniques that allow the calculation to have been developed in recent years to calculate the optical flow vector [57]. These methods are grouped according to their main characteristics and the approach used for the calculation of the optical flow. Thus, the differential methods performed in the studies in [56], the methods d and calculation of the optical flow through the frequency domain [46] the phase correlation methods [58], and the method of association between regions [59].
The method proposed in [56], allows the calculation of the optical flow for each point around a neighborhood of pixels. In [60], it is also considered a neighborhood of pixels, but in this case, the calculation of the optical flow is performed geometrically. In the work presented by [61] it is adding of the restrictions of regularization. In [62] turn active compare performance analyses were performed between the various algorithms and optical flow present in the literature.
This technique is considered robust for detaining and tracking moving objects from your images, both those captured by fixed or mobile cameras. This gives this technique, but high computational cost makes most practical applications unfeasible. Thus, to reduce this complexity, techniques of increasing resolutions were adopted in [63]. Also, for the same purpose, we used the techniques of subsampling on some of the pixels belonging to the object of interest to obtain optical flow [52].
Other authors also use a point of interest detector to select the best pixels for tracking and calculate the optical flow on these points [52, 64]. The reduction in the number of points to be tracked is associated with a decrease in computational complexity, so in [52] the points of interest were selected using the FAST algorithm [64].
The method developed by Lucas-Kanade [56], it is a differential method and widely used in the literature and having variations modifications. It allows you to estimate the optical flow for each point
where
New variations of the techniques were being proposed to make the calculation of the optical flow faster and faster. In [65] a tracker was proposed based on the algorithm of [56]. The translation of a point represented by a grid of rectangular sized pixels 25 × 25, was calculated and its validity is evaluated by calculating the SSD1 in the grid pixels in
In [51] objects were detected by subtracting the image from the environment and removed the movement of the camera with the calculation algorithm of the optical flow vector proposed by [56]. In the studies carried out in [66, 67], they showed that the reliability of the estimated optical flow reduced the case of some points of the object of interest whose optical flow cannot be represented by the same matrix given by the related transformation
In [67] they also modified Lucas - Kanade’s algorithm [56] by inserting the Hessian matrix in the calculation of the value of the variation of the related transformation
Already in the proposal presented in [68] was the development of algorithm to detect people in infrared images that combines the information of the value of pixels with a method of motion detection. The algorithm forms a relevant pixel map by applying thresholding segmentation. While the camera is still, an image
The method for tracking swimmers presented in [46], uses the information of the movement pattern by the optical flow and the appearance of the water that is modeled by a MoG.2 This allows you to calculate an optical flow vector for each pixel of the video independently of the other, through
In [69], a method was presented that incorporated physical restrictions to the calculation of optical flow. The tracker uses the constraints to extract the moving pixels with a lower failure rate. The calculation can be impaired when occlusions occur or when the environment has low light. The operator defines the physical constraints and selects the points of the
In [70], the points that are tracked with the optical flow are defined by applying the Canny edge detector on the pixels of the reference pixel map. Pixels that produce a high response to the Canny detector are the selected points.
In [43], optical flow is used as a characteristic for tracking the contour of the object. The contour is shifted in small steps until the position in which the optical flow vectors are homogeneous is found.
In [64], they performed an estimate of the translation and orientation of the reference object by calculating the optical flow of the pixels belonging to its silhouette. The coordinates of the centroid position are defined by minimizing the Hausdorff distance between the mean of the optical flow vectors of the reference object and the candidate object to be chosen as the object of interest.
Optical flow is defined as a dense vector field associated with the movement and apparent velocity of an object, given by the translation of pixels from consecutive frames in an image region. It can be calculated from the brightness restriction, considered constant, from the corresponding pixels in consecutive frames.
Mathematically be a pixel
So that equation (7) is called optical flow restriction and where the terms
The number of variables in equation (6) is greater than that of equations, which does not allow estimating components and vector, and determining a single solution for the optical flow restriction equation. With this, Lucas and Kanade proposed a solution to solve this problem. The solution method proposed by them considers the constant flow in a region formed by a set of pixels
Passing the set of equations given by equation (8) to the matrix form we have:
Using the least squares method, in the system of equations (9) in the form of matricial, the same can be solved. Therefore, the optical flow
Where:
Therefore, one has that:
Thus:
This method has a reduced computational cost to determine optical flow estimation when compared to other methods because it is simple, that is, it is since the region in which the variation of light intensity between pixels is minimal has a size
To calculate the optical flow over the size region
Where the terms
In view of the small variations present and accumulated along the vector field associated with the optic flow, which cause an additional error in equation (13), a regularization adjustment was made, given by equation (14):
Thus, combining equations (13) and (14), the error
where
where
and replacing the coefficients
whereas
It is possible to reduce the data system by (17), such as:
where the term
Where
Therefore, isolating terms
The Algorithm 1 is a pseudocode to generate the proposed optical flow vector, through equations (24) and (25) and that allow estimating the speed and position of an object, through a sequence of video images.
Begin
For I = 1…N do
Convert images to a gray tone
Calculate the partial derivatives of 1°and 2°orders of
Calculate constants
Calculate the discretized Laplacians of
Calculating Gaussian curvature
Calculate flow components (
End For
End
Developed by Breiman [63] in the mid-2000s, and later revised in [71] random trees are considered one of the best-supervised learning methods used in data prediction and classification. Due to its simplicity, low computational cost, great potential to deal with a large volume of data, and still present great accuracy of results, currently this method has become very popular being applied in various fields of science as data science [72]. Bioinformatics, Ecology, in real-life systems and recognition of 3D objects. In recent years, several studies have been conducted with the objective of making the technique more elaborate and seeking new practical applications [73, 74, 75].
Many studies were carried out with the aim of narrowing the existing gap between theory and practice can be seen in [58, 76, 77, 78]. Among the main components of random tree forests, one can highlight the bagging method [63], and the criterion of classification and regression called cart
Bagging (a bootstrap-aggregating contraction) is an aggregation scheme, which generates samples through the bootstrap method, from the original dataset. These methods are nonparametric and belong to the Monte Carlos method class [80], treating the sample as a finite population. Still, these methods are used when the distribution of the target population is not specified, and the sample is the only information available. How in this way a predictor of each sample is constructed, so that the decision is made through an average, and is more effective computational procedures to improve the indexable estimates, especially for large sets of high-dimensional data, where finding a good model in one step is impossible due to the complexity and scale of the problem. As for the cart-split criterion, it originates from the CART program [63], and is used in the construction of individual trees to choose the best cuts perpendicular to the Axes. However, while bagging and the CART division scheme are key elements in the random forest, both are difficult to mathematically analyze and are a very promising field for both theoretical and practical research.
In general, the set of trees is organized in the form of {
The methodology employed consisted of combining the optical flow algorithm in terms of Gaussian curvature, developed in this work together with the technique of random forest. The language used for the development of this algorithm was the MATLAB programming language, executed on a 64-bit 8th generation notebook, CORE i7. The input data is a video extension Avi, lasting 5 min of a vehicle and two cyclists, circulating in the vicinity of the beach of Costa Nova, in the locality of Ilhavo, in Aveiro, Portugal. The video was fragmented into a set of frames, analyzed two by two by the algorithm for the generation of the vector field of optical flow. After that, the resulting image associated with the flow and a minimal surface region, given by the Gaussian curvature. Next on this surface, the random trees analyzed which vectors presented important characteristics to characterize in an “optimal” way, the movement of the object (see Figure 2).
Representative model of operation of a random forest.
After finishing the process of analysis of the movement of the objects, the execution times and accuracy of the results obtained by the proposed algorithm were compared in relation to the algorithms of Lucas Kanade, Horn and Shunck, Farneback and Lucas Kanade with or without Gaussian filter, allowing to validate the results obtained. After that, the implementation of the developed algorimo began.
Figure 3 shows the vehicle and the two cyclists that were used to collect the image to which the results proposed in this work were obtained so that the choice was random on the right side. A graphical representation of the vector field of optical flow generated by the sequence of two consecutive frames, over 5 minutes of video is shown.
(a) Left side: vehicle shift between moments
On the right side of Figure 3, the optical flow associated with the movement of the vehicle between the time intervals from
The region with the highest horizontal vector density in Figure 3 is located on the left side, in blue. It is also observed that the number of vectors in this region, despite being spaced, starting from the center to the left, is greater in relation to the number of vectors on the right side. It is also possible, through it, to visually evaluate the movement behavior of the considered objects. This region, containing a higher vector density, corresponds to the current direction in which the object is heading and its predicted displacement. It is also possible to observe that this vector density increases towards the left side, passing through the central part, coming from the right, clearly indicating the direction of movement of the object, that is, the object moves to the left. In Figure 4, this process can be understood more clearly.
Prediction and actual displacement of the object obtained through the optical flow.
In a similar way to the one mentioned in Figure 3, on the right side of Figure 5, the optical flow generated by the displacement of the moving vehicle is represented, between the instants
Object remains on the right side, but with a medium offset to the right and displacement estimate still to the left.
It is possible to observe a small increase in the vector density to the left, but that has a great influence on the determination of the real and predicted position of the object in the considered time intervals. The Object continues with its actual movement to the left, as well as the predicted movement of the object to the left. However, he showed a slight movement to the left (direction where the cyclists are).
In Figure 6, a small variation of the optical flow is observed again in the associated movement between the instants
Object remains on the right side, but with a slight shift to the right and offset estimate to the left.
In Figure 7, there was no optical flow variation in the associated movement between the time intervals
Object moving and keeping on the left for consecutive frames.
In Figure 8, the vehicle can be seen completely overtaking the two cyclists and approaching another vehicle in the opposite direction in the upper part of the image (left). The variation of the optical flow vector field remains the same. This indicates that the vehicle continues its trajectory, on the left side to the cyclists, however without posing a danger of collision for the other vehicle in the opposite direction.
Object with unchanged offset pattern.
This item will show how the performance evaluation of the proposed algorithm and accuracy was performed in relation to the Algorithms of Luca and Kanade, with or without Gaussian filter, Horn and Schunck, and Farneback.
The algorithm allowed to show on the display in real-time the displacement of the object on the right side and the set of vectors capable of representing the movement of the real-time or accumulated indicating the tendency, in this case, of the direction that the object should perform. This process was carried out in a similar way, using the other algorithms to make it possible to compare them. The behavior of the proposed algorithm and the other will be graphically shown.
The technique developed in this work allowed to generate an optical flow considering important geometric properties allowing to identify similar categories of moving objects and same characteristics. These geometric properties are intrinsically associated with the curvature of the object’s surface in three-dimensional space, called Gaussian curvature, in this case in a 2D image.
The modified optical flow, considering these properties, generated a dense optical flow, allowing the generation of a band, describing a track on the 2D plane. This allowed tracking the movement of the considered object. In the same Figure 8, it is possible to observe that at each time interval in which the object was monitored, the dispositions of the vectors for the left and right sides, as shown in Figures 3–7 were responsible for drawing the track associated with the displaced and that allowed tracking the object as it moves.
Figure 9 shows the vehicle that, when moving, generated the optical flow. In Figures 10 and 11, the variations of the optical flow between two-time intervals,
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
In the following items, the implementations of the Lucas and Kanade algorithms without or with a Gaussian filter, Horn and Schunck, and Farneback will be shown, using as input data the same sequence of video images used in the algorithm developed in this work. For each, the performance and accuracy obtained will be verified.
For each of the 5 algorithms, 1 frame is shown containing 4 figures, with 2 upper and 2 lower. In each frame, the figure at the top left shows the variation of the vector field between two frames. The right frame, on the other hand, corresponds to the variation of the object’s movement in real-time. The lower ones, except for the proposed algorithm, correspond to the number of points on the right or the left, and with this, the movement will occur to the side that has the greatest number of points. In the case of the proposed algorithm, the process will take place through the analysis of vector density. So, to the side where there is greater vector density, this is the side to which the movement will be occurring (see Figures 12–20).
Object moving to the right side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the right side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the right side.
Comparing the results presented by the algorithms, it is observed that in the developed model, it was possible to see a dense vector trail of the object, with a slight tendency of displacement to the left, as it continues its movement. In the other models, this was not possible, and it is necessary to resort to a score of points, in the lower table. This process is also possible in the proposed model, but not necessary, which means a reduction in computational cost (see Figures 21–28).
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the right side.
Object moving to the left side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the left side.
Comparing the results, it is observed that the Farneback algorithm also presents high vector density. But the proposed model, as previously said, presents a well-defined vector trail which suggests the non-use of the point count in the lower frame, which does not occur for the Farneback algorithm, indicating higher computational cost, which can affect the accuracy of this algorithm when compared to the proposed algorithm.
Comparing the Horn and Schunck algorithm, a low vector density is observed when compared to the proposed algorithm, which indicates lower accuracy when compared to the proposed algorithm.
Although the two techniques of Lucas and Kanade, are faster applications, indicating low computational cost when compared to the proposed algorithm, the factor of low vector density results in low precision in relation to the proposed method.
The proposed method presented good results, showing to be accurate and reasonable speed. This allows this application to be used in critical problems, i.e., to real-world problems. However, it presented limitations that could be verified when compared to the model with Lucas and Kanade, with a Gaussian filter, which is faster and presents good accuracy.
The proposed Method reached only approximately 50% execution speed in relation to the Lucas and Kanade Method, which motivates further improvements to the Method. The technique presented can be applied to other fields of research as in cardiology due to presenting great precision when submitted to small region, which is important because it can be applied with the objective of predicting infarctions and as a current contribution, for the state of the art is to characterize the optical flow in terms of Gaussian curvature, that makes it possible to highlight fields of research such as computational vision and differential geometry.
The authors of this work would like to thank the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro, the Telecommunications Institute of Aveiro, and the University of Aveiro for the financial, technical-administrative, and structural support provided that allowed the accomplishment of this work.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
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\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
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\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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Fortunately, computational tools have come to the rescue and have undoubtedly played a pivotal role in rationalizing the path to drug discovery. Of all techniques, molecular docking has played a crucial role in computer aided drug design and has swiftly gained ranks to secure a valuable position in the modern scenario of structure-based drug design. In this chapter, the principle, sampling algorithms, scoring functions and diverse available software’s for molecular docking have been summarized. We demonstrate the interplay of docking, classical techniques of structure-based design and X-ray crystallography in the process of drug discovery. In addition, we dwell upon some of the limitations faced in docking studies. 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A comprehensive set of in vitro assays is available to determine key parameters of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, for example, lipophilicity, solubility, and plasma stability. Such test systems aid the evaluation of the pharmacological properties of a compound and serve as surrogates before entering in vivo testing and clinical trials. Nowadays, computer-aided techniques are employed not just in the discovery of new lead compounds but embedded as part of the entire drug development process where the ADME profiling and big data analyses add a new layer of complexity to those systems. Herein, we give a short overview of the history of the drug development pipeline presenting state-of-the-art ADME in vitro assays as established in academia and industry. We will further introduce the underlying good practices and give an example of the compound development pipeline. In the next step, recent advances at in silico techniques will be highlighted with special emphasis on how pharmacogenomics and in silico PK profiling can enhance drug monitoring and individualization of drug therapy.",book:{id:"7867",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-new-advances",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - New Advances"},signatures:"Arne Krüger, Vinicius Gonçalves Maltarollo, Carsten Wrenger and Thales Kronenberger",authors:[{id:"75830",title:"Prof.",name:"Carsten",middleName:null,surname:"Wrenger",slug:"carsten-wrenger",fullName:"Carsten Wrenger"},{id:"175204",title:"Dr.",name:"Thales",middleName:null,surname:"Kronenberger",slug:"thales-kronenberger",fullName:"Thales Kronenberger"},{id:"278208",title:"MSc.",name:"Arne",middleName:null,surname:"Krüger",slug:"arne-kruger",fullName:"Arne Krüger"},{id:"278209",title:"Prof.",name:"Vinicius Gonçalves",middleName:null,surname:"Maltarollo",slug:"vinicius-goncalves-maltarollo",fullName:"Vinicius Gonçalves Maltarollo"}]},{id:"61972",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76922",title:"Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Successful Targeted Drug Delivery across the Blood-Brain Barrier",slug:"multifunctional-nanoparticles-for-successful-targeted-drug-delivery-across-the-blood-brain-barrier",totalDownloads:1514,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is the major problem for the treatment of brain diseases because we need to be able to deliver drugs from the vascular system into the central nervous system (CNS). There are no drug therapies for a wide range of CNS diseases and these include neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases and cerebral ischemia. Therefore, the focus of this chapter is to discuss how nanoparticles (NPs) can be modified to transport different drug molecules for the treatment of brain diseases. In essence, NPs’ surface can be functionalized with molecules such as peptides, antibodies and RNA aptamers and these macromolecules can be attached to the receptors present at the BBB endothelial cell surface, which allows the NPs cross the barrier and subsequently deliver pharmaceuticals to the brain for the therapeutic and/or imaging of neurological disorders. In fact, part of the difficulty in finding an effective treatment for these CNS disorders is that there is not yet an efficient delivery method for drug delivery across the BBB. However, over the last several years, researches have started to understand some of the design rules to efficiently deliver NPs to the brain.",book:{id:"6636",slug:"molecular-insight-of-drug-design",title:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design",fullTitle:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design"},signatures:"Débora Braga Vieira and Lionel Fernel Gamarra",authors:[{id:"55147",title:"Dr.",name:"Lionel",middleName:null,surname:"Gamarra",slug:"lionel-gamarra",fullName:"Lionel Gamarra"},{id:"234161",title:"Dr.",name:"Debora",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"debora-vieira",fullName:"Debora Vieira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67939",title:"Molecular Docking in Modern Drug Discovery: Principles and Recent Applications",slug:"molecular-docking-in-modern-drug-discovery-principles-and-recent-applications",totalDownloads:3853,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"The process of hunt of a lead molecule is a long and a tedious process and one is often demoralized by the endless possibilities one has to search through. Fortunately, computational tools have come to the rescue and have undoubtedly played a pivotal role in rationalizing the path to drug discovery. Of all techniques, molecular docking has played a crucial role in computer aided drug design and has swiftly gained ranks to secure a valuable position in the modern scenario of structure-based drug design. In this chapter, the principle, sampling algorithms, scoring functions and diverse available software’s for molecular docking have been summarized. We demonstrate the interplay of docking, classical techniques of structure-based design and X-ray crystallography in the process of drug discovery. In addition, we dwell upon some of the limitations faced in docking studies. 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Sasikala and Mallika Alvala",authors:[{id:"252956",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallika",middleName:null,surname:"Alvala",slug:"mallika-alvala",fullName:"Mallika Alvala"},{id:"287101",title:"Mr.",name:"Aaftaab",middleName:null,surname:"Sethi",slug:"aaftaab-sethi",fullName:"Aaftaab Sethi"},{id:"295049",title:"Ms.",name:"Khusbhoo",middleName:null,surname:"Joshi",slug:"khusbhoo-joshi",fullName:"Khusbhoo Joshi"},{id:"295050",title:"Ms.",name:"Sasikala",middleName:null,surname:"K",slug:"sasikala-k",fullName:"Sasikala K"}]},{id:"73392",title:"Pharmacogenomics: Overview, Applications, and Recent Developments",slug:"pharmacogenomics-overview-applications-and-recent-developments",totalDownloads:789,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pharmacogenomics is defined as the study of genes and how an individual response is affected due to drugs. Pharmacogenomics is an emerging new branch with combination of both pharmacology (the branch of science that deals with study of drugs) as well as genomics (the branch of science that deals with study of genes) for development of effective doses and safe medications tailored according an individual patient genetic makeup. Human Genome Project is one of the crucial projects in which researchers are developing and learning relation in genes and its effect on the body’s response to medications. Difference in genetic makeup provides difference in effectiveness of medication and in future to predict effectiveness of medication for an individual and to study existence of adverse drug reactions. Besides advancement in the field of science and technology till date pharmacogenomics hangs in infancy. There is limited use of pharmacogenomics, but still, novel approaches are under clinical trials. In near future, pharmacogenomics will enable development of tailor-made therapeutics for treating widespread health problems like neurodegenerative, cardiovascular disorders, HIV, cancer, asthma, etc.",book:{id:"9831",slug:"drug-design-novel-advances-in-the-omics-field-and-applications",title:"Drug Design",fullTitle:"Drug Design - Novel Advances in the Omics Field and Applications"},signatures:"Rahul Shukla",authors:[{id:"319705",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"rahul-shukla",fullName:"Rahul Shukla"}]},{id:"64593",title:"Revisiting Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacogenetics of Methadone in Healthy Volunteers",slug:"revisiting-pharmacokinetics-and-pharmacogenetics-of-methadone-in-healthy-volunteers",totalDownloads:1168,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Methadone acts as a μ opioid agonist, a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, and a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist. These actions altogether are responsible for its efficacy in the management of chronic pain. It is available as a racemic mixture of (R)- and (S)-methadone, both being stereoisomers responsible for its analgesic effect. Methadone elimination occurs mainly through metabolism in the liver by CYP3A4, CYP2B6, and CY2C19 and to a lesser extent by CYP2D6 and in the intestine by CYP3A4. The relative intestinal content of CYP2B6 and CY2C19 is unknown but it seems that CYP2B6 is not present at the intestine. CYP3A4, CYP2B6, and CYP2C19 convert methadone mainly into 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine(EDDP). CYP2B6 and CYP2C19 are stereoselective to S- and R-enantiomer, respectively. The pharmacokinetic study carried out in healthy volunteers by our research group confirmed that MTD undergoes recirculation via gastric secretion and intestinal reabsorption and revealed that the drug is extensively metabolized in the liver but intestinal metabolism is not only relevant but also stereoselective. Polymorphisms of the CYP2B6 and CYP2C19 isoenzymes and their relationship with the pharmacokinetics of MTD were also assessed.",book:{id:"7867",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-new-advances",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - New Advances"},signatures:"Natalia Guevara, Marianela Lorier, Marta Vázquez, Pietro Fagiolino, Iris Feria-Romero and Sandra Orozco-Suarez",authors:[{id:"69773",title:"Prof.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez",slug:"marta-vazquez",fullName:"Marta Vázquez"},{id:"73431",title:"Prof.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Fagiolino",slug:"pietro-fagiolino",fullName:"Pietro Fagiolino"},{id:"109165",title:"Dr.",name:"Iris",middleName:null,surname:"Feria-Romero",slug:"iris-feria-romero",fullName:"Iris Feria-Romero"},{id:"198119",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Orozco-Suarez",slug:"sandra-orozco-suarez",fullName:"Sandra Orozco-Suarez"},{id:"259026",title:"Mrs.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Guevara",slug:"natalia-guevara",fullName:"Natalia Guevara"},{id:"259027",title:"Mrs.",name:"Marianela",middleName:null,surname:"Lorier",slug:"marianela-lorier",fullName:"Marianela Lorier"}]},{id:"61395",title:"Integrated Approach to Nature as Source of New Drug Lead",slug:"integrated-approach-to-nature-as-source-of-new-drug-lead",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Classically, the development and launching of a new drug is a highly time consuming, tedious and expensive process involving following fundamental steps: (1) Identification of cause of Disease and Search for target site. (2) Search and Optimisation of active compound, that is, the Drug Lead. (3) Testing of Drug in Animals (pre-clinical phase). (4) Clinical Trials. (5) Approval of New Drug by Competent authority and availability of the drug. Drug discovery and development process involves around 10–15 years of investigation period and incredibly high cost and investment. This process also involves participation of experts from various disciplines and fields. Therefore, the new approaches are obligatory to be developed not only to expedite the process but also to ensure the launch of safer and effective drug. Over this background, the importance of experimental wisdom and holistic approach is intensifying to offer good base as an attractive discovery engine. Natural product drug discovery, ethno-pharmacology, traditional and attractive medicines are re-emerging as new strategic options. In the past decade, the number of new chemical entity (NCG) in drug development channel is declining markedly might have led to the rekindling of interest in emergence of natural product as new drug leads. The novel natural products can be optimised on the basis of their biological activities using highly sophisticated combinatorial biosynthetic techniques, microbial genomes and screening process.",book:{id:"6636",slug:"molecular-insight-of-drug-design",title:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design",fullTitle:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design"},signatures:"Seema Kohli",authors:[{id:"232958",title:"Dr.",name:"Seema",middleName:null,surname:"Kohli",slug:"seema-kohli",fullName:"Seema Kohli"}]},{id:"78376",title:"Ivermectin: Potential Repurposing of a Versatile Antiparasitic as a Novel Anticancer",slug:"ivermectin-potential-repurposing-of-a-versatile-antiparasitic-as-a-novel-anticancer",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Drug repositioning is a alternative strategy to discover and develop anticancer drugs based on identification of new mechanisms of actions and indications for existing compounds. Ivermectin belongs to the avermectin group of compounds, a series of 16-membered macrocyclic lactone moieties discovered in 1967 and FDA-approved for human use since 1987. Ivermectin has since been used by millions of people worldwide, and have demonstrated a wide margin of clinical safety. Here we summarize the in vitro and in vivo evidence demonstrating ivermectin\\'s potential as a multitargeting anticancer drug that exerts antitumor effects against different tumor types. Notably, the in vitro and in vivo antitumor activities of ivermectin are achieved at concentrations that can be clinically achieved based on human pharmacokinetic studies done in the clinical studies. Moreover, repurposed ivermectin safety has been well established recently in clinical studies against COVID-19. Consequently, we believe that ivermectin is an excellent potential candidate drug that can be repurposed for cancer and deserves rigorous evaluation against a variety of cancers in well-designed clinical trials.",book:{id:"10881",slug:"drug-repurposing-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",title:"Drug Repurposing",fullTitle:"Drug Repurposing - Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications"},signatures:"Alfonso Dueñas-González and Mandy Juárez-Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"421841",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Dueñas-González",slug:"alfonso-duenas-gonzalez",fullName:"Alfonso Dueñas-González"},{id:"421846",title:"Dr.",name:"Mandy",middleName:null,surname:"Juárez-Rodríguez",slug:"mandy-juarez-rodriguez",fullName:"Mandy Juárez-Rodríguez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1195",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. 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Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). 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