Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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1. Introduction
The formation natural foci of tick-borne infections is closely connected to three physically–geographical zones in Ukraine: Ukrainian Polissya (mixed forest zone - (woodlands), Forest–Steppe zone, Steppe zone and two extra-zonal natural areas – Carpathian and Crimean mountains.
On the territory of Ukrainian Polissya there are favourable conditions for the formation of natural foci of mainly those types of arboviruses and bacterial infections, which are transmitted by ticks – tick-borne viral encephalitis, Tribec, Uukuniemi, ixodid tick-borne borreliosis, human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), others.
Tick-borne viral encephalitis (TBVE), ixodid tick-borne borreliosis (ITBB) and mixed-infection (TBVE and ITBB) are the most prevalent feral herd transmissible infections in Ukraine. Numerous aspects of these infections require to be better looked into or need more accurate definitions. First of all, this refers to the regional peculiarities of epidemiology and clinical manifestations, diagnostics, treatment and also the efficiency of preventive measures taken. There is an urgent need in studies of special clinical features of late manifestations and chronic course of these neuroinfections, as well as their better timely diagnostics and etio-pathogenetic therapy.
2. Abiotic and biotic peculiarities of Volyn oblast
Volyn oblast is located on far north-west part of Ukraine and occupies the western part of plain territories of two geographic zones of Ukraine – Ukrainian Polissya and Forest-Steppe. On the south it borders with Lviv oblast, on the east with Rivne oblast, on the north with the Republic of Belarus, on the west (along the Western Bug) with Poland.
Climate of Volyn oblast is mild-continental, with mild winters, short periods of freezing, frequent thaws, mild summers, without significant heat waves, heavy percipitation, long springs and autumns. Average January temperature is +4,5 ⁰C, for July it is +18,6 ⁰C. Vegetation period lasts for about 200 days. The sums of the temperatures for the periods with stabile temperatures above +10, make 2495-2580 ⁰C. Percipitation makes 550-600 mm a year. Relative humidity of the air is in the reverse proportion to its temperature: in the winter it exceeds 80 %, in the summer it reaches 65-70 % [1].
Territory of Volyn oblast is the part of Eastern-European province of broadleaf forests of the European Broadleaf Zone. The landscapes of the zone are of two types: Polissya, with high prevalence of swamps, meadows, oak-pine and narrow-leaf forests and Forest-Steppe type zone, with prevalence of meadow steppes and oak-hornbeam forests in prehistoric times, which are mainly farming lands nowadays.
Due to its zoo-geographic parameters, Volyn oblast is a borreal-forest zoo-geographic type of zone. Its territory hosts 301 vertebral species, among them 183 species of nesting and non-migrating birds, 64 species of mammals. Among small mammals, which are within the range of parasitory system of tick-borne infections, there are Sorex araneus, Castor fiber, Аpodemus agrarius, Arvicolla terrestris (amphibious), Microtus oeconomus. To woods species belong Sciurus vulgaris, Microtus subterraneus, Meles meles. In zoocenozes also are distributed Dryomys nitedula, Glis glis, Muscardinus avellanarius, Myodes Clethrionomys\n\t\t\t\tglareolus, Sylvaemus sylvaticus, Sylvaemus tauricus, Talpa europaea, Erinaceus europaeus [2]. All territory of the oblast is within the area of I. ricinus ticks - main vector of tick-borne pathogenes in Europe.
The findings of the complex studies and surveillance, conducted in the period of 1990-2011, showed the presence of active natural foci of TBVE and ITBB on the considerable part of the territory of the oblast.
Aims of study: to look at the incidence rates of tick-borne infectious diseases and analyse the range of their clinical manifestations in north-west region of Ukraine taking Volyn oblast as a sample territory during the period of 1990-2011.
3. Tikc-borne viral encephalitis
3.1. TBVE Epidemiology
Virological surveillance, that has been conducted by scientists of the laboratory of Transmissible Viral Infections (TVI) of State Institution “Lviv Research Institute of Epidemiology and Hygiene Ministry of Health of Ukraine” (LRIEH), enabled detection of 38 strains of TBVE virus. Most of them (26 strains) were isolated from I. ricinus ticks, whose rates of TBVE infection in active natural foci are 19,5 %, from mouse-like rodents (Apodemus аgrarius, A. sylvaticus) – 2 strains, from birds (Fulica atra) – 1 strain and from TBVE patients – 9 strains.
Due to their antigen characteristics, strains of TBE virus isolated in Ukraine belong to ricinus-serotype (genotype 2) and have almost same biological characteristics as causative agent of Central-European encephalitis of countries of Eastern and Western Europe [3, 4].
For 2011 enzootic as to TBVE territories, distinguished according to one or combination of such characteristics as natural infection (presence of antigen) of ixodid ticks and small mammals (potential carriers and reservoirs of pathogen) with causative agent, diagnosed cases of the disease with local infection, high degrees of population immunity, were registered in 33 settlements of 9 districts of Volyn oblast [5] (fig.1).
Figure 1.
Shematic map of TBVE enzootic territories in Volyn oblast
The main reservoirs of TBVE virus in nature are Microtus arvalis, Myodes\n\t\t\t\t\tglareolus, and Apodemus agrarius, where the part of M. arvalis makes more than 50 %.
Among ixodid ticks, the species which are more often infected with TBE virus are Dermacentor reticulatus (64,3 %), while among the Ixodes ricinus this number is 35,7% [6].
3.2. TBVE incidence rates
Tick-borne viral encephalitis is one of the most prevalent arboviral infections in Ukraine. People get infected with it through the tick bite or by consuming raw, mainly goat milk.
For present moment local cases of TBVE among people are registered yearly in 16 out of 25 oblasts of Ukraine, in cities Kyiv and Sevastopol. However the official data don’t reflect the real state of things with the morbidity in Ukraine [7].
During the period of 1955 to 2010 there were only 580 TBVE cases registered, while 132 of them were registered in the period of 2000–2011 (fig. 2). And correspondingly, the indices of morbidity in Ukraine during the decade varied in the range 0,001 – 0,03/100 000 population, including per oblast from 0–1,5 [8].
During the period of 2003-2010 we observed 223 cases of seroconversion in diagnostic titers of people from 14 oblasts of Ukraine. Among them in Volyn oblast - 77 cases [9].
Figure 2.
Cases of TBVE in Ukraine (1990-2011)
On the territory of Volyn oblast on the whole, there were 187 cases of TBVE reported. This is almost third of all reported cases for Ukraine (32,5 %).
Within the range of natural foci described, the TBVE morbidity is characterized by a sporadic occurance, its clinical course is similar to western noso-geographic form of the disease. The considerable part of foci forms of TBVE was reported from Ukrainian Polissya (Volyn, Zhytomyr and Kyiv oblasts) [10].
The most active natural TBVE foci, which manifested itself with group morbidity, was detected in Ratne district of Volyn oblast. It was confirmed by isolation of TBVE virus strains from I. ricinus ticks and results of antigen screening in D. reticulatus, I. ricinus and body organs of Apodemus agrarius.
During the period of April-October 1995, there were more than 80 patients hospitalized, with fever, and the air-ways and central nervous system lesions. The largest part of cases was reported during the period of June-September, which is related to the berries-mushrooms season.
The largest part of cases appeared in residential areas that are in the close proximity to the forests and is caused by tick bites.
The disease was registered in spring-autumn period, starting in May and ending in November, with the peak in July-August. The main means of infection was transmitting (68,0 %). The cases of alimentary infection with TBVE (32,0 %) were due to a consumption of raw goat and cow’s milk and its products. The development of a severe and complicated clinical forms of a disease was more common in terms of the transmitting way of infection (P<0,05).
In general TBVE in Volyn is characterized by one-wave feverous period, with predomination of feverous (60 %) and meningeal (24 %) forms of a disease with only 16 % of focal form (fig.3), coordination disorders, insignificant quantity of paralytic forms and cases of a development of a chronic disease.
Figure 3.
The main clinical forms of TBVE in Volyn oblast
Clinical manifestations are similar to the western type of this infection, but there predominated one-wave character of thermal curve, while two-wave type of fever and changes in hemogram were observed in half frequency. The temperature curve of part of the patients had three waves.
In terms of neurological complaints there predominated the vertigo, walk unsteadiness, bones and lips tremor. Sensitivity disorders in forms of paresthesia were common as well. From the side of vegetative nervous system during the acute period the leading symptoms were the following: bradycardia, growth of blood pressure, clearly manifested hyperhidrosis, stable diffuse dermographism. In the acute period of the disease some patients developed thyroid enlargement, asymmetry of skin temperature. Highly notable were various “pseudonevrasthenic” complaints which followed the course of the disease: memory decrease, irritability, obsessive fears and thoughts, emotional lability. The before-mentioned clinical form was called by author as”attenuate TBVE” [12].
Almost half of patients (48,2 %) – the initial stage of the disease was characterized by some prodromal indications, manifestation of which wasn’t pathognomonic for the given disease. As a result of a transmissible form of infection (P<0,05), there were more complicated manifestations of it, when in terms of clearly manifested intoxication and general-cerebral syndrome, changes from the side of a nervous system there developed a disfunction of a vegetative nervous system which prevailed in different parts of it (P<0,05), there were observed pathologic indications in cardio-vascular system (P<0,05), liver enlargement (P<0,001). All disorders of a vegetative nervous system were of central genesis as a rule, and developed mainly as a result of more considerable lesions of a central nervous system. As a common indication there was observed a skin hyperhidrosis, especially of a local character, which developed in all patients with poliomyelitic –like form of a disease.
It has to be mentioned that the rates of TBVE forms with the lesions of a central nervous system which followed the tick bites and those which followed the alimentary way of infection didn’t differ significantly (P>0,05).
We found that TBVE area includes Ratne and some more districts, which is confirmed by new cases reported, positive results of TBVE antigen screening in Ixodid ticks and rodents, and positive immune layer among healthy population in Kivertsi, Kovel, Rozhysche, Lyuboml, and Lutsk districts [13].
In the course of our investigation of I. ricinus and D. reticulatus ticks collected in Kivertsi, Ratne and Turiysk districts of Polissya in 1998-2011, natural infectioning with Borrelia burgdorferi s. l. was identified in 19,8 % of I. ricinus and 3,8 % of D. reticulatus on the average. The highest prevalence of infected I. ricinus – 25,0 % - was identified in Kivertsi, Ratne (19,3 %) and Manevychi (16,7 %) districts, while the lowest rates were reported from Turiysk - 6,7 %. Sixty-two population units in all 16 districts of the oblast were found ITBB enzootic.
4.2. Population immunity
The evidence of the endemic status of ITBB natural foci on the territory of the oblast were collected in terms of serologic screening of 2122 persons among healthy population of five districts of Ukrainian Polissya (Kivertsi, Kovel, Manevychi, Ratne and Rozhysche) and three districts of a Forest-Steppe zone (Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Ivanychi and Lutsk) (table 1).
Seropositive layer of screened persons was within the range of 18,6-45,6 % (the mean value for oblast was 28,6 %), thus exceeding 10 % threshold - the estimated level of active natural foci of Lyme-borreliosis in other districts [14]. More than 20 % of population in 5 out of 12 screened districts of Volyn oblast (Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Gorohiv, Kovel, Lutsk and Ratne were found to have higher titres of Ig G antibodies (1:400-1:1600).
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\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t%\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tincl. in titres 1:400-1:1600\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t%\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
Volodymyr-Volynskyi
\n\t\t\t
114
\n\t\t\t
52
\n\t\t\t
45,6
\n\t\t\t
49
\n\t\t\t
43,0
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
Gorokhiv
\n\t\t\t
99
\n\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t
30,3
\n\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t
30,3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
Ivanychi
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t
25,0
\n\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t
Kamin-Kashyrs
\n\t\t\t
59
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t
18,6
\n\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t
16,9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t
Kivertsi
\n\t\t\t
452
\n\t\t\t
124
\n\t\t\t
27,4
\n\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t
16,9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t
Kovel
\n\t\t\t
206
\n\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t
38,8
\n\t\t\t
37
\n\t\t\t
18,0
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t
Liubeshiv
\n\t\t\t
111
\n\t\t\t
31
\n\t\t\t
27,9
\n\t\t\t
31
\n\t\t\t
27,9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t
Lutsk
\n\t\t\t
194
\n\t\t\t
64
\n\t\t\t
33,0
\n\t\t\t
57
\n\t\t\t
29,4
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t
Manevychi
\n\t\t\t
347
\n\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t
23,0
\n\t\t\t
64
\n\t\t\t
18,4
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t
Ratne
\n\t\t\t
418
\n\t\t\t
108
\n\t\t\t
25,8
\n\t\t\t
96
\n\t\t\t
23,0
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t
Rozhysche
\n\t\t\t
49
\n\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t
24,5
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t
22,4
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t
Staro-Vyzhva
\n\t\t\t
53
\n\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t\t
26,4
\n\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t
11,3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total
\n\t\t\t
2122
\n\t\t\t
609
\n\t\t\t
28,6
\n\t\t\t
471
\n\t\t\t
22,2
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Seroprevalence of ITBB in human probands from different areas of Volyn oblast
The same districts had on the average 1,6 times higher level of the specific antibodies among the group of high professional risk (forestry workers), which was anticipated. This can be expained by the permanent being in natural foci, they contact with infected ticks more often (table 2). The antibodies were detected in 129 out of 281 (45,9 %) of the screened persons.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t№\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDistricts\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTotal of observed patients\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFound positive:\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t%\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
Kivertsi
\n\t\t\t
46
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t\t
63,0
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
Kovel skyi
\n\t\t\t
74
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t
33,8
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
Manevychi
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t
42,8
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t
Ratne
\n\t\t\t
39
\n\t\t\t
24
\n\t\t\t
61,5
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t
Rozhyshche
\n\t\t\t
65
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t\t
40,0
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t
Staro-Vyzhva
\n\t\t\t
36
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t\t
44,4
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total
\n\t\t\t
281
\n\t\t\t
129
\n\t\t\t
45,9
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Seroprevalence of ITBB in human risk groups from different areas of Volyn oblast
4.3. Epidemiology
Upon observation of 1117 patients from 15 administrative districts of Volyn oblast, who were suspected of having ITBB or diagnosis which don\' t exclude it (primarily with the preliminary diagnosis of TBVE), the antibodies to B. burgdorferi s. l. in diagnostic titres (1:100-1:1600) were detected in 267 (23,9 %) (table 3).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t№\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDistricts\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tNumber of patients*\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAntibodies found:\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRange of morbidity**\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t%\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
Volodymyr-Volynskyi
\n\t\t\t
34
\n\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t
14,7
\n\t\t\t
3,9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
Gorokhiv
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
15,0
\n\t\t\t
1,9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
Ivanychi
\n\t\t\t
76
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t
14,5
\n\t\t\t
3,7
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t
Kamin-Kashyrsk
\n\t\t\t
18
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
11,1
\n\t\t\t
2,7
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t
Kivertsi
\n\t\t\t
150
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t\t
19,0
\n\t\t\t
3,6
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t
Kovel
\n\t\t\t
127
\n\t\t\t
28
\n\t\t\t
22,0
\n\t\t\t
3,5
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t
Lokachi
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
21,4
\n\t\t\t
4,4
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t
Lutsk yi (incl. Lutsk city)
\n\t\t\t
262
\n\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t
35,1
\n\t\t\t
5,3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t
Liubeshiv
\n\t\t\t
18
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
16,7
\n\t\t\t
8,3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t
Liuboml
\n\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
21,4
\n\t\t\t
7,5
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t
Manevychi
\n\t\t\t
31
\n\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t
16,1
\n\t\t\t
2,3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t
Ratne
\n\t\t\t
225
\n\t\t\t
72
\n\t\t\t
32,0
\n\t\t\t
12,6
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t
Rozhysche
\n\t\t\t
62
\n\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t
11,3
\n\t\t\t
4,3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t\t
Staro-Vyzhva
\n\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
14,3
\n\t\t\t
3,2
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t\t
Shatsk
\n\t\t\t
47
\n\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t
14,9
\n\t\t\t
5,9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total
\n\t\t\t
1117
\n\t\t\t
267
\n\t\t\t
23,9
\n\t\t\t
2,1
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Results of serologic revealtion of ITBB patients in Volyn oblast
* - number of patients observed with the fever and a tick bite
** - range of morbidity (mean for 2000-2011 year, per 100 000 population)
According to the data of clinically-epidemiological survey of 267 laboratory-confirmed cases, we determined the main clinical manifestations and epidemiologic peculiarities of ITBB.
Almost 80 % (77,9 %) of the patients experienced the tick bite or "unknown insect\'s bite", which preceded the development of the disease. The incubative period in the course of tick borrelioses lasted 10 days on the average-from 3 to 45 days.
Seasonal character of tick borrelioses - spring-summer, which responds to the period of seasonal activity of I. ricinus ticks. First cases are reported in April, peak of prevalence (45,0 %) is observed in June, July and August, the latest new cases come out in November. Thus the season of the highest risk of infectioning lasts for 6-8 months - from April to November. If we compare encephalitis and tick-brome borreliosis, we can see that the cases of ITBB (up to 14-15 %), are reported in winter and early spring, but this is related to the clinical manifestations of 2-3 stages of the disease (fig. 4).
Figure 4.
Seasonal distribution of ITBB cases in Volyn oblast, 2000-2011 (n= 267)
Within the structure of patients with the laboratory confirmed diagnosis of ITBB there prevailed the residents of big and small towns of the region - 58,1 % (154), rural population\'s part made 41,9 % (111). The zones of major infectioning were forest zones and forest-park zones attached to them. Seventy cases of infectioning occurred within the rural/countryside areas (26,2 %). There was a new phenomena in the science of epidemiology observed - a considerable urbanization of natural foci: 13,1 % of patients were infected on the territory of recreation zones (parks, natural relax zones, gardens, etc) of oblast\'s center - Lutsk city as well as districts\' centers. In fact, we have ample evidence to claim that there are not natural foci, but anthropurgic and transient foci of ITBB and other TBI on the territory of Volyn oblast.
Within the gender structure of patients male made 40,2 %, female - 59,8 %.
All age groups were found vulnerable to ITBB - from the age of 1,2 to 80 years old people. Children below 10 and senior citizens (above 60) get sick less often - 9,0 % and 9,8 % (5 persons) respectively (fig. 5). Age risk group is the one of adult working age, 31-60 years old (52,7 % of cases, 141 persons).
Figure 5.
ITBB cases by age in Volyn oblast, 2000-2011 (n= 267)
Concerning the socially-professional structure of the disease, the highest risk of infectioning (62,2 %) was detected among office and labour workers, pensioners and unemployed.
4.4. Clinical manifestations
The spectrum of the main clinical manifestations was analysed according to the reported cases and was found typical for ITBB (table 4).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tClinical manifestations\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDetection rates:\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tVolyn oblast\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tUkraine\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t%\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t%\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ME
\n\t\t\t
156
\n\t\t\t
58,4
\n\t\t\t
64,9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Syndrome of total infectioning
\n\t\t\t
182
\n\t\t\t
68,2
\n\t\t\t
43,3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Nervous system lesions
\n\t\t\t
86
\n\t\t\t
37,0
\n\t\t\t
21,4
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Locomotor system lesions
\n\t\t\t
56
\n\t\t\t
21,0
\n\t\t\t
24,1
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Heart lesions
\n\t\t\t
23
\n\t\t\t
8,6
\n\t\t\t
8,3
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 4.
Frequency and spectrum of ITBB clinical manifestations
The initial clinical manifestation of the disease was erythema migrans (58,4 %) and a syndrome of total infectioning (68,2 %).
A heart pathology was observed in 8,6 % of patients. Ischemic disease, myocarditis and pericarditis etc were diagnosed in regard to the cardio-vascular lesions.
On the other hand, in more than 20 % of the patients the course of the disease was characterised by the manifestations of locomotor system, the lesions of joints (arthritis, arthralgia) and periarticular tissues (bursitis, synovitis, plexitis).
Neurologic lesions, which are considered to be as prevalent lesions in the course of ITBB as erythema migrans in Europe [4], were observed in 37,0 % of patients, which is 16 % more than in Ukraine on the whole. Thus, according to the accumulative data, in regard to the clinical manifestations in the country on the whole, locomotor system lesions take the second place, after erythema migrans, and make 24,1 %. While in Volyn oblast the second most prevalent manifestation is neuroborreliosis. Taking into consideration the known fact, that there is an ethiologic mutual dependence between some genotypes of a causative agent and nozologic types of ITBB [15, 16], it can be assumed that the considerable prevalence of the patients with nervous system lesions can be caused by the prevalence of B. garinii within the spectrum of B. burgdorferi s. l., which is believed to be the cause of neuroborreliosis.
On the acute stage of the disease, among the main manifestations of neuroborreliosis there were lesions of both peripheric nervous system (migrating pains, mono- and polyneuritis of scull nerves, polyradiculoneuritis, lack of skin sensitivity of a local character, paresthesia, relapsing neuritis of a facial nerve), which appeared mostly on the acute stage of the disease, and of central nervous system - manifested by meningitis, encephalitis, meningoencyphalitis, arachnoiditis, rigidity of neck muscles, nausea, headache, which manifested on the second stage of ITBB development. It has to be noted that in Ukraine, the major part of complicated lesions of the central nervous system in the course of ITBB is mainly observed in three oblasts – Volyn, Kherson and Zaporizzya.
On the second stage of Lyme Borreliosis the lesions of a cerebral cortex were manifested by different encephalopathia (9,5 %), such as speech problems, coordination, sleep, sight, memory, short-term black-outs. In a part of the patients (3,43 %) we were observing the signs of astheno-neurotic syndrome, such as often headaches, fatiguability, migrains, nervousness etc, some patients (1,47 %) had torpid paresis of facial muscles, in some rare case (0,49 %) the epileptic syndrome developed.
Cerebrospinal fluid has lymphocitaric pleocitosis, number of cells - dozens and hundreds in 1 mkl; lymphocitis make 70-100 % of total amount of cells, quite often, especially in the course of meningoradiculitis, there is an increase in protein amount - sometimes more than 1-2 mmol/l.
4.5. Neurologic manifestations with or without a erythema migrans
The peculiar feature of neuroborreliosis in Volyn oblast is the lack of the migratory erythema at the initial stage of the disease in 81,4 % of patients, which approximately equals the number for Ukraine - 80,9 %, and also the manifestations of total infectioning syndrome - hyperthermia, fatigness, dizzyness in 21,4% (for Ukraine on the whole - 24,1 %).
Overall, the analysis of the clinical course of non-erythemic forms of ITBB and comparing it to erythemic forms, shows that the course of the former was more complicated with the involvement of infectioning of other organs and systems, than that of the latter (fig. 6.)
There were observed certain differences such as the syndrome of total infectioning with higher and continuous fever, which needs to be confirmed by a larger studies. The symptoms as the headache and dizcyness were observed 1,5 times more often, syndrome asthenovegetative-1,3 times more often.
As for the gender structure, male prevailed and made 53,5 %, while the part of female was 46,5 %. The age of patients was fluctuating of 1,2 up to 80 years, but neurology pathology was observed in children under 10 (18,6 %), teenagers (16,3 %) more often, while the largest group (40,7 %) was made of the persons of working age: 31-40 (25,6 %) and 41-50 (15,1 %) years old.
Up to 50 % of the patients with the borreliosis lesions of the nervous system were sick in the period June-October after the incubatory period, that lasted from few days to few weeks.
Taking into consideration the neuroborreliosis manifestations (neurologic lesions) observed in one third of the patients, we conducted a target serologic examination for ITBB of the patients of out-hospital departments of Volyn oblast. In the course of the examination of 107 patients with the neurologic lesions (hemyparesis, paresthesia, myalgia), the antibodies to Borrelias were detected in 20 (28,9 %), among them 10 cases (27,9 %) - had it in higher titres.
In some patients (6,86 %), the course of the disease and the character of neurologic manifestations (acute outset, temperature reaction, rigidity of neck muscles, fading of reflexes, inflammation of CLS, etc), Lyme Borreliosis was very similar to TBVE, especially in its encephalopoliomyelitic manifestations, which lead to the preliminary diagnosis of TBVE, which was not confirmed by the further serologic tests. Similar indicators of the disease are observed in some regions of Russia [17], but are manifested very rarely in patients from other countries.
Figure 6.
Spectrum of neurological manifestation in patient of erythemic and non-erythemic forms.
4.6. Mixed infections of TBVE-ITBB
The presence of causative agents of different diseases (TBVE, ITBB, HGA) in parazyte systems, common vectors (I. ricinus and D. reticulatus ticks) and host-reservoirs (Myodes glareolus and Sorex araneus etc) with certain residing areas of each, predetermine similarities in epidemiologic structure of these infections. It is proved that one ixodid tick can contain 5-7 pathogenes at the same time [18]. The main social factors, predetermining the main features of TBVE, ITTB and HGA are also similar. Given all these facts, it may cause regular simultaneous infectioning of people with several causative agents.
Retrospective analysis showed that the considerable part of cases with the preliminary diagnosis of TBVE, was, in fact, the cases of neuroborreliosis, including mixed infections of TBVE and neuroborreliosis.
In Volyn oblast, we got the evidence of the existance of territory-connected natural foci of ITBB and TBVE for 6 districts (fig. 7). The existance of population-connected foci of these two zoonoses is proven by cases of mixed-infectioning of I. ricinus ticks with TBE virus and Borrelia burgdorferi s. l., which we detected in Kovel and Kivertzi districts, and D. reticulatus ticks - in Manevychi, Ratne and Kovel districts.
On the territory of oblast out of 267 cases of ITBB 29 (10,9 %) appeared to be TBVE mixed infection: the majority of them were found in Ratne (18) and Lutsk (8) rayons, few of them in Kivertzi (2), Kovel (1), Lyubeshiv (1) and Shatsk (1) districts [19].
Figure 7.
Connected natural foci of ITBB and TBVE in Volyn oblast
5. Conclusions
North-West region of Ukraine is one of the regions with high prevalence of TBVE and ITBB.
There are an active natural foci of TBVE and ITBB in Ratne district of Volyn oblast. High epidemic potential is confirmed by isolation of TBE virus strains, detection of the antigen of a causative agent in vectors and reservoirs, as well as by a population morbidity.
We found the evidence to confirm the previously made hypothesis as for the existance of polivector (binar) TBVE and ITBB foci in Ukraine, where the circulation of the causative agent is done by two dominating species of ixodids - Ixodes ricinus and D. reticulatus, which makes the risk of a population infectioning higher. The range of vertebral-reservoirs of causative agents of Lyme Borreliosis and TBVE, includes not only those known in Europe, but also other species of small mammals.
The TBVE incidence manifests itself by regular sporadic cases of the disease and outbreaks. In terms of clinical manifestations, there dominate forms with total-infectioning with the non-malignant course of the disease (60 %). Meningeal forms make 24 %, meningo-encephalitic -16 %.
ITBB is an endemic disease for Volyn oblast, caused by the presence of I. ricinus and D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\treticulatus ticks there. High prevalence rates are reported in Kivertsi, Lutsk, Manevychi, Ratne, Rozhysche districts, were 16,7 % up to 25 % of ticks are infected with the ITBB causative agent, the rates of population contact with ticks is within 30-40 %, risk group makes 40-60 %, mean indicator of the incidence (based on many years of surveillance) is 0,39-4,33 per 100 000 population.
The range of clinical manifestations of ITBB includes most of symptoms, which are described in scientific literature: starting from the erythema migrans, and syndrome of total infectioning to nervous system lesions, as well as lesions of locomotor and cardio-vascular system. The distinctive feature of the manifestations of the acute form of the disease is high prevalence of non-erythemic forms (41,6 %) as well as high percentage of cases with nervous system involvement (37,0 %).
There were numerous combined natural tick-borne mixed infections foci detected: TBVE, ITBB, HGA. First time in Ukraine, there were cases of all possible combinations of mixed infections of these nosologic forms found.
The findings of our study serve as a theoretic base for the surveillance over the extremely dangerous natural foci infections in the country, implementation of anti-epidemic and preventive measures into the practice of a health care system, search for the new approach to diagnostic, prevention and treatment of these infectious diseases.
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Morochkovski",authors:[{id:"47911",title:"Dr",name:"Halyna",middleName:null,surname:"Biletska",fullName:"Halyna Biletska",slug:"halyna-biletska",email:"lymecentr@ukr.net",position:null,institution:null},{id:"53812",title:"Dr.",name:"Ihor",middleName:null,surname:"Lozynski",fullName:"Ihor Lozynski",slug:"ihor-lozynski",email:"Lozynski@ukr.net",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Abiotic and biotic peculiarities of Volyn oblast",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Tikc-borne viral encephalitis ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. TBVE Epidemiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. TBVE incidence rates",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Ixodid tick-borne borreliosis (Lyme Borreliosis)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Natural foci of ITBB",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Population immunity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3. Epidemiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4. Clinical manifestations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.5. Neurologic manifestations with or without a erythema migrans",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.6. Mixed infections of TBVE-ITBB",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'GerenchukKNature of Volyn oblast. Lviv: Vyscha shkola; 1975'},{id:"B2",body:'Tatarinov КVertebrate Fauna of the Western Ukraine. Lviv: Lviv University, 1973\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'VynogradIBiletskaHLozynskiITick-borne encephalitis and other arboviruses infections in Ukraine. Infectious Diseases 199619964913'},{id:"B4",body:'GratzN2005Vector-borne infectious diseases in Europe, WHO Regional Office for Europe. Retrieved from: http://www.euro.who.int/pubrequest.'},{id:"B5",body:'Enzootics territories with especially dangerous natural-focal infectious diseases in Ukraine and measures of their preventiоnInformation letter of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine, Kyiv. 2011\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'FedorukV. IPidoprygoraR. IShmanM. YValovenkoGHondoga А.І., Lozynskyi І.М. Features ecology of the virus of tick-borne encephalitis in the Polissya region: proceedings of the Materials of scientific practical conference "Actual problems of control of especially dangerous and guided infections in Ukraine”, May 2004, Lviv, Ukraine. Lviv: Kolir Pro Servis; 2004\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'LozynskiyIArbovirusses and arboviral infections in forest-step zone inUkraine. Microbiology Journal 199860'},{id:"B8",body:'PavlikovskaTSytuation of TBE in Ukraine since 1955 to 2010 years: proceedings of the Materials of ukrainian seminar on the current issues of surveillance of viral and especially dangeruos infections, 2011Sumy, Ukraine.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'BiletskaH. VSemenyshynO. BBenI. IFedorukV. IDrulSShulganA. MSholomeyVRogochiyE. GLozynskiyI. MActual tick-borne natural focal infections in Ukraine // National Scientific Conference "Natural focal infections", May 2012, Uzhgorod, Ukraine. Ternopil:Ukrmedknyha; 2012'},{id:"B10",body:'Lozynskyi ІBiletska H.V., Semenyshyn O.B., Fedoruk V.I., Drul О.S., Maretc’ L.I., Sholomey М.V. Features of epidemiology and clinival manifestations of arboviral infections in Western oblasts of Ukraine: proceedings of the Materials of scientific practical conference “Modern problems of epidemiology, microbiologe and hygiene”. May 2008, Lviv, Ukraine. Lviv: Kolir Pro Servis; 2008'},{id:"B11",body:'VynogradI. ABerezovskiySBiletskaH. VLozynskyi І.М. Outbreak of tick-borne encephalitis in Volyn oblast: proceedings of ХІІІ Congress of the Ukrainian Society of microbiologists, epidemiologists and parasitologists named D.K.Zabolotnyi “Actual problems of microbiology, epidemiology, parasitology and prevention of infection disease”, 1996Vinnica, Ukraine.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'MorochkovskiRClinical characteristics of tick-borne encephalitis in Volyn’ and optimization of treatment: PhD thesis, State establishment “Lev Gromashevsky Institute of Epidemiology and Infectious diseases of Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine”, Kyiv, 2003\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'BiletskaHLozynskiyIDrulOSemenyshynOBenIShulganAFedorukVNatural focal transmissible infections with neurological manifestations in Ukraine. Flavivirus Encephalitis. Dr. Daniel Ruzek (Ed.), 978-9-53307-669-0InTech, Avialable from:http://www.intechopen.com/books/flavivirus-encephalitis/natural-focal-transmissible- infections-with-neurological-manifestations-in-ukraine.'},{id:"B14",body:'BiletskaH. VLozynskyi І.М., Semenyshyn O.B., Morochkovska H.V., Morochkovski R.S.,Kozlovskiy M.M., Drul О.S., Rogochiy E.G., Sholomey М.V., Bon’ О.S., Кіnah А.А., Berezovskiy S.О. Identification and study of Lyme disease in Volyn’ oblast. Infectious Diseases 2003200345356\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'LindgrenE. TJaensonGLyme borreliosis in Europe: influences of climate and climate change, epidemiology, ecology and adaptation measures:- Copenhagen: World Health Organization, 2006http://www.euro.who.int.'},{id:"B16",body:'OrnsteinKBerglundJBergstromSet alThree major Lyme Borrelia genospecies (Borrelia burgdorferi s.s., B. afzelii and B.garinii) identified by PCR in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with neuroborreliosis in Sweden. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 20025341'},{id:"B17",body:'LobzinY. VUskovA. NKozlovS. SLyme borreliosis (Ixodic tick-borne borreliosis). St-Peterburg. Foliant; 2000\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'DanielováVRudenkoNDanielMet alExtension of Ixodes ricinus ticks and agents of tick-borne diseases to mountain areas in the Czech Republic. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 20064853\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'BiletskaH. VLozynskyi І.М., Semenyshyn O.B., Fedoruk V.I., Rogochiy E.G., Drul О.S., Sholomey М.V., Ben’ I.i., Yanko N.V., Yatcyna M.D., Gnatyuk O.Y., Kuznetcova H.S., Begal’ I.I. Associates natural foci of tick-borne infections in Volyn oblast: proceedings of the Materials of scientific practical conference “Modern problems of epidemiology, microbiologe and hygiene”. May 2008, Lviv, Ukraine. Lviv Kolir Pro Servis: 2008'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"I. Lozynski",address:null,affiliation:'
State Institution “Lviv Research Institute of Epidemiology and Hygiene Ministry of Health of Ukraine”, Lviv, Ukraine
Infections Hospital of Volyn oblast, Lutsk, Ukraine
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Bangs",slug:"michael-j.-bangs"},{id:"169010",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanapa",middleName:null,surname:"Ritthison",fullName:"Wanapa Ritthison",slug:"wanapa-ritthison"}]},{id:"43254",title:"Understanding Anopheles Diversity in Southeast Asia and Its Applications for Malaria Control",slug:"understanding-anopheles-diversity-in-southeast-asia-and-its-applications-for-malaria-control",signatures:"Katy Morgan, Pradya Somboon and Catherine Walton",authors:[{id:"154092",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Walton",fullName:"Catherine Walton",slug:"catherine-walton"},{id:"154867",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",fullName:"Katy Morgan",slug:"katy-morgan"},{id:"169019",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradya",middleName:null,surname:"Somboon",fullName:"Pradya Somboon",slug:"pradya-somboon"}]},{id:"44155",title:"The Systematics and Bionomics of Malaria Vectors in the Southwest Pacific",slug:"the-systematics-and-bionomics-of-malaria-vectors-in-the-southwest-pacific",signatures:"Nigel W. Beebe, Tanya L. Russell, Thomas R. Burkot, Neil F. Lobo and\nRobert D. Cooper",authors:[{id:"152080",title:"Dr.",name:"Nigel",middleName:null,surname:"Beebe",fullName:"Nigel Beebe",slug:"nigel-beebe"},{id:"169012",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanya",middleName:null,surname:"L. Russell",fullName:"Tanya L. Russell",slug:"tanya-l.-russell"},{id:"169013",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"R. Burkot",fullName:"Thomas R. Burkot",slug:"thomas-r.-burkot"},{id:"169014",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil",middleName:null,surname:"F. Lobo",fullName:"Neil F. Lobo",slug:"neil-f.-lobo"},{id:"169015",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"D. Cooper",fullName:"Robert D. Cooper",slug:"robert-d.-cooper"}]},{id:"43671",title:"Ecology of Larval Habitats",slug:"ecology-of-larval-habitats",signatures:"Eliška Rejmánková, John Grieco, Nicole Achee and Donald R.\nRoberts",authors:[{id:"151632",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicole",middleName:null,surname:"Achee",fullName:"Nicole Achee",slug:"nicole-achee"},{id:"152601",title:"Prof.",name:"Eliska",middleName:null,surname:"Rejmankova",fullName:"Eliska Rejmankova",slug:"eliska-rejmankova"},{id:"169016",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Grieco",fullName:"John Grieco",slug:"john-grieco"}]},{id:"43954",title:"From Anopheles to Spatial Surveillance: A Roadmap Through a Multidisciplinary Challenge",slug:"from-anopheles-to-spatial-surveillance-a-roadmap-through-a-multidisciplinary-challenge",signatures:"Valérie Obsomer, Nicolas Titeux, Christelle Vancustem, Grégory\nDuveiller, Jean-François Pekel, Steve Connor, Pietro Ceccato and\nMarc Coosemans",authors:[{id:"131417",title:"Dr.",name:"Valérie",middleName:null,surname:"Obsomer",fullName:"Valérie Obsomer",slug:"valerie-obsomer"},{id:"152754",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Coosemans",fullName:"Marc Coosemans",slug:"marc-coosemans"},{id:"153949",title:"Dr.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Ceccato",fullName:"Pietro Ceccato",slug:"pietro-ceccato"},{id:"153950",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Duveiller",fullName:"Gregory Duveiller",slug:"gregory-duveiller"},{id:"153952",title:"Dr.",name:"Christelle",middleName:null,surname:"Vancutsem",fullName:"Christelle Vancutsem",slug:"christelle-vancutsem"},{id:"153980",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",middleName:null,surname:"Titeux",fullName:"Nicolas Titeux",slug:"nicolas-titeux"},{id:"154158",title:"Dr.",name:"Steve J",middleName:null,surname:"Connor",fullName:"Steve J Connor",slug:"steve-j-connor"},{id:"167685",title:"MSc.",name:"Jean-Francois",middleName:null,surname:"Pekel",fullName:"Jean-Francois Pekel",slug:"jean-francois-pekel"}]},{id:"43960",title:"Simian Malaria Parasites: Special Emphasis on Plasmodium knowlesi and Their Anopheles Vectors in Southeast Asia",slug:"simian-malaria-parasites-special-emphasis-on-plasmodium-knowlesi-and-their-anopheles-vectors-in-sout",signatures:"Indra Vythilingam and Jeffery Hii",authors:[{id:"151116",title:"Dr.",name:"Indra",middleName:null,surname:"Vythilingam",fullName:"Indra Vythilingam",slug:"indra-vythilingam"},{id:"169006",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffery",middleName:null,surname:"Hii",fullName:"Jeffery Hii",slug:"jeffery-hii"}]},{id:"44039",title:"Thermal Stress and Thermoregulation During Feeding in Mosquitoes",slug:"thermal-stress-and-thermoregulation-during-feeding-in-mosquitoes",signatures:"Chloé Lahondère and Claudio R. Lazzari",authors:[{id:"151619",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"R. Lazzari",fullName:"Claudio R. Lazzari",slug:"claudio-r.-lazzari"},{id:"151620",title:"Ms.",name:"Chloé",middleName:null,surname:"Lahondère",fullName:"Chloé Lahondère",slug:"chloe-lahondere"}]},{id:"43955",title:"The Anopheles Mosquito Microbiota and Their Impact on Pathogen Transmission",slug:"the-anopheles-mosquito-microbiota-and-their-impact-on-pathogen-transmission",signatures:"Mathilde Gendrin and George K. Christophides",authors:[{id:"154007",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathilde",middleName:null,surname:"Gendrin",fullName:"Mathilde Gendrin",slug:"mathilde-gendrin"},{id:"154008",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"K",surname:"Christophides",fullName:"George Christophides",slug:"george-christophides"}]},{id:"43829",title:"Bacterial Biodiversity in Midguts of Anopheles Mosquitoes, Malaria Vectors in Southeast Asia",slug:"bacterial-biodiversity-in-midguts-of-anopheles-mosquitoes-malaria-vectors-in-southeast-asia",signatures:"Sylvie Manguin, Chung Thuy Ngo, Krajana Tainchum, Waraporn\nJuntarajumnong, Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap, Anne-Laure\nMichon and Estelle Jumas-Bilak",authors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin"},{id:"75315",title:"Prof.",name:"Theeraphap",middleName:null,surname:"Chareonviriyaphap",fullName:"Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap",slug:"theeraphap-chareonviriyaphap"},{id:"88985",title:"Prof.",name:"Anne-Laure",middleName:null,surname:"Michon",fullName:"Anne-Laure Michon",slug:"anne-laure-michon"},{id:"88986",title:"Prof.",name:"Estelle",middleName:null,surname:"Jumas-Bilak",fullName:"Estelle Jumas-Bilak",slug:"estelle-jumas-bilak"},{id:"156016",title:"MSc.",name:"Chung Thuy",middleName:null,surname:"Ngo",fullName:"Chung Thuy Ngo",slug:"chung-thuy-ngo"},{id:"156018",title:"MSc.",name:"Krajana",middleName:null,surname:"Tainchum",fullName:"Krajana Tainchum",slug:"krajana-tainchum"},{id:"156019",title:"Dr.",name:"Waraporn",middleName:null,surname:"Juntarajumnong",fullName:"Waraporn Juntarajumnong",slug:"waraporn-juntarajumnong"}]},{id:"43899",title:"Distribution, Mechanisms, Impact and Management of Insecticide Resistance in Malaria Vectors: A Pragmatic Review",slug:"distribution-mechanisms-impact-and-management-of-insecticide-resistance-in-malaria-vectors-a-pragmat",signatures:"Vincent Corbel and Raphael N’Guessan",authors:[{id:"152666",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Corbel",fullName:"Vincent Corbel",slug:"vincent-corbel"},{id:"169017",title:"Dr.",name:"Raphael",middleName:null,surname:"N'Guessan",fullName:"Raphael N'Guessan",slug:"raphael-n'guessan"}]},{id:"43851",title:"Perspectives on Barriers to Control of Anopheles Mosquitoes and Malaria",slug:"perspectives-on-barriers-to-control-of-anopheles-mosquitoes-and-malaria",signatures:"Donald R. Roberts, Richard Tren and Kimberly Hess",authors:[{id:"151439",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"R. Roberts",fullName:"Donald R. Roberts",slug:"donald-r.-roberts"},{id:"151656",title:"Mr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Tren",fullName:"Richard Tren",slug:"richard-tren"},{id:"154152",title:"Ms.",name:"Kimberly",middleName:null,surname:"Hess",fullName:"Kimberly Hess",slug:"kimberly-hess"}]},{id:"43874",title:"Residual Transmission of Malaria: An Old Issue for New Approaches",slug:"residual-transmission-of-malaria-an-old-issue-for-new-approaches",signatures:"Lies Durnez and Marc Coosemans",authors:[{id:"152754",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Coosemans",fullName:"Marc Coosemans",slug:"marc-coosemans"},{id:"169018",title:"Dr.",name:"Lies",middleName:null,surname:"Durnez",fullName:"Lies Durnez",slug:"lies-durnez"}]},{id:"44330",title:"Vector Control: Some New Paradigms and Approaches",slug:"vector-control-some-new-paradigms-and-approaches",signatures:"Claire Duchet, Richard Allan and Pierre Carnevale",authors:[{id:"151662",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Carnevale",fullName:"Pierre Carnevale",slug:"pierre-carnevale"},{id:"169000",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Allan",fullName:"Richard Allan",slug:"richard-allan"},{id:"169008",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",middleName:null,surname:"Duchet",fullName:"Claire Duchet",slug:"claire-duchet"}]},{id:"43870",title:"New Salivary Biomarkers of Human Exposure to Malaria Vector Bites",slug:"new-salivary-biomarkers-of-human-exposure-to-malaria-vector-bites",signatures:"Papa M. Drame, Anne Poinsignon, Alexandra Marie, Herbert\nNoukpo, Souleymane Doucoure, Sylvie Cornelie and Franck\nRemoue",authors:[{id:"151515",title:"Dr.",name:"Papa Makhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Drame",fullName:"Papa Makhtar Drame",slug:"papa-makhtar-drame"},{id:"151648",title:"Dr.",name:"Franck",middleName:null,surname:"Remoué",fullName:"Franck Remoué",slug:"franck-remoue"},{id:"154034",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Poinsignon",fullName:"Anne Poinsignon",slug:"anne-poinsignon"},{id:"154035",title:"MSc.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marie",fullName:"Alexandra Marie",slug:"alexandra-marie"},{id:"154037",title:"Dr.",name:"Souleymane",middleName:null,surname:"Doucoure",fullName:"Souleymane Doucoure",slug:"souleymane-doucoure"},{id:"154038",title:"MSc.",name:"Herbert",middleName:null,surname:"Noukpo",fullName:"Herbert Noukpo",slug:"herbert-noukpo"},{id:"154039",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Cornélie",fullName:"Sylvie Cornélie",slug:"sylvie-cornelie"}]},{id:"44149",title:"Transgenic Mosquitoes for Malaria Control: From the Bench to the Public Opinion Survey",slug:"transgenic-mosquitoes-for-malaria-control-from-the-bench-to-the-public-opinion-survey",signatures:"Christophe Boëte and Uli Beisel",authors:[{id:"98400",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Boëte",fullName:"Christophe Boëte",slug:"christophe-boete"},{id:"167749",title:"Dr.",name:"Uli",middleName:null,surname:"Beisel",fullName:"Uli Beisel",slug:"uli-beisel"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74683",title:"Fault Tolerance in Carbon Nanotube Transistors Based Multi Valued Logic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95361",slug:"fault-tolerance-in-carbon-nanotube-transistors-based-multi-valued-logic",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Moore’s law along with the Dennard scaling has been the key driving factor that has enabled steady progress in the semiconductor industry over the last three decades. However, continuous scaling of Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) transistor into the sub-nanometer regime faces severe challenges due to short channel effects, exponentially rising leakage currents and increased variations in manufacturing process. To combat these challenges, numerous approaches have been explored. One of the promising approaches is to look for alternatives transistor structures that could potentially overcome these challenges. In this regard, Quantum-dot Cellular Automata (QCA), Carbon Nano-Tube Field Effect Transistor (CNTFET) and Single Electron Transistor (SET) are proposed to replace or supplement CMOS technology [1, 2].
\n
From circuits and systems design perspective, several approaches are explored to reduce die area and lower energy consumption. One of the approaches is to use Multi-Valued Logic (MVL) design. MVL circuit design has been explored in CMOS technology for last few decades using circuit styles like voltage-mode CMOS logic (VMCL), I2L logic and current-mode CMOS logic (CMCL) [3, 4]. Binary logic packs two logic values between available voltage levels, whereas MVL packs more than two logic values between the available voltage levels. Ternary logic is simplest form of MVL. Due to reduced noise margins, MVL logic design is less reliable and more prone to defects. Significant efforts have been directed towards defect and fault tolerance for binary logic and less effort has been directed towards defect and fault tolerant techniques for MVL.
\n
In digital design, transistor is used as switch that transitions between logic states. The switch that controls this transition is the threshold voltage of the transistor. Threshold voltage is a manufacturing process parameter that is set to a unique value during manufacturing. To realize CMOS MVL circuits, multi-threshold transistors are deployed. In CMOS, multi-threshold transistors are realized by applying body bias voltages that exploit body effect to alter threshold voltages [5]. However, CNTFETs are fundamentally different that they allow realization of multi-threshold transistors by tuning a few process parameters. This property has been effectively exploited to realize various forms of ternary logic circuits using CNTFET [6, 7].
\n
Despite several advantages, there are significant issues with the reliable realization of CNTFET circuits. There are fundamental limitations that are specific to Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) that pose major challenges [8]. CNTs are graphene sheets rolled into tubes [9]. Multiple CNTs are deployed in the channel region to provide the required drive currents needed for reliable operation [10]. These CNTs can be either metallic or semiconducting depending on the arrangement of the carbon atoms in the tube. Metallic tubes can result in circuit malfunctioning due to source-drain shorts [8]. It is also not possible to guarantee perfect positioning and alignment of these CNTs in large CNTFET circuits [8]. To harness the potential benefits of CNTFET technology, variation aware defect and fault tolerant techniques are needed for reliable operation of CNTFET MVL circuits.
\n
In this chapter, we present MVL realization of CNTFET circuits and discuss techniques for defect and fault tolerance in MVL CNTFET circuits. The rest of this chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 discusses basic logic primitives that are needed for understanding MVL. Section 3 describes the CNTFET transistor and its operation. Section 4 provides a detail description of various circuit styles that have been proposed to realize MVL CNTFET circuits. Section 5 describes variation in CNTFET devices. Section 6 describes a technique for fault tolerance in MVL CNTFET circuits.
\n
\n
\n
2. MVL basics
\n
Raychowdhury et al. detail and discuss the logic primitives that are needed for understanding MVL [6]. Let us consider an \n\nr\n\n-valued \n\nn\n\n-variable function \n\nf\n\nX\n\n\n, where \n\nX\n=\n\nx\n1\n\n,\n\nx\n2\n\n,\n\nx\n3\n\n,\n…\n\nx\nn\n\n\n and each \n\n\nx\ni\n\n\n can take up values from \n\nR\n=\n0\n,\n1\n,\n2\n,\n…\n,\nr\n−\n1\n\n.
\n
The mapping of \n\nf\n\nX\n\n\n is \n\nf\n:\n\nR\nn\n\n−\n>\nR\n\n. There are \n\n\nr\n\nr\nn\n\n\n\n different functions that are possible in set \n\nf\n\n. Ternary logic gates that implement each of these functions would be called primitive gates. There are three main primitives that are useful for understanding MVL: complement, min and tsum. Complement operator is equivalent to a ternary inverter. Min operator is equivalent to a ternary and gate. The complement of the min operator is equivalent to ternary nand gate. Tsum operator is equivalent to a ternary or gate and the complement of tsum operator is a ternary nor gate. Complement of a logic value \n\nl\n\n is defined as:
\n
\n\n\nl\n̂\n\n=\n\n\nr\n−\n1\n\n\n−\nl\n.\n\nE1
\n
Consider \n\nr\n\n = \n\n3\n\n. The complement set is given by Table 1 [9]. A min operator is defined as
where belongs to the set \n\nR\n\n. Consider \n\nr\n=\n3\n\n, \n\ntsum\n\n1,1,0\n\n=\nmin\n\n\n1\n+\n1\n+\n0\n\n2\n\n=\n2\n\n. Table 2 describes the truth table for ternary nand and ternary nor [7].
\nFigure 1 shows the cross-section of a CNTFET transistor. Similar to MOSFETs, CNTFETs have four terminals: drain, gate, source and substrate [11]. CNTFET transistors are constructed by replacing the silicon channel in CMOS with carbon nanotubes (CNT). CNTs are sheets of Graphene rolled into tubes. Depending on the direction in which the sheets are rolled in the channel, CNTs can be either metallic or semi-conducting. This property of CNT being metallic or non-metallic depending on their rolled direction is termed as chirality [7]. In CMOS transistors, drive current depends on the channel width [5]. However, in the case of CNTFET the drive currents during conduction state depends on the number of CNTs in the channel along with gate length, chirality and pitch distance [12]. The \n\n\nV\nth\n\n\n of the intrinsic CNT channel is given by
where \n\na\n=\n2.49\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n10\n\n\n\n, \n\nm\n\n is the carbon to carbon atom distance, \n\n\nV\nπ\n\n=\n3.033\n\nev\n\n is the carbon \n\nπ\n−\nπ\n\n bond energy in the tight bonding model, \n\ne\n\n is the unit electron charge and \n\n\nD\nCNT\n\n\n is the tube diameter [13]. \n\n\nD\nCNT\n\n\n is calculated using the following Equation [13].
where \n\n\na\n0\n\n\n = 0.142 nm is the inter-atomic distance between each carbon atom and its neighbor and (\n\nn\n\n,\n\nm\n\n) is called the chirality vector that describes the structure of a carbon nanotube, \n\nn\n\n is the number of non-metallic tubes and \n\nm\n\n is the number of metallic tubes present in the channel. The diameter \n\n\nD\nCNT\n\n\n used in the Stanford CNTFET model is \n\n1.487\nnm\n\n [10]. The model assumes that the CNT synthesis process yields zero metallic tubes. The value of \n\nn\n\n from equation \n\n\n8\n\n\n amounts to 19. This corresponds to a chirality vector of \n\n\n19\n0\n\n\n and threshold voltage of \n\n0.293\nV\n\n based on equation \n\n\n7\n\n\n. Combination of equations \n\n\n7\n\n\n and \n\n\n8\n\n\n, provides the following insight: Threshold voltage of the CNTFET can be modified by changing the number of non-metallic tubes assuming that CNT synthesis process yields zero metallic tubes. The ratio of threshold voltages of two CNTFETs is inversely proportional to the number of non-metallic tubes present in the CNTFET.
This property has been effectively exploited to design MVL circuits using CNTFET. In practice, multi-diameter CNTFET is realized by CNT synthesis techniques that can fabricate CNTs with desired chirality [14]. Also, post-processing techniques for adjusting the threshold voltage of multiple tube CNTFET have also been demonstrated [15].
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\n
\n
4. Circuit realizations of ternary logic gates
\n
This section discusses two circuit implementations of CNTFET ternary inverters along with a circuit implementation of a CNTFET ternary Muller C element. First circuit is a resistor based ternary inverter that was proposed by Raychowdhury et al. [9]. Second circuit is a ternary inverter using static complementary circuit style that was proposed by Lin et al. [7]. We will also discuss the circuit implementation and operation of a ternary Muller C element proposed by Sundararajan et al. [16].
\n
\n
4.1 Resistive load ternary inverter
\n
\nFigure 2 shows the circuit diagram of a resistive load ternary inverter. The circuit consists of two N-channel transistors and two resistors. CNTFET with two different diameters are deployed in this circuit. Transistor \n\n\nT\n\nLN\n1\n\n\n\n is a low threshold CNTFET and has a diameter of \n\n\n19\n0\n\n\n and transistor \n\n\nT\n\nHN\n2\n\n\n\n is high threshold CNTFET and has a diameter of \n\n\n10\n0\n\n\n. \n\n\nT\n\nLN\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nHN\n2\n\n\n\n have threshold voltages of \n\n0.29\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n and \n\n0.59\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n respectively. The resistors used in this circuit are both \n\n100\n\n\n\n\nK\nΩ\n\n. The circuit is operated at voltage of \n\n\nV\nDD\n\n=\n0.9\nV\n\n. Table 3 details the chirality vector, diameter and the threshold voltage of all transistors in Figure 2. If the input signal \n\na\n\n is below \n\n300\n\n\n\n\nmV\n\n, none of the transistors are on and the value at output \n\n\na\n̂\n\n\n is \n\n0.9\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n. If \n\na\n\n is operated between \n\n300\n\n\n\n\nmV\n\n and \n\n600\n\n\n\n\nmV\n\n transistor \n\n\nT\n\nLN\n1\n\n\n\n turns on, \n\n\nT\n\nHN\n2\n\n\n\n is off and the circuit operates as a voltage divider and \n\n\na\n̂\n\n\n is exactly at half of \n\n\nV\nDD\n\n\n which is \n\n0.45\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n. When \n\na\n\n is operated above \n\n600\n\n\n\n\nmV\n\n, then the pull down network consisting of both the N channel CNTFETs is on and voltage at \n\n\na\n̂\n\n\n is \n\n0\n\n V.
\n
Figure 2.
Resistive CNTFET ternary inverter [6]. Value of \n\n\nR\n1\n\n\n is \n\n100\n\n\n\n\nK\nΩ\n\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Transistor
\n
Chirality Vector (n,m)
\n
Diameter(nm)
\n
\n\n\n\nV\nth\n\n\n(V)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n\nT\n\nLN\n1\n\n\n\n\n
\n
(19,0)
\n
1.487
\n
0.29
\n
\n
\n
\n\n\n\nT\n\nHN\n2\n\n\n\n\n
\n
(10,0)
\n
0.783
\n
0.56
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
CNTFET chirality, \n\n\nV\nth\n\n\n and threshold voltages for resistive ternary inverter [7].
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Static complementary ternary inverter
\n
The problem with the resistive load ternary inverter is that resistors are large, bulky and are prone to noise. Also, static resistors draw leakage currents from the supply and are not suitable for implementation in large scale CNTFET circuits. As an alternative to resistive load ternary inverter, Lin et al. proposed a static complementary version of ternary inverter that employs P-channel and N-channel CNTFETs as shown in Figure 3. The resistor in pull up network of the circuit in Figure 2 is replaced with the two P-Channel CNTFET with varying diameters and the voltage divider resistor is replaced with two diode connected complementary CNTFET. The diode connected transistors have a nominal threshold voltage (\n\n\nV\nth\n\n\n) of \n\n0.43\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n. Table 4 describes the chirality values, diameter and threshold voltages of all the transistors in Figure 3. If the input signal \n\na\n\n is operated below \n\n300\n\n\n\n\nmV\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nLP\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nHP\n3\n\n\n\n are on and transistors \n\n\nT\n\nLN\n2\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nHN\n3\n\n\n\n are off. The voltage at \n\n\na\n̂\n\n\n is \n\n0.9\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n. When input signal \n\na\n\n is operated between \n\n300\n\n\n\n\nmV\n\n and \n\n600\n\n\n\n\nmV\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nHP\n3\n\n\n\n is off and diode connected transistors (\n\n\nT\n\nNP\n2\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nNN\n1\n\n\n\n) are turned on along with \n\n\nT\n\nLP\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nLN\n2\n\n\n\n. This circuit configuration operates as a voltage divider and produces a voltage drop of \n\n0.45\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n at \n\n\na\n̂\n\n\n. When input signal \n\na\n\n is operated above \n\n600\n\n\n\n\nmV\n\n, pullup network consisting of all the P-channel transistors is off and all the N-channel transistors are on pulling down voltage at \n\n\na\n̂\n\n\n to \n\n0\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n.
CNTFET chirality, \n\n\nV\nth\n\n\n and threshold voltages for static ternary inverter [7].
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Ternary Muller C element
\n
In this section, we will review the circuit implementation of ternary Muller C element described by Sundararajan et al. [16]. Muller C element is a common logic gate that is deployed in asynchronous logic [17, 18]. Figure 4 shows a circuit schematic and a logic representation of the Muller C element [19]. The basic operation of the C element can be described as follows: When the logic values of inputs \n\na\n\n and \n\nb\n\n are the same, the output \n\nc\n\n is transparent and input value is latched. Otherwise, output \n\nc\n\n will retain its previous value. The logic equation describing the behavior of the Muller C element is described as follows [20].
\n
Figure 4.
Binary CMOS Muller C element: Circuit schematic and its logic representation. It has two inputs a, b and an output c. the C element consists of “C-not” and “S” gates [16].
where \n\na\n\n, \n\nb\n\n are the two inputs and \n\n\nc\n̂\n\n\n denotes the previous state of the output \n\nc\n\n. C element consists of two parts: C-not and S-gates [21]. The C-not part consists of two pmos and two nmos transistors connected in series. The S-gates consists of two cross coupled inverters employing weak feedback and is a widely used implementation proposed by Martin et al. [18]. The ternary Muller C element is similar to its binary counterpart except that the inputs and the output could take three logic values. Table 5 shows the truth table of ternary Muller C element. Figure 5 shows the circuit schematic of ternary Muller C element. The C-not portion of the Muller C consists of five P-CNTFETs and five N-CNTFETs. In this design, three kinds of CNTFET transistors having three different chirality vectors are used to realize three different threshold voltages. The chirality vectors used, their corresponding diameters and the resulting threshold voltages are the same as static complementary ternary inverter. The values are listed in Table 4. “S” gates consist of the ternary inverters connected in a feedback. To enable correct operation, feedback inverter is a weak inverter with less number of tubes. To realize weak feedback, the number of tubes in all CNTFET transistors in the C-not part and in the strong inverter \n\nI\n1\n\n is \n\n12\n\n. The number of tubes in weak inverter \n\nI\n2\n\n is \n\n3\n\n. The inverters are based on a static complementary style discussed in Section 4.2. The operation of the circuit is as follows: When the inputs \n\na\n\n and \n\nb\n\n are below 300 mV P-CNTFET transistors \n\n\nT\n\nLP\n1\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nLP\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nHP\n4\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nHP\n5\n\n\n\n are on as shown in Figure 5. The node \n\n\nC\nout\n\n\n is pulled to logic 2 and node \n\nc\n\n is pulled to a low value (logic 0). When the input voltages are raised above 300 mV, transistors \n\n\nT\n\nHP\n4\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nHP\n5\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nHN\n4\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nHN\n5\n\n\n\n are off as shown in Figure 6. Combination of transistors \n\n\nT\n\nLP\n1\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nLP\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nLN\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nT\n\nLN\n3\n\n\n\n along with the diode connected transistors \n\n\nT\n\nNP\n3\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nNN\n1\n\n\n\n, produces a voltage drop of 0.45 V (logic 1) at node \n\n\nC\nout\n\n\n. This intermediate logic value is fed to the inverter latch, producing a voltage drop of 0.45 V or logic 1 at the output \n\nc\n\n. As the input voltages are raised above 600 mV, transistors \n\n\nT\n\nHP\n5\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nHP\n4\n\n\n\n are off and transistors \n\n\nT\n\nHN\n4\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n\nHN\n5\n\n\n\n are on as shown in Figure 7 which pull the node \n\n\nC\nout\n\n\n to a logic low value and drive node \n\nc\n\n to a high value (logic 2). The ternary C element was built and evaluated using Synopsys HSPICE circuit simulator. The design was simulated using CNTFET parameter models provided by Stanford Nano-electronics Group in the \n\n32\n\n\n\n\nnm\n\n technology node [22]. The operating supply voltage was \n\n0.9\n\n\n\n\nV\n\n and the temperature was \n\n\n27\n∘\n\nC\n\n. Figure 8 shows the transient simulation result [16]. In this simulation, input \n\na\n\n is held at a steady state and input \n\nb\n\n is swept from logic low to a high value. The output changes state when the two inputs are at the same level of logic. When inputs \n\na\n\n and \n\nb\n\n are at a different logic level, the output holds the previously latched logic value. The inputs are swept from logic low to logic high and then changed to logic low in constant steps and output is observed for a full low to high and a high to low transition. The propagation delay is the average of four terms: the delay from logic 0 to logic 1 (\n\nt\n1\n\n), the delay from logic \n\n1\n\n to logic \n\n2\n\n (\n\nt\n2\n\n), the delay from logic \n\n2\n\n to logic \n\n1\n\n (\n\nt\n3\n\n), and the delay from logic \n\n1\n\n to logic \n\n0\n\n (\n\nt\n4\n\n).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Input a
\n
Input b
\n
Output c
\n
\n\n\n
\n
0
\n
0
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
0
\n
1
\n
\n\n\nS\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
0
\n
2
\n
\n\n\nS\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
0
\n
\n\n\nS\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
1
\n
1
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
2
\n
\n\n\nS\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
0
\n
\n\n\nS\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
1
\n
\n\n\nS\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
2
\n
2
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Ternary Muller C-element truth table. \n\nS\n\n indicates previous state.
\n
Figure 5.
Schematic for all inputs at logic \n\n0\n\n.
\n
Figure 6.
Schematic for all inputs at logic \n\n1\n\n.
\n
Figure 7.
Schematic for all inputs at logic \n\n2\n\n.
\n
Figure 8.
Transient results of static complementary Muller C [16].
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Variations in CNTFET devices
\n
This section describes the process variation in CNTFET technology. Process variation (PV), an artifact of aggressive technology scaling, causes uncertainty in integrated circuit characteristics. Imperfect lithography, doping fluctuations and imperfect planarization are some of the causes of variation that strongly affect the channel length, oxide thickness, width and eventually the threshold voltage of CMOS transistors. Such variation leads to unpredictable circuit behavior. Due to the random nature of manufacturing process, various effects such as ion implantation, diffusion and thermal annealing have induced significant fluctuations of the electrical characteristics in nanoscale CMOS [24]. CNTFETs are also affected by manufacturing variation caused by imperfect fabrication. CNTFETs not only suffer from traditional process variations, which are in common with the CMOS technologies but they also have their unique source of variations. Paul et al. showed that the CNTFET devices are significantly less sensitive to stochastic variations such as process-induced variations due to their inherent device structures and geometric properties [25]. In addition, CNTFETs are subject to CNT specific variation sources including: CNT type variations, CNT density variations, CNT diameter variations, CNT alignment variations and CNT doping variations [23]. Figure 9 shows the contributions of each of the aforementioned sources of variations to the on-state current \n\n\nI\non\n\n\n in 32 \n\nnm\n\n technology. To provide sufficient drive current comparable to CMOS, multiple CNTs are deployed in the channel of a single CNTFET. Due to statistical averaging, the impact of the CNT diameter, doping and alignment variations on the on current is significantly reduced for CNTFET with multiple CNTs in the channel [26]. Hence, significant on state current variations are caused by metallic CNT induced count variations and CNT density variations. To overcome the effects of count variations due to metallic CNTs a technique called VLSI-compatible Metallic CNT Removal (VMR) has been proposed that combines new CNTFET circuit design techniques with the processing [27]. Asymmetrically-Correlated CNTs (ACCNT) is another imperfection immune design technique to tolerate the metallic CNTs [28]. Therefore, CNT density variation is the dominant source of variation in CNTFETs.
\n
Figure 9.
Contributions of various CNT specific variation sources [23].
\n
\n
5.1 Analysis of process variations
\n
As discussed in Section 5, CNT density is the critical parameter that needs to be accounted for variation aware design. CNT density variation manifests itself as varying amounts of CNT under the gate of every CNTFET transistor. CNT density variation follows a normal distribution with mean \n\nμ\n\n = \n\nN\n\n and the variance \n\nσ\n\n = \n\n\n(\n\nN\n/\n2\n)\n\n where N is the expected number of CNTs under the gate of each CNTFET [29]. To assess the impact of CNT density variation on the transient delay, \n\n1000\n\n sample Monte Carlo simulations were performed on the proposed ternary C element. Figure 10 shows the percentage variation of transient delay with the variation in the number of CNTs per CNTFET.
\n
Figure 10.
Percentage of \n\n\nt\npd\n\n\n variation for the ternary Muller C element.
\n
The C element was driving a capacitance of 25 \n\nfF\n\n. From the plot, we see that when number of CNT in CNTFET is lower, the delay variation is higher and as we increase the number of CNT in the CNTFET, the delay variation goes down. The variation percentage is \n\n0.6\n\n when the number of tubes in a single CNTFET is \n\n10\n\n and it drops \n\n30\nX\n\n lower to \n\n0.02\n\n when number of tubes in a single CNTFET is increased to \n\n200\n\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Defect and fault tolerance in CNTFET MVL logic
\n
This section will review a method for fault tolerance in CNTFET Multi-valued logic that was proposed by Sundararajan et al. [16]. The method called Restorative FeedBack (RFB), provides fault resilience against Single Event Upset (SEU) [19]. Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) is one of the mostly commonly used method for fault tolerance in computer systems [30]. In TMR, a logic circuit is replicated three times and a majority vote is taken on the combined outputs. Figure 11 shows the TMR method, where three copies of a logic circuit are made and a majority vote is taken on those combined copies to obtain a fault free logic value. TMR provides resilience against single error faults. The main drawback of TMR is that logic overhead is high due to replication and and a fault in majority voter can render the technique inefficient. Also, simultaneous error in two copies of the logic value can result in propagation of the error value in the downstream logic. From a MVL perspective, TMR cannot be applied to MVL as it is ambiguous for MVL. As an alternative to TMR, Winstead et al. proposed RFB method, which is an improved version of TMR [19]. RFB method can correct single error faults and CMOS implementations were shown for both binary and ternary logic [19]. RFB method replaces the majority gate in TMR with Muller C elements. The idea of RFB method is based on the inherent fault correcting capabilities of the Muller C element. RFB method is based on two key ideas related to the Muller C element:
If the C element output is connected back to one of C element’s input, then noise in other C element’s input will be suppressed every time the C element evaluates.
Muller C element has inherent fault correcting properties. C element only changes its output state when all inputs have the same logic value. This property can be exploited for fault masking.
\n\n
Figure 11.
Triple modular redundancy (TMR).
\n
\nFigure 12 shows an example of how a noisy input signal will be rendered less noisy, each time the signal passes through the C element. Suppose \n\n\nε\na\n\n\n is the error probability associated with input signal \n\na\n\n. Then the corresponding Log Likelihood Ratio (LLR), \n\n\nl\na\n\n\n, is defined as [21].
The magnitude of \n\n\nl\na\n\n\n is the confidence that signal \n\na\n\n is correct. If, at any given time t, the error events appearing at the C-element’s inputs are independent from each other, and also independent from the C-element’s internal state, then the output LLR is
\n
\n\n\nl\nc\n\n=\n\nl\na\n\n+\n\nl\nb\n\n\nE12
\n
From Eq. (12), we notice that as \n\n\nl\nb\n\n→\n\nl\nc\n\n\n, \n\n\nl\na\n\n→\n0\n\n. If the C element’s output is connected back to the C-element’s input then other input that is noisy is rendered less noisy every time the C-element evaluates the output [19]. Figure 13 shows the schematic implementation of the RFB method where the C -element’s output is connected in a feedback fashion to the adjacent C element’s input. The other input to the C element is the logic that is replicated thrice (\n\n\nx\n1\n\n\n, \n\n\nx\n2\n\n\n and \n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n). To fully realize the fault correcting capabilities of the C element, the RFB circuit is operated in two phases: setup phase and restoration phase. There are three inputs signals \n\n\nx\n1\n\n\n, \n\n\nx\n2\n\n\n and \n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n. Lets asume that the signal \n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n is corrupted and has an incorrect logic value of \n\n1\n\n while \n\n\nx\n1\n\n\n and \n\n\nx\n2\n\n\n are at logic \n\n2\n\n. The RFB operation involves two phases and phase switching is accomplished by using a 2-input multiplexer. The select signal \n\nϕ\n\n is at logic \n\n0\n\n during the setup phase. The operation in the setup phase is shown in Figure 14. During this phase, inputs are barrel shifted to the adjacent C element’s output. The error value in \n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n is shifted to \n\n\ny\n2\n\n\n. Figure 15 shows the operation in restoration phase. During this phase, \n\nϕ\n\n is at logic \n\n1\n\n. The feedback is deactivated and C-not gate’s output is transferred to the actual output. The first C element has its inputs held at logic \n\n2\n\n and that causes \n\n\ny\n2\n\n\n to change its state from logic \n\n1\n\n to logic \n\n2\n\n. The transient simulation results are shown in Figure 16 for all possible combinations of error values [16]. The signal of interest is \n\n\ny\n2\n\n\n. The setup and the restoration phases corresponding to \n\n\ny\n2\n\n\n are clearly marked and annotated in Figure 16. From the plot, we observe that in the setup phase, the error value in \n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n is transferred to signal \n\n\ny\n2\n\n\n and is then corrected in restoration phase, thereby showing the effectiveness of the RFB technique.
\n
Figure 13.
The RFB circuit based on Muller C-element gates. The \n\nS\n\n gate is a storage element [21].
\n
Figure 14.
RFB setup phase.
\n
Figure 15.
RFB restoration phase.
\n
Figure 16.
Transient results of ternary CNTFET RFB method. The input sequence includes the six possible single error patterns. Signals \n\n\nx\n1\n\n\n and \n\n\nx\n2\n\n\n are correct, while \n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n is an error. The error is transferred to \n\n\ny\n2\n\n\n in the set-up phase and is corrected in the restoration phase [16].
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
This chapter discussed a technique for fault tolerance in MVL CNTFET logic. The described technique leverages the error suppression capability of Muller C element to correct single bit error in CNFTET MVL. To realize the technique, a ternary Muller C element is needed. This chapter also discussed the basics of MVL, provided an overview of CNTFET and also discussed the process variation in CNTFET.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"CNTFET, Multi-Valued Logic, Fault Tolerance, TMR",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74683.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74683.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74683",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74683",totalDownloads:54,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 26th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 4th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 4th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"January 4th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This Chapter presents a solution for fault-tolerance in Multi-Valued Logic (MVL) circuits comprised of Carbon Nano-Tube Field Effect Transistors (CNTFET). This chapter reviews basic primitives of MVL and describes ternary implementations of CNTFET circuits. Finally, this chapter describes a method for error correction called Restorative Feedback (RFB). The RFB method is a variant of Triple-Modular Redundancy (TMR) that utilizes the fault masking capabilities of the Muller C element to provide added protection against noisy transient faults. Fault tolerant properties of Muller C element is discussed and error correction capability of RFB method is demonstrated in detail.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74683",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74683",signatures:"Gopalakrishnan Sundararajan",book:{id:"9913",title:"Carbon Nanotubes - Redefining the World of Electronics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Carbon Nanotubes - Redefining the World of Electronics",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Prasanta Kumar Ghosh, Dr. Arti Rushi and Dr. Kunal Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9913.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"294687",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanta",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prasanta-ghosh",fullName:"Prasanta Ghosh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. MVL basics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. CNTFET transistor",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Circuit realizations of ternary logic gates",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Resistive load ternary inverter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Static complementary ternary inverter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Ternary Muller C element",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Variations in CNTFET devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1 Analysis of process variations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Defect and fault tolerance in CNTFET MVL logic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nJ. Appenzeller, J. Knoch, R. Martel, V. Derycke, S.J. Wind, and P. Avouris, “Carbon nanotube electronics,” Nanotechnology, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 184–189, dec 2002.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nK.K. 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Patrick Poa, Li Wei, Lain-Jong Li, Yanhui Yang, and Yuan Chen, “(n,m) selectivity of single-walled carbon nanotubes by different carbon precursors on co−mo catalysts,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 129, no. 29, pp. 9014–9019, 2007, PMID: 17602623.\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nA. Lin, N. Patil, K. Ryu, A. Badmaev, L. Gomez De Arco, C. Zhou, S. mitra, and H. . Philip Wong, “Threshold voltage and on–off ratio tuning for multiple-tube carbon nanotube fets,” IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 4–9, 2009.\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nG. Sundararajan and C. Winstead, “Cntfet-rfb: An error correction implementation for multi-valued cntfet logic,” in 2016 IEEE 46th International Symposium on Multiple-Valued Logic (ISMVL), 2016, pp. 11–16.\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nM. Shams, J.C. Ebergen, and M.I. Elmasry, “Modeling and comparing CMOS implementations of the C-element,” Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 563–567, dec. 1998.\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nAlain Martin, Andrew Lines, Rajit Manohar, Mika Nystroem, Paul Penzes, Robert Southworth, Uri Cummings, and Tak Lee, “The design of an asynchronous mips r3000 processor,” 02 1997.\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nChris Winstead, Yi Luo, Eduardo Monzon, and Abiezer Tejeda, “Error correction via restorative feedback in \n\nM\n\n-ary logic circuits,” Journal of Multiple Valued Logic and Soft Computing, vol. 23, no. 3–4, pp. 337–363, 2014.\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nM. Shams, J.C. Ebergen, and M.I. Elmasry, “A comparison of CMOS implementations of an asynchronous circuits primitive: the C-element,” in Low Power Electronics and Design, 1996., International Symposium on, aug 1996, pp. 93–96.\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nChris Winstead, Yi Luo, Eduardo Monzon, and Abiezer Tejeda, “An error correction method for binary and multiple-valued logic,” Multiple-Valued Logic, IEEE International Symposium on, vol. 0, pp. 105–110, 2011.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nStanford, “Stanford university CNFET model website [online, accessed 2013]. available: http://nano.stanford.edu/model.php?id=23,”\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nJie Zhang, N. Patil, H.-S.P. Wong, and S. mitra, “Overcoming carbon nanotube variations through co-optimized technology and circuit design,” in Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), 2011 IEEE International, dec. 2011, pp. 4.6.1–4.6.4.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nK. Agarwal and S. Nassif, “Characterizing process variation in nanometer CMOS,” in Design Automation Conference, 2007. DAC ‘07. 44th ACM/IEEE, 2007, pp. 396–399.\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nB.C. Paul, S. Fujita, M. Okajima, T. Lee, H.S.P. Wong, and Y. Nishi, “Impact of process variation on nanowire and nanotube device performance,” in Device Research Conference, 2007 65th Annual, june 2007, pp. 269–270.\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nJie Zhang, N.P. Patil, A. Hazeghi, H.-S.P. Wong, and S. mitra, “Characterization and design of logic circuits in the presence of carbon nanotube density variations,” Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 1103–1113, aug. 2011.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nN. Patil, A. Lin, Jie Zhang, Hai Wei, K. Anderson, H.-S.P. Wong, and S Mitra, “VMR: Vlsi-compatible metallic carbon nanotube removal for imperfection-immune cascaded multi-stage digital logic circuits using carbon nanotube fets,” in Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), 2009 IEEE International, 2009, pp. 1–4.\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nA. Lin, N. Patil, Hai Wei, S. mitra, and H.-S.P. Wong, “A metallic-cnt-tolerant carbon nanotube technology using asymmetrically-correlated cnts (ACCNT),” in VLSI Technology, 2009 Symposium on, june 2009, pp. 182–183.\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nA.A.M. Shahi, P. Zarkesh-Ha, and M. Elahi, “Comparison of variations in MOSFET versus CNFET in Gigascale integrated systems,” in Quality Electronic Design (ISQED), 2012 13th International Symposium on, 2012, pp. 378–383.\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nR. E. Lyons and W. Vanderkulk, “The use of triple-modular redundancy to improve computer reliability,” IBM J. Res. Dev., vol. 6, pp. 200–209, 1962.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gopalakrishnan Sundararajan",address:"gopal.sundar@aggiemail.usu.edu",affiliation:'
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