Records, means, standard deviations, minima and maxima of variation for milk yield, lactation length and dry period of Holstein cows
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5596",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Peripheral Artery Disease",title:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Peripheral Artery Disease",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This textbook on Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Peripheral Artery Disease provides a comprehensive angiographic approach to assess and determine optimal treatment strategies for peripheral artery disease (PAD). Each chapter focuses on angiography as it relates to the outcomes of endovascular work. It is an overview of the results obtained from a large number of actual cases with over 100 angiographic images of aortoiliac, femoropopliteal, below-the-knee, and below-the-ankle artery disease. Diagnostic and angiographic images of nonatherosclerotic PAD are also included. Anyone who is engaged in or preparing to engage in endovascular work for PAD should find this book useful as a reference and as an instruction material.",isbn:"978-953-51-2968-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2967-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4898-2",doi:"10.5772/63663",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"angiography-and-endovascular-therapy-for-peripheral-artery-disease",numberOfPages:158,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"80ff1222aa5a8ec7e4eb5f157e5d9ce0",bookSignature:"Yoshiaki Yokoi, Keisuke Fukuda, Masahiko Fujihara, Akihiro Higashimori and Osami Kawarada",publishedDate:"March 22nd 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5596.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14635,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:13,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 6th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Authored by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"66538",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Yokoi",slug:"yoshiaki-yokoi",fullName:"Yoshiaki Yokoi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/66538/images/1081_n.jpg",biography:"Actively working as the interventional cardiologist, I persue most of my career as endovascular intervention as well. Organized Japan Endovascular Treatment conference (JET), and is considered to be the pioneer in this field in Japan.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Kishiwada Tokushukai Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"987",title:"Interventional Cardiology",slug:"interventional-cardiology"}],chapters:[{id:"53791",title:"Basics of Angiography for Peripheral Artery Disease",doi:"10.5772/67177",slug:"basics-of-angiography-for-peripheral-artery-disease",totalDownloads:3975,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Angiography has been historically used to image the peripheral artery system and still remains the gold standard for diagnostic and endovascular treatment. There is no standardized method for lower limb artery angiography. In this chapter, the basic standard technique for angiography of peripheral artery is described from aortoiliac, femoropopliteal and below the knee arteries. To obtain a good image, adequate contrast dose and image size must be determined with the appropriate catheter. For puncture, echo-guided approach is becoming popular; each lab needs to have echo machine to minimize the vascular complication. In cases of renal dysfunction, CO2 angiography is suited. However, care must be taken to deliver gas into arterial system and to know the merit and demerit of CO2 angiography.",signatures:"Yoshiaki Yokoi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53791",authors:[{id:"66538",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiaki",surname:"Yokoi",slug:"yoshiaki-yokoi",fullName:"Yoshiaki Yokoi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53887",title:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Aortoiliac Artery Disease",doi:"10.5772/67178",slug:"angiography-and-endovascular-therapy-for-aortoiliac-artery-disease",totalDownloads:2478,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The treatment of aortoiliac occlusive disease has shifted to endovascular therapy. Even in complex lesion, precise angiography enables successful treatment in endovascular work. However, complications‐related endovascular intervention of these lesions is catastrophic. Accurate angiographic assessment is mandatory to complete the procedure. This article reviews angiographic approach for aortoiliac artery disease in diagnosis, endovascular intervention, and complications.",signatures:"Keisuke Fukuda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53887",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53887",authors:[{id:"195496",title:"Dr.",name:"Keisuke",surname:"Fukuda",slug:"keisuke-fukuda",fullName:"Keisuke Fukuda"}],corrections:null},{id:"53853",title:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Femoropopliteal Artery Disease",doi:"10.5772/67181",slug:"angiography-and-endovascular-therapy-for-femoropopliteal-artery-disease",totalDownloads:2736,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Femoropopliteal artery disease accounts for a significant proportion of endovascular interventions (EVTs) for peripheral artery disease (PAD) in patients with disabling claudication or chronic limb ischemia. The femoropopliteal artery starts from the common femoral artery (CFA) to the superficial femoral artery (SFA) and ends at the popliteal artery. The SFA is the longest vessel, and it is hard to visualize the entire vessel in one image. However, it is the main target for endovascular works. Before EVT procedure, full evaluation by the angiography is needed. These include anatomical variation, lesion length, lesion characteristics, calcification, and stent restenosis pattern. Endovascular approach is based on these information. The benefit of revascularization is considered to correspond to the severity of ischemia. Their assessment led to optimal endovascular strategy for femoropopliteal occlusive disease. However, to keep the patency after procedure by current endovascular approach still remains unsolved.",signatures:"Masahiko Fujihara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53853",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53853",authors:[{id:"195497",title:"Dr.",name:"Masahiko",surname:"Fujihara",slug:"masahiko-fujihara",fullName:"Masahiko Fujihara"}],corrections:null},{id:"53810",title:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Below-the-Knee Artery Disease",doi:"10.5772/67179",slug:"angiography-and-endovascular-therapy-for-below-the-knee-artery-disease",totalDownloads:3131,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Critical limb ischemia (CLI) is growing in global prevalence and is associated with high rates of limb loss and mortality. “Endovascular-first” approach is considered to be the current standard care for symptomatic infrainguinal atherosclerotic disease. Given the facts that many CLI patients have severe comorbidities and endovascular-first approach is a common practice and may reduce the magnitude of the surgical trauma and systemic complications. In this chapter, updated angiographic approach for below-the-knee disease is described with endovascular technique.",signatures:"Akihiro Higashimori",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53810",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53810",authors:[{id:"195500",title:"Dr.",name:"Akihiro",surname:"Higashimori",slug:"akihiro-higashimori",fullName:"Akihiro Higashimori"}],corrections:null},{id:"53805",title:"Nonatherosclerotic Peripheral Artery Disease",doi:"10.5772/67180",slug:"nonatherosclerotic-peripheral-artery-disease",totalDownloads:2316,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nonatherosclerotic peripheral artery disease (NAPAD) remains underappreciated compared to atherosclerotic peripheral artery disease. However, under‐ or misdiagnosis of NAPAD can potentially lead to serious adverse outcomes. There is a broad spectrum of disorders including vasculitis, thrombophilia, and other vascular anatomical or functional disorders in the context of NAPAD. This section briefly overviews vascular imaging, mainly invasive angiography, to optimize the management of NAPAD.",signatures:"Osami Kawarada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53805",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53805",authors:[{id:"195501",title:"Dr.",name:"Osami",surname:"Kawarada",slug:"osami-kawarada",fullName:"Osami Kawarada"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"3",title:"Monograph",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3384",title:"Calcific Aortic Valve Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d164bdd0560d68ddbb0f5aa8c8c63cd",slug:"calcific-aortic-valve-disease",bookSignature:"Elena Aikawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3384.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37703",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Aikawa",slug:"elena-aikawa",fullName:"Elena Aikawa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"830",title:"Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis",subtitle:"from Embryonic Development to Regenerative Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c8f85e5c4786ba9d585dfcdef77aa2e",slug:"vasculogenesis-and-angiogenesis-from-embryonic-development-to-regenerative-medicine",bookSignature:"Dan T. 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Tjoumakaris",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3539.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"74387",title:"Dr.",name:"Stavropoula",surname:"Tjoumakaris",slug:"stavropoula-tjoumakaris",fullName:"Stavropoula Tjoumakaris"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"661",title:"Coronary Interventions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b168173742fe74fd4aa40064ded344e5",slug:"coronary-interventions",bookSignature:"Neville Kukreja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/661.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78318",title:"Dr.",name:"Neville",surname:"Kukreja",slug:"neville-kukreja",fullName:"Neville Kukreja"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"71364",slug:"erratum-the-mechanism-of-misalignment-of-saw-cutting-crack-of-concrete-pavement",title:"Erratum - The Mechanism of Misalignment of Saw Cutting Crack of Concrete Pavement",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71364.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71364",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71364",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71364",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71364",chapter:{id:"71109",slug:"the-mechanism-of-misalignment-of-saw-cutting-crack-of-concrete-pavement",signatures:"Chatarina Niken",dateSubmitted:"October 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 14th 2020",datePublished:"September 23rd 2020",book:{id:"7615",title:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",slug:"fracture-mechanics-applications",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen and H. 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\r\n\tThis book is intended for professionals dealing with diagnostics and treatment of infertility and aims to provide comprehensive information on the current state of assisted reproductive technologies and their directions of development.
\r\n\tAssisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) is a key technology for treating infertility, which occurs in 10-15% of the general population in reproductive age. This has been one of the most tumultuously developing interdisciplinary technologies in medicine in recent decades. Thanks to in vitro methods, more than 5 million children were born in the whole world. For 40 years, the success rates of this treatment have increased many times, respectively in the first years from less than 10% to more than 50% in present days (in some groups of patients). The reason for this rapid increase is the introduction of new drugs and stimulation protocols, improvement of embryo culture media, and the use of new types of laboratory equipment that improve the conditions for embryo development. Last but not least, the introduction of modern genetic methods, as well as new gamete and tissue freezing techniques, has improved the methods' diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities.
Management, nutrition, lactation turn or the age, year and season in which lactation started are the leading environmental factors affecting lactation performance in cattle. Beside these factors, the persistency level of the highest milk production period reached on lactation is a significant factor [1]. Also, lactation performance in dairy cattle depends upon genetic and environmental factors. Genetic background, climate, diseases, feeding, year and season of calving have been reported to affect milk production, lactation length and dry period [2, 3]. Breed, age, stage of lactation, parity and milking frequency also influence performance production [2, 3]. Holstein cows were considered the most dairy cows in the World. As number of Holstein cows in Tunisia is more than other breeds, breeding of Holstein cows is very important. Milk yield and duration of lactation have marked effects on dairy economy [4, 5]. The persistency level of lactation milk production can be defined as the ability of keeping a high daily milk flow during lactation, in the milk productivity of lactation’s first period’s persistency level or the rest of the lactation as a measure of lactation curve diagram, the highest period productivity of the continuation level during lactation, continuation level of the highest productivity and after reaching the highest productivity the rate of decreasing seen on milk production in time. Milk yield is the most important single determinant of profit for the dairy cow. Moreover, effects of lactation number, age, and season and year of calving on milk yield and lactation length are well known. In addition, in breeding of dairy cows, the most important aims are to obtain a calf in a year and high milk yield from cows. To obtain a calf in a year from cows depends on some parameters of ideal limits (60 days dry period, 305 days lactation duration etc.). However, profitable breeding could be achieved by keeping lactation duration, dry period and service period between optimal limits [6, 7]. The yields of farm animals are the result of the combined effects of genotype and environmental conditions. In order to increase the yield level, it is necessary to optimize the environmental conditions and to improve the genetic structure of the animals. In order to enhance productivity of a dairy animal, it is necessary to develop an understanding of the factors affecting its milk production. Environmental factors can be classified as factors with measurable effects (age, year, season, milking frequency, etc.) and factors with immeasurable effects (infectious diseases, parasitic infestations, etc.). The measurable effects can be determined and used in the management of the farm [8]. Environmental factors affecting variability in daily milk yield are widely documented in dairy cattle [9- 11]. The 305 days milk yield of Holstein cows was 5905 kg in Tunisia [12], 5353 kg in Morocco [13], and between 4597 and 6464 kg in Turkey [14- 16]. Environmental factors such as year of calving, season of calving and age at calving affect productivity [17]. Many researchers [6, 14] reported that the effect of calving season on 305 days milk yield was as significant and indicated that milk yield was higher in autumn and winter. Unlike, Bilgiç and Aliç [16] and Pelister et al. [18] reported that effect of calving season on 305 days milk yield was non-significant. Although, effect of lactation number on 305-days milk yield was reported [14, 15, 19] as significant. Opposing, Koçak et al. [6] and Bilgiç and Aliç [16] reported a non-significant effect of lactation number on 305 days milk yield. Effects of calving age on 305 days milk yield have been reported as significant [18, 20]. The lactation duration of Holstein cows was between 284.7 and 333.9 days in previous studies [14, 16, 21, 22]. The effect of calving season on lactation duration was reported as non-significant [6, 16, 18]. The effect of lactation number on lactation duration was reported as non-significant [14, 16, 19]. However, the effect of calving age on lactation duration was reported as significant [15, 18]. Zambrano et al. [23] reported that the effect of calving year on lactation duration was significant. The dry period of Holstein cows was between 73.34 and 82.1 days [14, 15, 22]. Koçak et al. [6] and Pelister et al. [18] reported a non-significant effect of calving season on dry period. However, Erdem et al. [14] stated a significant effect of age at calving on lactation duration. Similarly, the effect of lactation number on dry period was reported as non-significant [14, 15]. On the other hand, the effect of calving age on lactation duration was stated as significant [19]. Effects of age at calving on dry period have been reported as significant [18]. Many researchers [14, 15, 23] were found that effect of calving year on all milk yield traits (305 days milk yield, lactation duration, dry period) was significant. Inci et al. [15] reported that effects of calving year on 305 days milk yield and lactation duration were significant but non-significant on dry period. The present research work was designed to investigate non-genetics factors affecting milk yield, lactation length and dry period of Holstein cows raised under Tunisian conditions.
The data used in the present study were taken from the Tunisian Livestock and Pasture Office (OEP). 260.241 test-day records of 5649 Holstein cows from Tunisian milk control data were analysed. Data from lactations records of cows having their first calving between 1996 and 2003 were used. To evaluate the significant effects of calving year, season of calving, lactation number, and age at calving on different milk yield traits, eight groups for calving year were formed, between 1996 and 2003, three age groups of calving age (1) 2–4, (2) 5–6, and (3) 7 or older, four calving seasons were established; winter (December, January and February), spring (March, April and May), summer (June, July, August), and autumn (September, October and November) and five groups for parity. The 305 days milk yield was estimated from test milk yields collected once a month during all lactation periods [8, 24]. Lactations with less than five tests were not used in calculation. Milk yields were standardized to 305 days by using adjustment factors estimated by Çilek [25]. Environmental factors, which influenced lactation milk yield, lactation duration and dry period were investigated. Simple means and standard errors for the traits studied were estimated using SAS 9.13. The General Linear Model (GLM) was utilized for variance analyses of milk yield traits. Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) was used for multiple comparisons of each trait.
The statistical model was as follows:
Where,
Yijkl = Observed trait at lactation number i, calving season j, calving year k and group of age l
µ = Population mean for each trait,
Li = Effects of lactation number (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5),
Sj = Seasonal effects (j = spring, summer, autumn and winter),
CYk= Effect of calving year (k = years between 1996 and 2003),
ACl = Effect of group of age at calving (l= 1, 2 and 3),
eijklm = Random sampling error
The lactation performance of dairy cattle is usually measured by determining the total milk yield per lactation or per year, average daily milk yield, lactation length, lactation persistency, and milk composition. The least squares means along with their standard errors for different traits analysed are presented in table 1. The overall average 305-days milk yield was 5807.83±78.27 kg, ranging between 2271 and 7013. Average lactation length and dry period were estimated to be as 309.60±7.01 and 97.17±3.28 days, respectively when minimums were forced to be at least 127 and 11 days and when 356 and 213 days as maximums values. Average age at first calving was 1092.3 ± 196.8 days (range, 646–1588 days). The effect of year and season of calving and parity was significant (P<0.01) on milk traits. Effects of all factors (calving year, calving age, parity and calving season) on 305-days milk yield were significant (P<0.001).
305-days Milk yield (kg) | 2147 | 5807.83 | 78.27 | 2271.53 | 7013.80 |
Lactation length (days) | 1789 | 309.60 | 7.01 | 127.56 | 356.53 |
Dry period (days) | 1789 | 97.17 | 3.28 | 11 | 213.71 |
Records, means, standard deviations, minima and maxima of variation for milk yield, lactation length and dry period of Holstein cows
The major sources of variation in milk production, lactation length and dry period are genotype, environment and the interaction between the two. The influence of environmental factors on dairy production has been well documented.
Year of calving significantly influenced MY (P<0.001). The variation in milk yield from one year to other (Table 2) could be attributed to changes in herd size, age of the animals and good management practices introduced from year to another. The lowest 305 days milk yield (4879±117.89) was seen in 1998 years, the highest milk yield (6251±185.72 kg) was seen in 2003. Furthermore, the effects of calving year on lactation duration were statistically significant (P<0.05). Effects calving year on dry period were statistically significant (P<0.001). The dry period was lowest (96.57±5.57 days) in 2002 and highest (113.29±3.78 days) in 1996. Year wise means indicated that there was an increasing trend in lactation length from 1996 to 2003.
1147 | 5223±118.74b | 1147 | 269.9±7.56a | 1086 | 113.29±3.78a | |
1158 | 5396±127.43a | 1158 | 273.3±9.78a | 978 | 110.37±4.56a | |
2151 | 4879±117.89c | 2151 | 277.6±7.67ab | 1113 | 107.43±4.28ab | |
3146 | 5352±123.91ab | 3146 | 281.5±7.23b | 1275 | 103.73±5.36bc | |
4183 | 5609±127.83ad | 4183 | 288.3±6.47b | 1256 | 101.85±5.78c | |
4728 | 6051±156.25d | 4728 | 292.6±8.46bc | 1317 | 99.47±6.32dc | |
4689 | 6125±158.36d | 4689 | 312.7±5.13c | 1328 | 96.57±5.57d | |
3879 | 6251±185.72d | 3879 | 322.78±6.44c | 1278 | 98.23±4.86d |
-d: differences between groups with same letter in the same column are non-significant, differences with different letter are significant (p<0.05).
Least square means of milk yield traits by calving year
The least squares analysis revealed that 305 days milk yield was significantly (P<0.001) affected by season of calving (table 3). The present results suggested that milk yield was sensitive to seasonal variation. The effect of calving season on milk yield was significant and milk yield was high (5827±69.23) in cows calving in winter. However, the effect of calving season on lactation duration was significant (P<0.001), but non-significant (P>0.05) on dry period. Then, season of calving affected both the lactation length and milk yield. As shown in table 3, least squares mean was higher for automn calvers (307.6±4.57 days) as compared to spring calvers (296.7±3.99 days). Although, summer and winter calvers have similar lactation length (301.4±4.12 and 303.7±4.28 days) but winter calvers have the highest milk yield (5827±63.17 kg). Milk yield on the other hand had the opposite trend. Summer calvers produced 614 kg less milk (5213 vs. 5827 kg) as compared to winter calvers.
n | Mean±SE | n | Mean±SE | n | Mean±SE | |
Spring | 1235 | 5608±62.36ab | 1235 | 296.7±3.99b | 978 | 104.29±2.78a |
Summer | 1117 | 5213±73.17b | 1117 | 301.4±4.12ab | 1109 | 98.23±3.12a |
Autumn | 1227 | 5713±69.23ab | 1227 | 307.6±4.57a | 1089 | 96.48±3.28a |
Winter | 1347 | 5827±63.17a | 1347 | 303.7±4.28ab | 1117 | 87.56±2.97a |
Least square means of milk yield traits by calving season
Total 305 days milk yields were lowest in 2-4 years of age at 5312 kg and highest in 7 years of age at 5611 kg. However, the effects of age at calving on lactation length were non-significant (P>0.05). Dry period increased with increase of age at calving. The lowest dry period was found in 2-4 years old age at 83.37 days and highest in 7 years old age at 99.71 days. The dry period was above the ideal value in all years. In order to make animals more profitable, it is essential they were made pregnant as soon as possible during the service period in order to shorten the dry period (Table 4).
1 | 1256 | 5312.54±78.95a | 1256 | 307.56±4.78a | 1127 | 83.37±3.27a |
2 | 1147 | 5517.23±72.36ab | 1147 | 303.47±5.12a | 1217 | 87.12±3.54ab |
3 | 1378 | 5611.17±79.27b | 1378 | 299.78±4.56a | 1236 | 99.71±3.31b |
Least square means of milk yield traits by group of calving age
The effects of parity on lactation duration were statistically significant (P<0.001). Lactation duration was shortest in lactation 5 at 297.8±3.04 days and longest in lactation 4 at 317.5±4.17 days. Lactation duration decreased with increase of lactation number. Effects of parity on dry period were statistically significant (P<0.001). Dry period was longest in 5th lactation at 113.28±3.25 days and shortest in 3rd lactation at 87.23±2.17 days (Table 5).
n | Mean±SE | n | Mean±SE | n | Mean±SE | |
1 | 1457 | 5412.27±52.41a | 1457 | 311.7±3.12a | 1123 | 93.14±2.34a |
2 | 1353 | 5721.35±54.74b | 1353 | 307.1±2.78ab | 1099 | 89.27±2.41b |
3 | 1246 | 5614.23±47.13bc | 1246 | 303.3±3.27c | 987 | 87.23±2.17b |
4 | 1127 | 5417.58±46.51a | 1127 | 317.5±4.17b | 956 | 95.16±3.04a |
5 | 978 | 5123.47±48.45c | 978 | 297.8±3.04ac | 979 | 113.28±3.25c |
Least square means of milk yield traits by parity
In this study, means of 305 days milk yield was 5807.83±78.27 kg. The findings of present study were in accordance with those of Ajili et al. [12], Boujenane [13], Erdem et al. [14], Inci et al. [15], Bilgiç & Aliç [16], Duru & Tuncel [21] and Kaya et al. [22]. As reported previously [7, 20, 26], the effect of calving season on milk yield was significant and milk yield was the highest in cows calving in winter. Similar finding have been reported by Javed et al. [27] and Tekerli et al. [28] in Holstein Friesian cows. Thorpe et al. [29] showed the effects of season of calving on production performance of dairy cattle in Kenya. Cows calving in winter have high milk yields, due probably to good feeding levels in the first 3 or 4 months of lactation. On the other hand, cows calving in summer have low milk yields due to their being subject to high environmental temperatures in the first 3 or 4 months of lactation. On the contrary many workers [30 - 32] observed that the season of calving had a non-significant effect on lactation milk yield in Holstein Friesian cows.
Analysis of variance revealed that 305-days milk yield is significantly (P<0.05) affected by age at calving. The result is closely in accordance with the results of Kaya et al. [22] and Catillo et al. [33]. The lowest milk yield was obtained from cows calving at 2 years of age and the highest from those calving at 7 years of age. The negative effect of early calving on milk yield could have been due to different factors, such as higher body weight gain before puberty. Milk yield decreased after 7 years of age. As reported in the literature [7, 20], this confirms that milk yield increases with age up to maturity and decreases thereafter.
305-days milk yield differed significantly (P<0.05) with calving year (Table 2). The lowest milk yield was obtained in 1998. After 1998, milk yield increased up to 2003. The reasons for this increase could be the use of bulls with high genetic capacity, selection for milk yield and culling in the herd and especially improvement in management and feeding conditions. The variation in milk yield observed in different years reflected the level of management as well as environmental effects. Between 1996 and 2001, short lactation duration and consequently low milk yield may result from the deficiency of attention and feeding conditions. The significant effect of year of calving productive performance of dairy cows could be attributed to the changes in feeding and managerial systems and environmental conditions which occurred from year to another as well as to differences between years in the quantity and quality of forage available. 305-days milk yield differed significantly (P<0.05) with lactation order (Table 5). The 305-days milk yield in second lactation was significantly higher than in first lactation. This result is consistent with Munim et al. [34] who found significant (P<0.05) effect of parity on milk yield. Nevertheless, the result differed from that of Habib et al. [35] who found non-significant (P>0.05) effect of lactation number on milk yield. The significant effect of parity on productive performance may be due to the changes in managerial systems and environmental conditions among parties. The average lactation length calculated in this study was 309.6 days. This was very close to the ideal value (305 days). This length of lactation was longer than results reported by Sattar et al. [36] and Alim [37] who reported a lactation length of 293 ± 3 and 291.86 ± 6.55 days in Friesian cows in Libya and Pakistan, respectively. The lactation duration of Holstein cows was between 284.7 and 333.9 days in previous studies [14-16, 18, 21, 22]. The shorter lactation duration is 127.56 days it may be related to incomplete lactations when data were collected. Lactation duration decreased with increase of lactation number. Short lactation duration in the oldest cows (5th lactation number) may be related to incomplete lactations because of culling.
The average dry period was 97.7±2.25 days. Dry period was higher than the ideal value (80 days) but shorter than funding of Sattar et al. [36] who reported a longer (224.99 days) dry period. However, the dry period increased with calving age, as a result of increase of milk yield level with age in the herd. It can be said that if milk yield increases with calving age, dry period would decrease. Effect of calving year on all milk yield traits was significant. Differences among years may be related to management. It can be said that differences of management among years was the most important factor affecting milk yield traits.
Dairy cows are usually dried-off for two months prior to the next calving. This rest period is necessary to maximize milk production in subsequent lactation. It was reported that the dry period is required for the renewal of the udder glandular tissue [38, 39]. Nevertheless, the optimal dry period was established as 60 days. A significant increase in milk yield of the dairy cows caused a new attention in creating the optimum dry period [40]. Two months were accepted as a sufficient dry period for high-productive cows [41]. A research done in Poland by Borkowska et al. [42] and Winnicki et al. [43] indicated that in practice the dry period is extended or excessively shortened, which leads to a reduction in milk production as compared to the recommended optimum. Milk yield is usually reduced when the dry period is less than 40-60 days (25-40% less milk). Dry period longer than 60 days in length does not result in a significant increase in milk production. Long dry periods decrease the average annual production of the cow by extending the calving interval beyond the normal 13-14 month interval and causing a decrease in the lifetime production of the dairy cow.
In this study, there was increase of milk yield level according to previous research [16]. This may result from improvement in breeding, feeding and management conditions (selection for milk yield and culling in the herd etc.). Although, lactation duration was found almost at ideal value, dry period was estimated as higher than the ideal value. In order to make animals more profitable, it is essential to make them be pregnant as soon as possible during the service period in order to shorten the dry period. It can be concluded that Holstein cattle is raised successfully for milk yield under Tunisian environmental conditions. It is concluded that milk yield and lactation length are affected by year and season of calving. Adjusted milk yield (adjusted for lactation length) and lactation length are affected by year into season of calving interaction but actual milk yield is not affected by year by season of calving interaction. Age within parity, also, affected lactation length and milk yield. Negative phenotypic trend in milk yield is alarming and needs further investigations.
The authors thank Professors Olfa Frouja Sayadi and Zeineb Dkhili for the language revision and for prompting this research. The authors also thank OEP for making the data available.
Down syndrome (DS) is the chromosomal abnormality caused in humans when extra genes from chromosome 21 are transferred to a newly produced embryo. It affects the fetal development leading to physical and mental abnormalities. The babies with DS have a distinct appearance than normal babies. Some of the DS victims are shown in Figure 1. The babies suffering from DS are likely to have retardation in growth and the mental problems. DS, in general, cannot be cured; the simplest way to avoid the babies with DS is to detect the fetus with DS and prevent it from being born.
Victims of DS (courtesy:
DS is not a rare phenomenon and the occurrence of this phenomenon is eventually improving throughout the world. Patterson [1] in his work “Molecular genetic analysis of Down Syndrome” states that more than 1 in 1000 neonates has DS. A stats report [2] shows that i) the risk of DS in the global birth rate is 0.00125% ii) women in the age of 30 and below have 0.001% risk of DS iii) women in the age of 45 have 0.022% risk of DS. The abortion rates in DS-affected pregnancies [3] have amplified to 67–92% in the United States and Europe.
In medical world, ultrasonographic markers like nuchal fold, nasal bone hypoplasia and femur length are often seen as a symptom of DS. Nuchal fold is a skin fold noted at the backside of neck in the fetus during the second trimester. Increased thickness in the nuchal fold is observed as the most sensitive symptom of DS. A comparison of the nuchal fold between the normal fetus and DS affected fetus is shown in Figure 2.
Comparison of nuchal fold between normal fetus and DS related fetus (courtesy:
Nasal bone hypoplasia is a condition where the nasal bone of the fetus appears to be very small. It has to be noted that 70% of DS [4] fetuses have no nasal bone or smaller nasal bone. A comparison of nasal bone analysis between the normal fetus and DS related fetus is shown in Figure 3.
Comparison of nasal bone between normal fetus and DS related fetus (courtesy:
Femur length is the measure of the longest bone in the fetus. Shortening of femur length is considered as the symptom of DS. Recently, Echogenic Intracardiac Foci (EIF) had been considered as a new symptom of DS. Many clinical researches affirm that the presence of EIF is considered as a potential indication of DS. An EIF is named as an intense white shape that is found in the heart of the fetus. It can be examined through the ultrasound. An article “Ultrasound Findings” expresses that EIF is seen in around 1 out of each 20 or 30 pregnancies (∼3–5%). EIF is associated with 12% of foetuses with DS [5] and biventricular EIF suffers higher risk for aneuploidy. If an EIF is detected in an ultrasound image, the pregnant women with EIF fetus feel dreadful mental pressure fearing that they would deliver DS affected baby [2]. This psychological weight caused in the pregnant ladies can undesirably affect the fetus. To cut the down the psychological weight of the pregnant ladies and to guarantee that the fetus is unaffected with DS, women with EIF symptoms are prescribed to go through chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis.
Amniocentesis, Percutaneous umbilical blood inspecting and Chorionic villus sampling methods are the most non-ultrasonic method for detecting DS. Amniocentesis is a method of collecting a little amount of the amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus and analysing it for trisomy 21. It is carried in the light of ultrasonic guidance. It is advised after the 15th week of pregnancy. This method has the high risk of leaking amniotic fluid, miscarriage, needle injury to fetus and infection transmission. Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) is a method of collecting the blood from the umbilical cord and tests it for chromosomal defects. It is performed in the 18th week of the pregnancy. PUBS have a higher risk of miscarriage. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a method of analysing the chromosomes in the cells taken from the placenta. CVS is performed between 9th and 14th weeks of the pregnancy. This method suffers from the drawbacks like miscarriage and uterine infection problems.
As the relativity of EIF with DS is very low, it would not be advisable to request women with EIF fetus to undergo Amniocentesis, CVS and PUBS. There is a great need to coin a new mechanism that can differentiate DS related EIF fetus from the normal EIF fetus through ultrasound testing. This research aims at bringing a new invention that can detect DS based on EIF through an ultrasound scan.
The major contributions of this chapter are:
A new medical parameter EIF is used for the detection of DS
A new image segmentation algorithm Multi-scale Quantized Convolution Neural Network (MSQCNN) is developed and used for accurately detecting and extracting the EIF in the ultrasound fetal images
Cross-Correlation Technique (CCT) is employed to confirm DS by analysing the nasal bone hypoplasia in the training phase
A new supervised classification scheme Enhanced Learning Vector Quantiser (ELVQ) is utilised to differentiate the normal EIF from the EIF related to DS.
Introduction of the problem statement, the necessity for this research and the challenges present in this research had already been well discussed in section 1. The rest of this chapter is structured as follows. A complete view of related studies is provided in section 2. The proposed methodology is elucidated in section 3. The test results and comparisons are elaborated in section 4. Future research directions and conclusion are briefed in section 5 and section 6.
This section provides a detailed view of the emerging researches performed on the identification of DS utilising ultrasound. Rebecca et.al [6] performed analyses to decide the exactness of second-trimester ultrasound in identifying DS in fetuses. The malformation in the structure and ultrasonographic markers are the baseline factor behind this research examination. The experimental outcomes demonstrated that the ultrasonographic markers without related morphological abnormalities could not differentiate between the normal fetus and the fetus with DS. This research made a noteworthy observation that placing the markers as a deciding factor to suggest amniocentesis can lead to a huge number of fetal losses.
Lauren Lynch et.al [7] brought forth the new ultrasonic parameter nuchal fold that was highly informative for detection of DS than the other parameters like biparietal diameter and femur length. Patrick Rozenberg et.al [8] recommended the inclusion of the first-trimester ultrasound scan for the diagnosis of DS in addition to the second-trimester ultrasound. Detection of the ultrasonographic marker like nuchal fold, biparietal diameter and femur length is a challenging task due to the presence of speckle noise in an ultrasound image. Detection of these markers requires highly skilled sonologists, obstetricians, and fetal medicine professionals [2]. This led to the paradigm shift for the automated diagnosis of DS from the ultrasound images.
Cuckle et al. proposed a genetic scan mechanism called nuchal translucency scan [9] to assess the risk of the fetus suffering from DS based on the nuchal fold. NT scans works based on the principle that “fetus with DS will accumulate more fluid at the end of the neck”. NT scan is always performed between 11 to 13 weeks of the pregnancy. As the risk of Aneuploidy and DS increases exponentially with the thickness of NT thickness [10], there has been wide growth in the mechanism of semi-automated methods for detecting DS based on the nuchal fold.
Yinhui Deng et al. [11] have presented a systematic structural model for the automated detection of nuchal translucency region. Anzalone et al. [12] automated the measurement of nuchal translucency from the ultrasound image. Nirmala. S and Palanisamy. V [13] proposed the identification of nuchal translucency utilising the imaging methods like mean shift analysis and canny operators. The thickness of nuchal translucency was computed utilising blob analysis. Sonia. R and Shanthi V [14] performed the morphological operations and Otsu thresholding for the partitioning and calculating the region of nuchal translucency.
Lai K Wee et.al [15] utilised the neural network to figure out the area of nuchal translucency. The boundary region of nuchal translucency layer is detected utilising an instinctive computerised algorithm. After the identification of the boundary region, the optimum thickness of the region is computed based on intensity continuity and edge strength. Yan Du et.al [16] performed fetal karyotype assessment among Chinese ladies and found that nonappearance of nasal bone in the second trimester has the high risk of DS in the fetus. Iliescu Dominic-Gabriel and Drăgușin Roxana-Cristina [17] reviewed various schemes in early hereditary screening and ultrasound assessment and inferred a decision that first-trimester ultrasound assessment can possibly analyse the most of fetal irregularities.
Shafia Shakoor, Humera Ismail and Shama Munim [18] explored the experimental results in fetuses with EIF. The trial was experimented in Pakistan and the outcomes showed that 95.77% of the fetuses were normal, just 4.2% recorded abnormalities in heart and 0% had DS. Aaron B. Caughey, Deirdre J. Lyell et.al [19] assessed the impact of isolated EIF for screening DS. The investigation affirmed the use of EIF as a screening factor may prompt an immense number of amniocenteses and miscarriages to decide a rare DS fetus.
The following observations are evident from the recent researches carried out in this field I) The most often utilised parameters for the identification of DS are nuchal fold, femur length and nasal bone hypoplasia ii) Association of DS and EIF is relatively low iii) There exist a need and necessity for developing a computerised methodology for spotting DS, as the manual diagnosis requires some artifacts.
Histopathology is the assessment of tissues in the impacted organs of the body. The extensive growth of the computerised image processing has given rise to a new diagnostic methodology termed as computer-assisted diagnosis (CAD). CAD assists the radiologists for disease detection, diagnosis and prognosis prediction. Diagnosis of DS based on EIF is one of the difficult issues that could be tackled by CAD methodology. The efficiency of imaging techniques and CAD can be unitedly employed to substitute the traditional DS diagnostic methods like amniocentesis and chronic sampling.
The proposed system “Ultrasonic Detection of Down Syndrome using Multiscale Quantiser with Convolution Neural Network” uses a medical parameter EIF for the detection of DS. It is designed with the aim of discriminating the normal EIF from DS related EIF. It consists of two phases i) training phase and ii) testing phase. Training phase involves learning and forming the knowledge cluster of EIF related to DS. Testing phase involves classifying the diagnostic ultrasound fetal image as DS positive or negative, based on the knowledge cluster. An architecture diagram of the proposed system is given below in Figure 4.
The architecture of the proposed system.
Not all the fetus that contain EIF result in DS, only few patterns of EIF can cause DS. The aim of this phase is to find the characteristics of DS-related EIF. The training phase includes five steps i) Image Pre-Processing using Neuro-Fuzzy Filter – to eliminate the speckle noise in the ultrasound fetal image that can hinder the detection of EIF ii) Detection of Nasal Bone using CCT - to confirm the presence of DS in the ultrasound fetal image iii) Detection of EIF using MSQCNN – to detect/segment EIF present in the ultrasound fetal image iv) Learning the features of EIF and cluster formation – to analyse the features of EIF like size, location and form a cluster. The systematic representation of the training phase is shown in Figure 5.
A schematic representation of the training phase.
The ultrasound devices produce high quality, real-time images but very often it is degraded with speckle noise. Speckle noise is a big threat for the quality of the results of image processing. It can produce artificial edges, echoes the patterns in the images that disturb the diagnosis process.
The image pre-processing is the most significant step of the training phase. In pre-processing; a neuro-fuzzy filter that operates based on neuro-fuzzy and evolutionary learning is used to eliminate the speckle noise. The neural network possesses the ability to train. The knowledge for the training is fed into the system in a fuzzy format. Speckle noise is eliminated based on the fuzzy knowledge. A memetic algorithm is utilised to improve neuro-fuzzy filter. The algorithmic description of neuro-fuzzy filter is given below:
Algorithm: Neuro-fuzzy filter Input: Ultrasound image with speckle noise Output: Processed image with less noise Algorithm
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Detection of nasal bone is the second step of the training phase. The presence of DS is confirmed by the absence of nasal bone using CCT, as seventy percent of DS foetuses have no nasal bone [4]. CCT is a simple matching algorithm that works based on the correlation. The algorithmic description of CCT is displayed below [20].
1. Start 2. Consider target image S and template image T. 3. Consider the ultrasound image S for which nasal bone has to be detected 4. Consider the ultra sound image T with nasal bone detected 5. Derive subset image(I) in T image that include nasal bone area 6. Look for I in S image 7. If I is present in S, obtain the location of I 8. Find cross correlation matrix for the template image and target image where 9. The correlation matrix is converted into surface plotting graph 10. Based on the graph, the maximum value of image correlation will be used for the detection of nasal bone 11. If the peak of the graph is less than 0.35, it can be concluded that nasal bone is absent 12. Stop |
Detection of EIF is the third step in the training phase following the image pre-processing and detection of the nasal bone. Training phase continues to the detection of EIF, only when the detection of nasal bone reports that fetal image has no nasal bone or weak nasal bone in it.
MSQNN is used to detect the EIF in the ultrasound images. MSQNN consists of additional components such as acceptor, quantiser with the conventional five layers that include convolution layer 1 and 2, pooling layer 1 and 2, fully connected layer 1 and 2. The output object coming out of FC Layer 2 is led into acceptor. The functionality of acceptor is to compare the object detected in the various scale of the input image and compute the difference between the objects. If the difference between the objects detected at the various scale lies within the threshold, it is treated as the final object. Acceptor computes the difference between the objects using the following formula.
where ∂ = Difference between the object detected at scale 1 and scale 2,
Y (i) = Object detected at scale 1,
Y (i + 1) = Object detected at scale 2,
SF = Scale factor at which object is detected.
Acceptor stops forwarding the control to Quantiser if the acceptance criteria are met. Below is the condition for the acceptance criteria to be met.
where
∂ = actual difference between objects detected at various scale.
If the acceptance criterion is not met, acceptor transfers the control to quantiser. Quantiser performs quantisation by dividing the input image by scaling factor and rounding this value to the nearest integer. The mathematical formulation of quantiser is presented below.
The next iteration for object detection starts with the reduced size input image. This iterative process of detecting an object continues until the number of iterations reaches the maximum or the acceptance criterion is met in Acceptor. The final object detected is treated as the EIF present in the ultrasound image of the fetus.
The pictorial representation of Multiscale Quantised Convolution Neural Network is given below in Figure 6.
A pictorial representation of multiscale quantised convolution neural network.
Learning the features of EIF is the last step of the training phase, it happens just when the nasal bone is absent. The size and spatial coordinates of EIF are stored and clustered based on the closeness of the appearance (2). The similarity parameter utilised for clustering are i) size of EIF and ii) position of EIF specifically left ventricle and right ventricle. These clusters become the knowledge base for ELVQ function of the testing stage. Basically, two clusters are formed in this training phase of ELVQ, one cluster is for DS positive EIF fetus and other is for DS negative EIF fetus.
Testing phase involves discriminating DS related EIF from the normal EIF. The knowledge attained in the training phase plays the critical role in the determination of DS-related EIF. ELVQ maps the testing image to the cluster map developed in the training phase, by spotting the malignant EIF.
The testing phase contains five steps namely i) Image Pre-Processing using Neuro-Fuzzy Filter – to eliminate the speckle noise in the ultrasound fetal image that can hinder the detection of EIF ii) Detection of EIF using MSQCNN – to detect EIF present in the ultrasound fetal image iii) Find the features of EIF – to find the features of EIF like size and location iv) Enhanced Learning Vector Quantisation Classification – to classify fetus into DS positive or negative based on the knowledge cluster. The flowchart representation of the testing phase is shown in Figure 7.
A flowchart representation of the testing phase.
The first two steps of testing phase are i) Image Pre-Processing and ii) Detection of EIF using MSQCNN are discussed well in the section 3.1.1 and 3.1.3. The third step concentrates on obtaining the features of EIF. Then as the fourth step, ELVQ classification involves.
ELVQ supervised learning classifies the test image into DS positive or negative groups. For a single testing, two steps of ELVQ should be finished. In the initial step, the size of EIF is treated as the weight vector and in the second the location of EIF is treated as the weight vector (2). Enhanced Learning Vector Quantiser differs from the conventional Learning Vector Quantiser in one aspect; LVQ uses Euclidean distance whereas ELVQ uses Manhattan distance function.
|
At the end of this testing phase, ELVQ classifies an input EIF fetus image as DS positive or negative.
This section describes the experimental results of the proposed techniques. The proposed system is implemented with software Scilab. It [2] was employed for image and mathematical processing needs. Scilab is open source and freeware that can perform wide numerical computation for engineering and scientific applications.
As there is no standard dataset for EIF fetus images, the experiment was carried out on the user created the dataset. Nearly 35 2D-ultrasound fetal images were collected from numerous online and offline sources. These fetal images belong to the period of 24–26 weeks. Out of these 35 fetal images, the diagnosis result of DS is known for 25 fetal images (that includes 20 ultrasound fetal images with DS positive and 5 ultrasound fetal images with DS negative).
These 25 ultrasound fetal images are used in the training phase to obtain the characteristics of EIF associated with DS. There were also 10 ultrasound fetal images with EIF with no clue for DS were used in the testing phase. Some of the fetal images with EIF that were used for the experiment were shown in Figure 8.
The dataset of the fetal images with EIF.
Training was performed with 25 DS diagnosed images. It was done in five iterations and the learning rate was consistently improving. The training phase results were presented in Table 1. The average rate of the learning at the end of training phase was 80%, while the rejection rate was only 20%.
Iteration No# | No. Of Input Images | Learning Rate | Rejection Rate |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 10 | 10 | 0 |
2 | 20 | 14 | 6 |
3 | 40 | 34 | 6 |
4 | 80 | 68 | 12 |
5 | 100 | 86 | 14 |
Training phase results.
Experimental results of the training phase are given as follows:
Detection of EIF using MSQCNN is shown in Figure 9.
Detection of EIF.
Detection of nasal bone using CCT in Figure 10.
Detection of nasal bone.
The fetal image (A. Normal) that was rejected and the fetal image (B. Down syndrome) that was learnt in the training phase is shown in Figure 11.
Results of the training phase.
The knowledge attained from the training phase about the location and size of EIF is shown in Table 2.
S.No | Size of EIF | Location of EIF | Other Ultrasound findings | DS Positive |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | > = 5.4 mm | Left Ventricle | Nasal Bone Absence | Yes |
2 | > = 5 mm | Biventricular | Nasal Bone Absence | Yes |
Clustered knowledge from the training phase.
The testing phase was carried out to identify DS in 5 fetal images with EIF is shown in Table 3.
Experiment No # | Tested images | Down Syndrome Positive | Down Syndrome Negative |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 50 | 33 | 17 |
Results of the testing phase.
The fetal image with EIF that was analysed for DS in the testing phase and proved to be Down syndrome negative is displayed in Figure 12.
26 weeks fetus with left ventricular EIF with DS negative in the testing phase.
The fetal image with EIF that was analysed for DS in the testing phase and confirmed as Down syndrome positive is displayed in Figure 13.
A fetus with EIF on both the ventricles with DS positive in testing phase. X.
The performance of DS detection system is evaluated using parameters such as sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy. Sensitivity is the number of true positives that are rightly acknowledged by a diagnostic test [2]. It states how well the diagnostic test is identifying a disease.
Specificity is the quantity of the true negatives rightly acknowledged by a diagnostic test [2]. It determines how good the test is identifying normal (negative) condition.
Accuracy is the number of true results, either true positive or true negative, in a population. It measures the degree of veracity of a diagnostic test on a condition.
(Note: T.P stands for True Positive, T.N stands for True Negative, F.P stands for False Positive, F.N stands for False Negative)
The performance metrics of the proposed system is compared with the existing system “Automatic Computerized Diagnostic Tool for Down Syndrome Detection in Fetus” [2] is shown in Figure 14.
Comparison with the state of art.
The proposed system showed the better performance than the existing system terms of sensitivity and accuracy, but it showed low specificity than the existing system.
The newly designed system was able to clearly differentiate DS related fetus from the normal fetus based on EIF. It was producing very accurate results when operated on the fetal ultrasound images with a single EIF and multiple EIF. In future works, the soft markers like nuchal fold and femur length can be considered as an alternate parameter instead of nasal bone hypoplasia in the training phase.
This chapter presented a new idea “Ultrasonic Detection of Down Syndrome using Multiscale Quantiser with Convolutional Neural Network” to detect DS based on EIF in an ultrasonic automated method. The proposed system was intelligent enough to clearly distinguish DS causing EIF from the normal EIF. It attained better results in terms of accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. In future works, this system can be added as a new feature in the ultrasound fetal scan. It can also serve as an alternate for the conventional DS diagnostics like amniocentesis, PUBS, and CVS.
I feel proud and privileged to thank my guide Dr.A.R.Kavitha M.E., Ph.D. for her precious guidance and whole hearted support. I wish to express a sense of gratitude to my lovable English Teacher Mrs. Sucy George M.A., M.A., B.Ed for copy editing of this chapter. Last but not least I wish to dedicate this chapter to my family members (Late Simon – My Father, Mrs. Shanthi Simon - My Mother, Mrs. Gnana Rita M.A., B.Ed. - My Sibling, Mrs. Pearlin M.E - My Wife) and well-wishers (Mrs.Vimala Gilbert, Rev.Fr.Yesu Antony, Ms.Tamil Ilakika) for their boundless honest support and consistent motivation.
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Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies"},signatures:"Mahdi Banaee",authors:[{id:"83012",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahdi",middleName:null,surname:"Banaee",slug:"mahdi-banaee",fullName:"Mahdi Banaee"}]},{id:"42191",doi:"10.5772/54199",title:"Side Effects of Insecticides on Natural Enemies and Possibility of Their Integration in Plant Protection Strategies",slug:"side-effects-of-insecticides-on-natural-enemies-and-possibility-of-their-integration-in-plant-protec",totalDownloads:5751,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:null,book:{id:"3055",slug:"insecticides-development-of-safer-and-more-effective-technologies",title:"Insecticides",fullTitle:"Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies"},signatures:"Nabil El-Wakeil, Nawal Gaafar, Ahmed Sallam and Christa Volkmar",authors:[{id:"80199",title:"Prof.",name:"Christa",middleName:null,surname:"Volkmar",slug:"christa-volkmar",fullName:"Christa Volkmar"},{id:"82718",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:null,surname:"El-Wakeil",slug:"nabil-el-wakeil",fullName:"Nabil El-Wakeil"},{id:"83353",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Sallam",slug:"ahmed-sallam",fullName:"Ahmed Sallam"},{id:"83363",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawal",middleName:null,surname:"Gaafar",slug:"nawal-gaafar",fullName:"Nawal Gaafar"}]},{id:"25668",doi:"10.5772/27852",title:"Ecosmart Biorational Insecticides: Alternative Insect Control Strategies",slug:"ecosmart-biorational-insecticides-alternative-insect-control-strategies",totalDownloads:6713,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:null,book:{id:"2036",slug:"insecticides-advances-in-integrated-pest-management",title:"Insecticides",fullTitle:"Insecticides - 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Its major nutritional limitation has been the low protein content and poor protein quality, which necessitates the use of expensive high‐protein supplements or synthetic amino acids such as lysine in diets containing large proportion of maize. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted by maize breeders on the world maize germplasms collection with the aim of improving its nutritive value, particularly protein quality for monogastric animals. This chapter assesses the genetic upgrading of the nutritional quality of maize protein that culminated in the development of a new class of maize known as “Quality Protein Maize (QPM)”. Various studies on the nutritionally improved maize for poultry as well as future challenges confronting maize utilisation in poultry production are highlighted.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Herbert K. Dei",authors:[{id:"28844",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Kwabla",middleName:"Kwabla",surname:"Dei",slug:"herbert-kwabla-dei",fullName:"Herbert Kwabla Dei"}]},{id:"61570",title:"Adenoviruses and Their Diversity in Poultry",slug:"adenoviruses-and-their-diversity-in-poultry",totalDownloads:1772,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"An investigation into the aetiology of fowl adenovirus strains and their distribution worldwide in populations of poultry flocks industry has been conducted. Pathogenic role of the viruses is not always clear. They can cause latent infection or several diseases and are the reason of economic losses in poultry flock industry. Ubiquity of adenovirus strains was commonly described, and stand-alone pathogenicity for a long time has been disputed. A globally emerging trend of adenoviruses and adenovirus-associated diseases has been increasing from year to year in all over the world. Mainly, type FAdV-4 is responsible for hydropericardium hepatitis syndrome (HP), type FAdV-1 for gizzard erosion and ulceration (GEU), and types FAdV-2, 8a, 8b, and 11 seem to be responsible for inclusion body hepatitis (IBH). Defining the spreading of the avian adenovirus strains in different types of fowl profile production, recognising their property and determining their types and molecular characterisation are very important from the epidemiological point of view and are considered as excellent basis for vaccine development and gene therapy implementation. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of FAdVs, including their epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostic, detection, and molecular characterisation. This comprehensive review is needed to better understand the latest progress in study of the viruses and prospects regarding disease control and implementation of gene therapy.",book:{id:"6623",slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk",authors:[{id:"212649",title:"Dr.",name:"Jowita Samanta",middleName:null,surname:"Niczyporuk",slug:"jowita-samanta-niczyporuk",fullName:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk"}]},{id:"65864",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:3177,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Majority of the people in the poorest regions of the tropics rely on poultry production as their major source of protein supply. However, poultry production is hindered by the harsh environmental conditions in this regions therefore, reducing the daily supply of protein. It is believed that understanding heat stress in birds by paying detail attention to the sources of heat generation in a poultry house can help manage the heat stress situation in this region. This text reviews the internal climatic conditions of the poultry houses, how the birds respond to them, and their implications for heat management in poultry production. Thus, it provides pertinent information for guidance on parameters for open poultry houses architectural design that ensures optimum climatic conditions that will alleviate heat stress problem in poultry production in hot and humid climate.",book:{id:"8470",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde",authors:[{id:"273409",title:"Mr.",name:"Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Oloyo",slug:"ayodeji-oloyo",fullName:"Ayodeji Oloyo"},{id:"274920",title:"MSc.",name:"Adedamola",middleName:null,surname:"Ojerinde",slug:"adedamola-ojerinde",fullName:"Adedamola Ojerinde"}]},{id:"61583",title:"Domestication and Welfare in Farmed Fish",slug:"domestication-and-welfare-in-farmed-fish",totalDownloads:1670,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The domestication of fish species is still in its early stages when compared to terrestrial animals. The effects of domestication on welfare of farmed fishes are complex to study because fish differ from livestock in genetics, physiology and behaviour, and experience different sensory worlds. Consequently, empathy with fish and understanding of their needs becomes more problematic than with land animals. Additionally, the acknowledgement and study of mental dimensions of fish existence is very recent. We discuss that higher levels of domestication in fish do not necessarily correspond to better welfare because (1) artificial selection by the aquaculture industry is mostly focused on production-related traits such as growth, and this selection process may have unknown negative effects on welfare-related traits; (2) the number of fish species presently farmed (circa 300) is 10-fold higher than land animals, rendering the establishment of standard welfare guidelines extremely complicated; (3) the current paradigm of the Five Freedoms guiding welfare is out-dated and was designed for livestock; and (4) there are still severe knowledge gaps in the biology of farmed fishes, especially in welfare-related traits. The implementation of humane farming systems should integrate industry, science and ethics in an open dialogue in order to produce relevant results.",book:{id:"6053",slug:"animal-domestication",title:"Animal Domestication",fullTitle:"Animal Domestication"},signatures:"João L. Saraiva, Maria F. Castanheira, Pablo Arechavala-López, Jenny Volstorf and Billo Heinzpeter Studer",authors:null},{id:"53276",title:"Mycotoxins in Poultry",slug:"mycotoxins-in-poultry",totalDownloads:3723,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Mycotoxins, the toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, particularly produced by many species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium, have affected animal and human health for over thousand years, whereas little has been discovered so far about these complex substances in poultry, which are generally very sensitive. Even though it varies by species and sex, some common effects are reduced feed intake, weight gain, feed efficiency, growth performance, immunity and hatchability along with increased mortality, organ damages (mainly kidney and liver), carcinogenicity, teratogenicity and decreased egg production. Besides their adverse health effects and the decrease in production rate, concerns over their importance in public health is still under debate. Decontamination approaches to reduce mycotoxins in feed are technologically diverse and based on chemical, biological and physical strategies. Chemical remediation strategies involve the conversion of mycotoxins via chemical reactions. Biological strategies involve various substances such as plant ingredients, enzymes and microorganisms. Physical processes include sorting, milling, dehulling, cleaning, heating, irradiation or combinational approaches. New strategies for the prevention and treatment of mycotoxicosis, including beneficial microorganisms/products, along with alternative treatments, including plant extracts/essential oils, are current hot topics in the poultry industry.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Ayhan Filazi, Begum Yurdakok-Dikmen, Ozgur Kuzukiran and Ufuk\nTansel Sireli",authors:[{id:"152542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayhan",middleName:null,surname:"Filazi",slug:"ayhan-filazi",fullName:"Ayhan Filazi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"31",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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