\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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In the early days, machines fulfilled only manual activities. Nowadays, these machines extend their capabilities to cognitive tasks as well. And now AI is poised to make a huge contribution to medical and biological applications. From medical equipment to diagnosing and predicting disease to image and video processing, among others, AI has proven to be an area with great potential. The ability of AI to make informed decisions, learn and perceive the environment, and predict certain behavior, among its many other skills, makes this application of paramount importance in today's world. This book discusses and examines AI applications in medicine and biology as well as challenges and opportunities in this fascinating area.",isbn:"978-1-78984-018-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-017-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-605-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77536",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",numberOfPages:140,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9670,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:49,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 22nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 21st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 11th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 10th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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EMG patterns underlying movement, recorded using surface or needle electrodes, can be used to detect movement and gait abnormalities. In this review article, we examine EMG signal processing techniques that have been applied for diagnosing gait disorders. These techniques span from traditional statistical tests to complex machine learning algorithms. We particularly emphasize those techniques are promising for clinical applications. This study is pertinent to both medical and engineering research communities and is potentially helpful in advancing diagnostics and designing rehabilitation devices.",signatures:"Rajat Emanuel Singh, Kamran Iqbal, Gannon White and Jennifer K. Holtz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65853",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65853",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66246",title:"Radiation Oncology in the Era of Big Data and Machine Learning for Precision Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84629",slug:"radiation-oncology-in-the-era-of-big-data-and-machine-learning-for-precision-medicine",totalDownloads:2208,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Machine learning (ML) applications in medicine represent an emerging field of research with the potential to revolutionize the field of radiation oncology, in particular. With the era of big data, the utilization of machine learning algorithms in radiation oncology research is growing fast with applications including patient diagnosis and staging of cancer, treatment simulation, treatment planning, treatment delivery, quality assurance, and treatment response and outcome predictions. In this chapter, we provide the interested reader with an overview of the ongoing advances and cutting-edge applications of state-of-the-art ML techniques in radiation oncology process from the radiotherapy workflow perspective, starting from patient’s diagnosis to follow-up. We present with discussion the areas where ML has presently been used and also areas where ML could be applied to improve the efficiency (i.e., optimizing and automating the clinical processes) and quality (i.e., potentials for decision-making support toward a practical application of precision medicine in radiation therapy) of patient care.",signatures:"Alexander F.I. 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The reconstruction method includes the pixel-based method, volume-based method, and function-based method, accompanied with their benefits and drawbacks. In the 3D visualization, methods such as multiplanar reformatting, volume rendering, and surface rendering are presented. 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Examples are provided for the XOR Boolean function representation problem and decision under risk; in the last case, quantum object-oriented programming using IBM’s Qiskit Python library is employed to implement a form of quantum neural reinforcement learning applied to a classical decision under risk problem, showing how decision can be integrated into a quantum artificial intelligence system, where an artificial agent learns how to select an optimal action when facing a classical gamble. 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On the other hand, if you chase after crystals not whales, or believe that the determination of the structure of matter was a historical pivot, you will be disappointed that there does not exist a single narrative history of crystallography in print in English or any other language to the best of our knowledge. By any measure, crystallography now receives scant attention by historians and scholars.
One admirable attempt to fill this chasm is the wonderfully idiosyncratic
Burke’s
As a remedy, we set out to produce an English language edition of I. I. Shafranovskii’s two volume
We began our translation project more than one year ago. We made some progress but the labor ahead is many times over the labor that is behind.
Very recently, we became aware of several remarkable manuscripts in English that are freely downloadable from achives.org. Their author is Curtis P. Schuh, whose surname is linked with Shafranovskii in the title of this article. Though incomplete and unpublished, Schuh\'s manuscripts obviate our perceived need for an English language translation of Shafranovskii. In light of Schuh, the rewards of fully translating Shafranovskii are diminished. Herein, we aim to introduce readers first to Shafranovskii’s book, and then to Schuh’s unpublished manuscripts in the final section.
Our translations of Shafranovskii’s introduction, table of contents, and a sample chapter, follow. Here, we can see his strategy and style. In preparing an English language edition of Shafranovskii’s book we did not aspire to make a one-to-one translation. While Shafranovskii is a formidable historian, he is a tiresome, repetitive writer. He engages the reader with an old-fashioned, didactic, ‘Soviet’ style. Our intent was to reduce his two volumes to one and in the process produce a readable
Shafranovskii reviewed the relevant historical literature in his introduction. Here, we introduce major sources upon which he was most reliant, and those he was most critical of. Shafranovskii’s naturally acknowledges Burke’s text. Both Shafranovskii and Burke were admirers of Metzger (1889-1944?) a crystallographer turned philosopher of science. In her doctoral dissertation,
I. I. Shafronovski’s History of Crystallography, XIXth Century, Volume 2.
German texts dominated the 19th century literature on the history of crystallography, especially those of Marx (1794-1864) and Kobell (1803-1882). Marx’s
Groth (1843-1927) published
I. I. Shafranovskii age ~ 50.
Naturally, Shafranovskii gave special attention to the Russian literature. Terniaev’s (1767-1827) history of mineralogy predated (1819) Marx’s comparable work, with a stronger focus on recent events, especially emphasizing the contributions of Haüy (1743-1822). Vernadsky’s (1863-1945)
Memoirs by Ewald (1888-1985) and Bragg (1890-1971), describe the first steps and subsequent developments in X-ray crystallography (Ewald, 1962; Bragg, 1975). Shafranovskii’s history ends as X-rays are discovered. A full history of X-ray crystallography, a story of the 20th century, has yet to be written.
Here follows a biographical sketch of Shafranovskii, his table of contents, as well as a translation of the introduction to his two-volume opus, and a late chapter on Pierre Curie’s Universal Principle of Symmetry.
Ilarion Ilarionovich Shafranovskii (Anonymous, 1957, 1967, 1977, 1987, Figure 2), the son of a mathematician, was born in St. Petersberg. He first studied crystallography with Ansheles (1885 - 1957) at Leningrad University, graduating in 1931. In 1934, Shafranovskii began a professorship at the Leningrad Mining Institute, founded in 1907 by Fedorov (1853-1919), Ansheles’ teacher. Shafranovskii received his doctoral degree in 1942 for studying diamond crystals with unusual morphologies. In 1946, he assumed the E. S. Fedorov Chair of Crystallography. Shafranovskii’s name is frequently linked that of Federov. Shafranovskii wrote a biography of Fedorov (Shafranovskii, 1963), and in 1970 was awarded the E. S. Fedorov prize of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for his work on the morphology of crystals and contributions to the history and popularization of crystallography.
Shafranovskii wrote some 500 articles and books. Among his major works are a textbook on crystallography with Popov,
In 1982, a mineral was named in Shafranovskii’s honor, Shafranovskite, found the mountains of the Kola Peninsula, the eastward-jutting, thumb-shaped landmass atop Finland.
VOLUME I. FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 19TH CENTURYPage
Introduction1
Chapter 1. Crystals in ancient Greek and Roman literature25
Chapter 2. Conceptions in the Middle Ages and Renaissance36
Chapter 3. Hints of a structural crystallography – Kepler50
Chapter 4. Layered growth and the constancy of crystal angles - Steno65
Chapter 5. Crystal optics - Bartholinus86
Chapter 6. Early ideas about crystal growth95
Chapter 7. Foundational crystallography - Cappeler110
Chapter 8. Classification – Linnaeus and Buffon122
Chapter 9. The Russian school - Lomonsov140
Chapter 10. 17th and 18th Century crystallization theories158
Chapter 11. Crystal growth - Leblanc and Lovits177
Chapter 12. Electrical properties of crystals195
Chapter 13. Mineralogy - Werner202
Chapter 14. An independent science - Romé de l’Lisle 216
Chapter 15. Häuy’s predecessor - Bergman241
Chapter 16. A theory of crystal structure – Häuy253
Conclusion276
References278
Citations289
Author index290
VOLUME II. THE 19TH CENTURY
Foreword
Introduction5
Chapter 1. The reflecting goniometer - Wollaston9
Chapter 2. Development of crystal systems – Mohs and Weiss20
Chapter 3. Morphology of minerals - Breitthaupt, Rose, Neumann, Koksharov, and others40
Chapter 4. Isomorphism, and polymorphism – Mitscherlich65
Chapter 5. Crystal optics78
Chapter 6. Mathematical crystallography96
Chapter 7. The 32 crystal classes - Hessel, Bravias, and Gadolin109
Chapter 8. The 14 Bravais lattices137
Chapter 9. Space groups - Sohncke, Fedorov, Shoenflies, and Barlow159
Chapter 10. Molecular dissymmetry - Pasteur180
Chapter 11. Real crystals and complex forms193
Chapter 12. Physical and chemical crystallography 208
Chapter 13. Universal symmetry principle - Curie227
Chapter 14. Groth’s monument239
Chapter 15. Morphology of crystals - Goldschmidt 255
Chapter 16. Foundations of modern crystallography - Fedorov270
Conclusion303
Citations306
Author index317
Goethe said, “The history of science is science itself” (Fink, 1991). Crystallography well illustrates his aphorism, at least as judged from its development in textbooks. Indeed, turning the pages of an elementary treatise in crystallography takes us from the simple to the complex following the chronological development of the science of crystals. For instance, the chronology of discoveries in geometrical crystallography mimics the order in which the associated concepts are presented in most textbooks. Pliny the Elder (AD 23 – 79) marveled at the extraordinarily flat faces of quartz crystals: “not even the most skillful lapidary could achieve such a finish” (Healy, 1999). A long time passed before the law of the constancy of interfacial angles was articulated in 17th and 18th centuries by Steno (1638-1686), Henkel (1678-1744), Lomonosov (1711-1765), and Romé de l’Lisle (1736-1790). Häuy (1743-1834) went further with law of rational indices, and the relationship between external shapes and internal structure. Weiss and Mohs deduced the zone law at the start of the 19th Century. Hessel, Bravais, and Gadolin (1828-1892) derived the finite symmetry classes, the 32 crystallographic point groups. Frankenheim (1801-1869), Bravias (1811-1863), and Sohncke (1842-1898) introduced the infinite symmetries of lattices. Fedorov and Schoenflies (1853-1928) carry us into the 20th Century and modern structural crystallography with derivations of the 230 space groups.
We could reconstruct the development of crystal physics likewise by tracing a path through discovery of double refraction in Iceland spar by Bartholinus (1669), to the correlation of optical and morphological symmetry by Brewster (1781-1868), to the correlation of all physical properties of crystals with symmetry by Neumann (1798-1895), and to the general symmetry principle of Curie (1859-1906) and modern solid state physics.
We thus might conclude that organizing a history of crystallography is a simple task. We need only enumerate in chronological order, and then elaborate on, all the achievements of crystallography. Of course, the situation is more complicated than it appears at first blush. The skeletal historical outlines above are idealized and purged of detours. Bewilderment, the lifeblood of the scientific enterprise, is nowhere in evidence. Such an accounting prejudicially selects only those developments that are organically incorporated into modern crystallography without disturbing the harmony of the imposing edifice. A faithful history of crystallography -- in all its fullness -- muddles the implicit history of the textbooks.
Foremost among the characteristics of crystals that have guided the development of crystallography is the problem presented by the stridently polyhedral shapes of crystals. “Crystals flash forth their symmetry” The English rendering of this phrase was taken from Archard’s translation of Shubnikov and Kopstik (1974).
On the slight basis that crystals have geometrical shapes, are homogeneous, and anisotropic, theorists created a breathtaking mathematical crystallography. First articulated were laws that controlled the appearance of crystals of finite point symmetry. Like other mathematical disciplines, the development of theoretical crystallography was strictly logical, led to prediction, and guided subsequent experimental studies. The deduction of crystal classes (Hessel, 1830; Gadolin, 1867) was carried out before many of were illustrated by minerals; of the 32 crystal point groups, Gadolin found only 20 examples in nature. The laws governing crystal point symmetries were then extended to cover the symmetries of infinite crystal lattices. Indeed, at the end of the 19th Century, achievements in mathematical crystallography were so impressive that Fedorov proclaimed that its mathematical character rendered it “one of the most exact sciences” (Fedorov, 1901). Only now have advances in analysis matched those of theory, restoring balance to the science of crystals.
In the middle of 19th Century Frankenheim and Bravais developed the concept of the crystal lattice enumerating the 14 frameworks that form the basis of the modern structural crystallography. “Nature knelt before the hard theory, and the crystals positioned themselves in those classes where they should be according to the geometrical systems of points (space lattices),” expressively wrote Fedorov (1891). The 14 Bravais lattices and the 32 point groups were the constraints between which Fedorov, and independently Schoenflies (1853-1928), deduced in 1890-1891 the 230 possible space groups that restrict the mutual arrangement of building units (atoms, ions, molecules) inside crystals (1891). These far-seeing predictions were fully supported by experimental data subsequent to the discovery of X-ray diffraction by von Laue (1912), an achievement that is no less impressive than Mendeleev’s expectations of undiscovered chemical elements on the basis of the periodic system. The derivation of the 230 space groups of Fedorov caps our history; it is the pinnacle in development of the classical science of crystallography.
Along the way, sharp conflicts between scientists were provoked. Romé de l’Lisle clashed with Häuy on the relationship between morphology and internal structure. The German physiographical school of Weiss (1780-1856), Mohs (1773-1839), and Naumann (1797-1873), conflicted with theoretical studies by Hessel (1796-1872) and Bravias. Mineralogists Koksharov and Eremeev (1830-1899) fiercely resisted the mathematical generalizations of the Fedorov.
In this history, chapters devoted to the development of important crystallography concepts alternate with chapters devoted to the lives, creative work, and struggles of the greatest crystallographers. Biographical details that inform certain advances are vital in that they color the local character or “microclimate” out of which those advances arose. Accounts of the fate of a discovery, involving the collective acceptance or negation of an idea by many scientists working in disparate countries over centuries, illustrate the global character of the history of crystallography. Experiment and theory drive one another while great currents sweep up individuals whose works and words broaden the stream.
The use of crystalline materials by various professionals, further confounds the author of a history of crystallography. Since ancient times minerals guided miners in search of raw materials. Subsequently, the growth of crystals became a part of problem solving in metallurgy, physics, chemistry, and pharmacology, connecting crystallography with many branches of pure and applied science. This prevented crystallography from coalescing as an independent science for a long time. Crystallography was variously considered as a part physics, chemistry, mathematics, or especially mineralogy. In the 19th Century, crystallography was “preparatory mineralogy”. Young Fedorov called crystallography “geometrical mineralogy”. Even after having placed the capstone on the science of classical crystallography with the derivation of the space groups, Fedorov wrote at the end of his life: “[Crystallography] plays an essential role at the heart of mineralogy and as part of mining science whose primary purpose is utilization of natural resources” (Fedorov, 1955). Only recently has the characterization of crystallography as a “servant of mineralogy” faded. Today even cell biologists, and biomedical researchers embrace crystallography although this aspect of the history of crystallography is not covered herein.
Metzger, it her doctoral dissertation
The changing interrelations among the sciences and their sub-disciplines complicates a reconstruction of the history of crystallography. Important threads must be picked from the vast literature on mineralogy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, metallurgy, medicine, and biology among others disciplines. This extraction requires an enormous amount of time and effort. Obviously, the history of crystallography can be only conditionally likened to a continuous, smooth line. In reality, we face something like a dotted line diving in and out of the general tableaux of the development of science.
So, how shall we write a history of crystallography? We can follow Metzger and little by little separate crystallography from historically related sciences, stressing the increasing independence from other disciplines. Alternatively, we can consider the development of crystallography as a natural structure constrained by the symmetries of regular crystal packing that started with minerals and gradually subsumed a wider spectrum of objects from synthetic molecular crystals to semi-conductors to drugs to proteins. The development of crystallography validates both approaches. This happens due to dialectic process of the differentiation and synthesis of the sciences (Figurovsky, 1969). Indeed, specialization of the science of crystals results in great progress; narrow disciplines can probe ever more deeply. On the other hand, increasing contacts among a rising number of allied disciplines obscures the main themes that specifically delineate the development of crystallography.
These ideas fully correspond to the new conceptions of the development of sciences. It is interesting to note that Fedorov stands at the beginning of such a systems approach. In his philosophical treatise “Perfectionism” he wrote: “The scientist is perpetually faced with the generalization of proven laws. The higher the philosophical development of a scientist, the clearer he understands the need to generalize even further because the logic of philosophy requires complete reduction” (Fedorov, 1906). The same ideas expressed more emphatically can be found in his later papers: “Are there true boundaries between sciences? Maybe all the sciences constitute something united and indivisible. Maybe the boundaries of a science, as they are established, represent only artificial constructions adapted to current understanding” (Fedorov, 1917). Thus, we must follow the historically conditioned development of the science of crystals without becoming isolated behind “artificial partitions” established by other disciplines.
Crystallographic phenomenology is emblematic to scientific generalization. Now, scientists often invoke “isomorphic laws” in different fields of science. It is gratifying to witness symmetry laws, firstly discovered in crystals, transferred to other fields of science. The beautiful examples of “isomorphism” underscore the relationship of geometrical crystallography to chemistry; the Steno-Lomonosov-Romé de l’Lisle law of the constancy of crystal angles is “isomorphic” to the law of Proust (1754-1826) on the constancy of composition of “true chemical compounds”. Lomonsov’s mentor, Henkel, formulated the law of the constancy of crystal angles as follows: “Nature in the confusion of her varied combinations has chosen the structure and external appearance of substances according to their properties and corresponding to external conditions and circumstances. She does not deviate from this rule; she sets a compass and measures the angles establishing one substance for all time.” (Marx, 1825). Of his eponymous law, Proust said: “A compound is a privileged product, that Nature has given a constant composition. Nature, even with the intercession of people, never produces a compound without balance in hand; everything is in accord with weight and measure” (Menshutkin, 1937). The similarity in the formulation of this statement with that of Henkel is startling.
The law of the constancy of angles combined with the observation of cleavage phenomena led Häuy to formulate the unique “polyhedral molecules” (crystal structures in modern parlance) for a given crystalline compound. In the 20th Century, Goldschmidt (1888-1947) interpreted this statement as “the primary basis of crystal chemistry” (Goldschmidt, 1937). The thesis of Häuy combined with Steno’s law is the crystallographic analogue of the Proust’s generalization in chemistry. The law of rational indices in crystals by Häuy is “isomorphous” to the basic law of chemistry, Dalton’s (1766-1844) law of multiple proportions. Obviously, the older crystallographic laws played some role in establishing of latter ones. Thus, once again we see the impossible task of the historian keen to separate unadulterated crystallography from closely related disciplines of physics, chemistry, and mineralogy.
Periodization, the subdivision of a long history into stages of development, provides further practical problems for the historian. Lenin (1870-1924) provides a general guide: “From living contemplation to abstract thinking
According to Kedrov (1903-1985), there are three main stages in the development of any science: (1) empirical fact gathering, (2) theory and explanation, and (3) prognostication (Kedrov, 1971). In the history of crystallography, we can see all three periods. For example, previously, with Grigoriev, we divided the history of Russian mineralogy and crystallography into four stages: narrative-descriptive, exact-descriptive, theoretical, and synthetic (Grigoriev, Shafranovskii, 1949). To a certain extent this division agrees with Kedrov if the two descriptive stages are aligned with his empirical stage. While mindful of the dual theoretical and practical development of crystallography, we recognize that a strict division into stages is impossible. In fact, Kedrov admits the conditional character of his divisions. In Russian crystallography, these periods are intertwined, overlapped, and sometimes inverted. Sometimes all three Kedrov stages can be identified in the activity of one and the same scientist. Nevertheless, stages are evident when we take a course-grained, centuries-wise perspective of the most significant achievements that carried the science forward: rules of morphology by Steno (1669), formulation of descriptive and theoretical crystallography by Romé de l’Lisle and Häuy (1783-1784), the mathematical inventions of Fedorov (1881-1919). In the 20th Century we have to acknowledge two “great revolutions in crystallography” as they were called by academician Belov (1891-1982): the epochal discovery of X-ray diffraction by von Laue (1912) and revolutionary developments in the growth of technically important single crystals in the 1950s and1960s (Belov, 1972).
In this work, for operational purposes, we distinguish four periods in the history of crystallography:
Prehistory, from ancient times to Steno;
Emergence of crystallography as an independent science, from Steno to Romé de l’Lisle and Häuy;
Development of classical, geometrical, crystallography, from Häuy to Fedorov;
The modern period, from Fedorov and von Laue to the present day, with its powerful synergy of crystal physics, crystal chemistry, structural biology, and crystal growth technologies.
A finer grained division into stages requires accounting of the related scientific disciplines: geology (Tikhomirov & Khain, 1956; Gordeev, 1967; Batyushkova, 1973), mineralogy (Povarennyh, 1962), physics (Dorfman, 1974), and chemistry (Figurovsky, 1969) among others.
In his scientific work, Shafranovskii was driven to understand the well know fact that crystals frequently have lower morphological symmetry than that expressed by physical properties or by X-ray diffraction. He recognized that the dissymmetry of the medium was often responsible for “false” crystal morphologies. This relationship between dissymmetric cause and effect was understandable in terms of Pierre Curie’s Universal Symmetry Principle. For this reason, the work of Curie was of special interest to Shafranovskii. And for this reason, we provide a translation of one of the last chapters of the second volume of the History: “University Symmetry Principle – Curie”.
Pierre Curie (1859-1906, Figure 3) was crushed under the wheels of a horse drawn carriage on a Paris street, a great misfortune for the world science. One of the most splendid French scientists of all time died at the peak of his power. Curie’s deep insights survive in just a few, unusually concise articles. For this reason, the impact of his ideas, especially those related to crystallography and the symmetry principle, were not fully realized for some time.
The life and scientific work of Curie is described in a modest book by his wife Marie Curie (1867-1934) (Curie, 1963). Her brief biography of her husband succeeded in fleshing-out some of Pierre’s ideas on symmetry that were not found in his publications. Marie also conveyed a sense of her husband’s simple character and his devotion to the abstract life of the mind. Marie wrote, “He could never accustom himself to a system of work which involved hasty publications, and was always happier in a domain in which but a few investigators were quietly working” (Curie, 1963).
Pierre Curie was born in Paris, the son and grandson of physicians. He was schooled at home, but began attending lectures at the Sorbonne at a comparatively early age. At 18 he obtained a licentiate in physics after which he worked as a laboratory assistant in charge of the practical operations of the
Curie’s first papers describing the discovery of piezoelectricity in tourmaline, quartz, and other crystals (1880-1882), were written with his brother Jacques. His doctoral dissertation (1895) was an investigation of magnetism and the distinctions among diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic substances, especially their temperature dependences. Pierre was a collaborator in the studies of radioactivity initiated by his wife Marie Skłodowska Curie. This work led to their joint discovery of polonium and radium in 1898. In 1903 they were awarded the third Nobel Prize in physics, together with Henri Becquerel (1852-1908). However, less well known than Pierre\'s highly publicized and well recognized work on radioactivity, but arguably as important, were theoretical papers devoted to crystallography and symmetry.
Pierre Curie.
Physics and crystallography, explained Marie in the foreword to Pierre’s collected works, were “two sciences equally close to him and mutually complementary in spirit. For him, the symmetry of phenomena were intuitive.” (Curie, 1908). Thus, he was perfectly positioned to fully apply symmetry to physical laws. Still, distractions of work on radioactivity, adverse health effects associated with handling radium, and the burdens of fame left him wanting of more time to devote to his first loves, symmetry and crystallography. In her biography, Marie wrote, “Pierre always wanted to resume his works on the symmetry of crystalline media…After he was named professor at the Sorbonne. Pierre Curie had to prepare a new course…He was left great freedom in the choice of the matter he would present. Taking advantage of this freedom he returned to a subject that was dear to him, and devoted part of his lectures to the laws of symmetry, the study of fields of vectors and tensors, and to the application of these ideas to the physics of crystals.”
The crystallographic legacy of Pierre Curie consists of only 14 extremely brief articles, each a classic. Curie’s earliest contributions to crystallography are devoted piezoelectricity. Then follow the papers on the Universal Symmetry Principle. Finally, there is a small article on the relationship of crystal form to surface energy (Curie, 1885). This is now known as the Gibbs-Curie-Wulff rule.
It is commonly stated that piezoelectricity of crystals was discovered by the Curie brothers in 1880. This assertion must be qualified. In 1817, Häuy published a communication “On the electricity obtained in minerals by pressure” (Haüy, 1817). Pierre and Jacques Curie rediscovered this lost and incompletely described phenomenon. For sphalerites, boracites, calamine, tourmaline, quartz, Rochelle salt and other compounds, the Curie brothers showed that piezoelectricity can be present only in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces – in other words in acentric crystals – and that electric dipole moments can arise only along polar directions. Thus, knowing the crystal symmetry it became possible to predict the orientation of electrical axes. “This was by no means a chance discovery. It was the result of much reflection on the symmetry of crystalline matter that enabled the brothers to foresee the possibilities of such polarization”, wrote Marie (Curie, 1963).
Seven infinite point groups of symmetry: rotating cone, cone at rest, rotating cylinder, twisted cylinder, cylinder at rest, rotating or chiral sphere, and sphere at rest.
Quartz crystals were studied in the most detail. The brothers Curie carried out a series of careful experiments that enabled them to establish general principles of piezoelectricity and define the magnitude of the quartz piezoelectric coefficient. The most complicated part of experimental work concerned the measurement of electrostriction, the deformation of piezoelectric crystals by applying an electric field (Curie, 1889). They proved the existence of this phenomenon, known as the inverse piezoelectric effect, first theoretically predicted by Lippmann (1845-1921). Finally, they invented and developed a series of devices for the study of piezoelectricy including a press with a manometer, a tool combining a lever and microscope for the measurement of electrostriction, and an extremely accurate electrometer in which metallized quartz surfaces were used to collect charges generated when pressure was applied to the quartz (Mouline & Boudia, 2009). Curies’ works on piezoelectricity were inspirational to giants such as Röntgen (1845-1923), Kundt (1839-1894), Voigt (1850-1919), and Ioffe (1880-1960), among others. Langevin (1872-1946) utilized the piezoelectricity of quartz to produce ultrasound that is now used for measuring sea depth and detecting underwater objects.
At this same time, Curie worked out his theory of symmetry in a pair of papers (Curie, 1884, 1885b). Unlike Hessel, Bravais, and Fedorov, Curie’s approach to symmetry fully integrated physics with mathematics. His lattices were made from physical objects, not geometrical points. The vectoral and tensorial physical properties of which he was so well aware through experimental work on magnetism and piezoelectricity were poorly accounted for by point lattices. “Significant difficulties arise”, he said, “when points have associated properties related to direction in space. Such points should be represented by geometric figures embodying both magnitude and direction”(Curie, 1885). In searching for the proper figures, Curie was the first to establish the seven so-called “infinite point groups of symmetry” (Figure 4) with an infinite order axes (
An illustration of seven infinite point groups after Shubnikov is given in Figure 4 (enantiomorphs are not shown). Curie illustrated these groups by examples from physics. The chiral sphere was associated with an optically active liquid. The
Curie was the first to distinguish electric and magnetic dipoles. (Curie, 1894) Therefore, for example, in cubic crystals
This profound approach to symmetry enabled Curie to discover a new symmetry element, the “periodically acting plane of symmetry.” This symmetry element now corresponds to the improper rotation axis. Bravais, in his paper,
Almost simultaneously with Curie, Fedorov introduced mirror-rotation axes in his first book
In 1885, Curie published a small but very important paper Sur la formation des cristaux et sur les constants capillaires de leurs differrentes faces (Curie, 1885a) in which he established that a crystal or an assemblage of crystals in equilibrium with a solution adopts a form that minimizes the surface energy. This result was obtained by Gibbs (1839-1903) in 1878, however, his work languished in the literature, unappreciated for a long time. In his classic paper “On the problem of growth and dissolution rates of crystal faces”, Wulff (1863-1925) expressed this idea in terms that were easily applied (Wulff, 1952). The Wulff theorem states that “The minimum of the surface energy for a crystalline polyhedron of fixed volume is achieved, when the faces are spaced from the same point on distances that are proportional to the surface free energies” (Wulff, 1952). This theorem results in the important consequence that the growth rates of crystal faces are proportional to the specific surface energies of the faces. Wulff gave only an approximate proof of this theorem.
The theorem of Gibbs-Curie-Wulff was intensively debated. In 1915, Ehrenfest (1880-1933) emphasized that vicinal faces of real crystals have higher surface energies. This fact formed the basis of the objections to Curie’s idea by the Dutch inorganic chemist, Van Arkel (1893-1976). But, this principle can be unconditionally applied only to the equilibrium shapes of the crystal.
In 1894, Curie published an especially important paper on symmetry: Sur la symétrie dans les phénomènes physiques. Symétrie d’un champ électrique et d’un champ magnétique. This paper begins with a following sentence: “I believe that it would be very interesting to introduce into the study of physical phenomena the property of symmetry, which is well known to crystallographers” (1894). This paper contains the most important ideas on the universal significance of symmetry. Reflections on these ideas can be found in the biographical sketch by Marie, Pierre Curie, with the Autobiographical Notes of Marie Curie: “It was in reflecting upon the relations between cause and effect that govern these phenomena that Pierre Curie was led to complete and extend the idea of symmetry, by considering it as a condition of space characteristic of the medium in which a given phenomenon occurs. To define this condition it is necessary to consider not only the constitution of the medium but also its condition of movement and the physical agents to which it is subordinated.” And, “For this it is convenient to define the particular symmetry of each phenomenon and to introduce a classification which makes clear the principal groups of symmetry. Mass, electric charge, temperature, have the same symmetry, of a type called scalar, that of the sphere. A current of water and a rectilineal electric current have the symmetry of an arrow, of the type polar vector. The symmetry of an upright circular cylinder is of the type tensor” (Curie, 1963).
General statements found in the above paper are of great significance. “The characteristic symmetry of a given phenomenon is a maximal symmetry compatible with this phenomenon. The phenomenon can exist in the medium, which has a characteristic symmetry of this phenomenon or a symmetry of a subgroup of the characteristic symmetry. In the other words, some symmetry elements can coexist with some phenomena but they are not requisite. Some symmetry elements should be absent. That is, dissymmetry creates the phenomenon” (Curie, 1894).
Curie gave much broader interpretations to the concept “dissymmetry” than did Pasteur. He ascribed dissymmetry to the absence of symmetry elements that actuate some physical properties. For example, in the tourmaline crystal (L33P – 3m) the absence of the perpendicular symmetry plane gives the polar character to the L3 axis. This polarity makes pyroelectricity in tourmaline possible. For Curie, dissymmetry, the absence of symmetry, was as palpable as symmetry itself. He believed that the dissymmetric elements (e.g. a dissymmetry plane is any plane that is not a symmetry plane, a dissymmetry axis is any axis that is not a symmetry axis) could give a deeper insight into the physical meaning of phenomena. However, the infinite number of dissymmetry elements, unlike the very restricted number of symmetry elements, forces us to operate with the latter.
Shubnikov best characterized Curie’s emphasis on dissymmetry: “symmetry must not be considered without its antipode – dissymmetry. Symmetry treats those phenomena at equilibrium, dissymmetry characterizes motion. The common conception of symmetry-dissymmetry is inexhaustible” (Shubnikov, 1946).
Curie formulated several important consequences to what is now called Curie’s Universal Principle of Symmetry-Dissymmetry. “Superimposition of several phenomena in one and the same system results in addition of their dissymmetries. The remaining symmetry elements are only those that are characteristic of both phenomena considered separately. If some causes produce some effects, the symmetry elements of these causes should be present in the effects. If some effects reveal dissymmetry, this dissymmetry should be found in the causes” (Curie, 1894).
The statements cited above were illustrated by Curie with the infinite symmetry classes. He emphasized the special importance of class L∞∞P: “Such a symmetry is associated with the axis of the circular cone. This is the symmetry of force, velocity, and the gravitational field, as well the symmetry of electric field. With respect to symmetry, all these phenomena may be depicted with an arrow” (Curie, 1894).
In fact, consequences of the association of symmetry L∞∞P with gravity are inexhaustible. For example, it explains evolution of the symmetry in organic life. The simplest organisms evolved in a medium of spherical symmetry (∞L∞∞PC (∞/∞m)) such as the protozoan suspended in a homogeneous fluid. Then the cone symmetry (L∞∞P (∞m)), that describes gravity begins to exert its influence pinning life to the ground. The plane symmetry P(m) is actualized for moving organisms. Thus, the evolution of the organic life is controlled by the following sequence of desymmetrization of the medium: ∞/∞m > ∞m > m (Shafranovskii, 1968; Spaskii & Kravtsov, 1971).
Likewise, in mineralogy (Shafranovskii, 1974) detailed investigations of real, naturally occurring crystals requires a thorough knowledge on the medium in which the crystals were formed. Curie’s principle does not allow us to consider the resulting crystal in the absence of its growth medium because the symmetry of the growth medium is superimposed on the symmetry of the growing crystal. The resulting form of the crystal can preserve only those symmetry elements that coincide with the symmetry elements of the growth medium. Of course, the internal symmetry, the crystal structure, does not change. The observed crystal morphology is a compromise resulting from the superimposition of two symmetries: internal symmetry of the crystal and the external symmetry of the medium. Thus, distorted crystal shapes, frequent in nature, are indicators of growth medium dissymmetry.
Curie’s thoughts on symmetry have been only recently duly appreciated. Vernadsky was an advocate in his declining years. He wrote posthumously, “More than 40 year ago, in unfinished works interrupted first by the distraction of radium and then by death, Pierre Curie for the first time showed that the symmetry principle underlies all physical phenomena. Symmetry is as basic to physical phenomena as is the dimensionality of geometrical space because symmetry defines the physical state of the space – état de l’éspace. I have to stop here and emphasize the often forgotten importance of the force of personality. The premature depth of Curie at the peak of his powers stopped progress in this field for decades. Curie understood the significance of symmetry in physical phenomena before the causal relationship between symmetry and physical phenomena was not realized. He found the significance of this relationship previously overlooked” (Vernadsky, 1975).
Vernadsky writes: “The physically faithful definition [of symmetry], that we encounter throughout this book, was given by Curie…This is representation of a symmetry as a state of the earth, i.e. geological, natural space, or, more accurately as states of the space of natural bodies and phenomena of our planet Earth. Considering the symmetry as a state of the earth space it is necessary to emphasize the fact was expressed by Curie and recently stressed by A.V. Shubnikov, that the symmetry manifests itself not only in a structure but also in motions of natural bodies and phenomena” (Vernadsky, 1957).
Vernadsky knew Curie, whom he describes as “charming but lonely” (Vernadsky, 1965).
Detailed and very clear analyses of crystallographic ideas by Curie is presented in Shubnikov’s paper “On the works of Pierre Curie in the field of symmetry” (Shubnikov, 1988): “P. Curie is known to broad audience of scientists as an author of influential works in the field of radioactivity. But he is almost unknown as the author of profound studies in the field of symmetry and its applications to physics. However, these studies, if they were continued by P. Curie, could have hardly less significance for development of natural science than his works on radioactivity for development of chemistry and physics.”
Shubnikov noted that Curie’s papers were “extremely concise”, a style that did not lend itself to the general the acceptance of ideas that were before their time. He forecast that future generations would need to finalize Curie’s ideas” (Shubnikov, 1988). At the same time, Shubnikov, with Koptsik argued that the Curie principle is part of a tradition, in that it is a generalization of the principles of his predecessors, Neumann and Minnegerode. This is true only in part. In fact, there is a vast difference between the scope of Curie’s vision that expanded the significance of symmetry to all natural phenomena and the observations of Neumann and Minnegerode that were restricted to crystals. While, Curie is today rightly recognized as the forefather of the modern crystal physics, which is based entirely on symmetry laws, his ideas on symmetry in nature have penetrated into all branches of modern science.
As we were working on the Shafranovskii translation, we became aware of three unfinished and unpublished documents on the website archives.org by Curtis P. Schuh (Figure 5): Mineralogy & Crystallography: An Annotated Biobibliography of Books Published 1469 Through 1919, Volumes I & II (Schuh, 2007a,b), as well as Mineralogy & Crystallography: On the History of These Sciences From Beginnings Through 1919 (Schuh, 2007c). The Biobibliography has been incorporated into the Biographical Archive of the Mineralogical Record (2012). Schuh was an independent scholar working in Tucson, Arizona. He describes his 561 history based on the most complete bibliography of sources ever assembled (1562 pages) as a “derivative” study that no “true” historian would write. This is false. Though incomplete, it will have a lasting impact on future research in the history of crystallography for generations to come.
Curtis Schuh died prematurely in 2007. A sketch of his life was recorded in The Mineralogical Record by its editor and Schuh’s friend, Wendell E. Wislon (2007, 2012). The following facts of Schuh’s life were taken from Wilson’s obituary, and also from an entry on the website Find a Grave by Bill Carr (2008).
Curtis Paul Schuh was born in Boulder, Colorado in 1959 and raised in the Denver area. After he graduated from high school, his father, a newly retired IRS agent, moved the family to Tucson. Schuh studied engineering and mathematics at the University of Arizona, earning three Bachelor of Science degrees. Subsequently, he worked in the field of computer support for a number of organizations in the Tucson area.
In both Colorado and Arizona, Schuh was fortunate to have found concerned and dedicated mentors in the mineralogy community who shared their love of minerals and books about minerals. The library of rare crystallography volumes belonging to Richard Bideaux, the owner of a local mineralogy shop in Tucson, inspired the preparation of a comprehensive bibliography of mineralogy and crystallography. The Biobibliography is dedicated to Bideaux who encouraged this decades-long undertaking. Schuh did not anticipate at the outset that he was embarking upon a lifelong project.
Schuh lived a quiet, solitary life of scholarship. Ill at age 48, Curtis Schuh ended his life in the Arizona desert. His abandoned car was found. He left a note claiming that “my body will never be found.” It has not been.
We are grateful that before his death Schuh left behind electronic copies of his masterworks, freely available to anyone wishing to benefit from his labors (Schuh, 2007a,b,c).
There is no better way to appreciate the detail of Schuh than to download his documents (617 megabytes) and explore for one’s self. Short of direct inspection, what can we say here?
Curtis P. Schuh (2005). Photograph courtesy of Wendell E. Wilson (2012).
The Biobibliography has too many entries to count accurately. Figure 8 shows the first and last scientists illustrated, Abildgaard and Zittel. If an image of a significant survives, chances are very good that it can be found here.
Schuh’s Biobibliography and History enable translation of Shafranovskii more than any other resource. For instance, Shafranovskii relies heavily the history of crystallography by C. M. Marx. What was this book? What can we learn about it short of locating a copy and reading it? Here is what Schuh says about this volume, the 3255rd entry of some 5170 likewise described:
3255. German, 1825. Geschichte Der Crystallkunde von Dr. C.M. Marx, Professor der Physik und Chemie in Braunschweig. [rule] Mit neun schwarzen Kupfertafeln und einer colorirten. [rule] Carlsruhe und Baden. D.R. Marx’sche Buchhandlung. [rule] 1825. Gedruckt bei Friedrich Bieweg und Sohn in Braunschweig. 8◦: p7 1-198 206; 165?.; [i]-xiv, [2], [1]-313, [3] p., 10 plates (one folding and colored). Page size: 185 x 115 mm.
Contents: [i-ii], Title page, verso blank.; [iii], Dedication to Count von Schmidt–Phiseldeck.; [iv], Blank.; [v-xii], Preface—signed Carl Michael Marx, 16 May 1825.; [xiii]-xiv, “Uebersicht des Inhalts.”; 1, “Geschichte der Crystallkunde.”; [2], Quotation from Goethe concerning colors.; [3]-297, Text.; [298]-301, “Rückblick.”; [302]- 309, “Zusätze.”; [310]-313, “Namen–Verzeichniß.”; [1 pg], “Berichtigungen.”; [1 pg], “Abbildungen.”; [1 pg], Blank.; [At end], 10 plates (one folding and hand-colored).
Biobibliography from Abildgaard to Zittel. Left: Peder Christian Abildgaard (1740-1801) founded the Veterinary School of Copenhagen but earns his place in Schuh for describing Cryolite from Greenland. Right: Karl Alfred von Zittel (1839-1904) served on the Geological Survey of Austria and rose to the Presidency of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences.
Very rare. A highly respected work that develops an understanding of concepts in what was then modern crystallography through historical perspective. As a result, the book covers the history of crystallography from ancient times to 1824. The development is told by describing the contributions of the individuals in chronological order. The text is divided into six sections, each representing a specific time period. The first covers the ancient Greek and Roman researches. The others span (2) Albertus Magnus to Robert Boyle, (3) Nicolaus Steno to Johann Henckel, (4) Carl Linneaus to Jean Baptiste Louis Romé de l’Isle, (5) René Just Haüy to Henry James Brooke, and (6) Abraham Gotthelf Kästner to Friedrich Mohs. The name index lists about 300 researches [sic], whose contributions are described in the text. The plates illustrate various concepts brought forth in the discussion by reproducing recognizable figures from important crystallographic works.
Facsimile reprint, 1970: Geschichte...Wiesbaden Dr. Martin Sändig oHG. 8◦: [i]-xiv, [2], [1]-313, [2], [1] blank p., 10 plates (one folding and colored). Photographic reprint of the original edition with a modified title page. ISBN 3500220002. References: BL: [726.c.34.].
Of direct relevance are the passages from Shafranovskii that Schuh has already translated. On Lomonsov’s doctoral dissertation Shafranovskii worte, “His conceptions of the structure of crystals formulated in this dissertation are so significant that the year this dissertation was written might well be considered the origin of Russian scientific crystallography” (Grigorev & Shafranovskii, 1949). Regarding the doctoral dissertation of Vernadsky on crystallographic gliding, Shafronovkii says: “Here we find the richest synthesis of data relating to unique deformations of crystals, created as a result of gliding, that is the shifting of separate parts of a crystal along straight lines while preserving the volume, weight, and homogeneity of matter. Vernadsky revealed the connection between the planes of gliding, the crystalline facets and elements of symmetry. Here for the first time, he underlined the need to make several qualifications in our conceptions about the complete homogeneity of crystalline polyhedra in connection with changes in their physical features in their surface state. According to this idea, crystals are viewed not as abstract geometrical systems, but as real physical bodies (Shafranovskii, 1980).”
Perhaps you have wondered how many volumes comprised the Materialy dlia Mineralogii Rossii (1852) of Koksharov, another Shafranovskii favorite? Here is the answer which corrects a Shafranovskii pecadillo:
6 vols. plus atlas. [vol 1: 1852] 8◦: [6], I-III, [1] blank, [1]-412, [4] p., illus. [vol 2: 1855] 8◦: [4], [1]- 339, [1] blank, [4] p., illus. (Page numbers of the first signiature are reversed). [vol 3: 1858] 8◦: [6], [1]-426, [4] p., illus. [vol 4: 1862] 8◦: [4], 515, [5] p. [vol 5: 1866] 8◦: [2], 373, [3] p., plates LXXV-LXXVII. [Atlas] 4◦: 1-4 p., 74 plates (numbered I-LXXIV).
The bibliography of this Russian edition is difficult because of the rarity of the work. Contrary to what Sinkankas (1993) states this Russian edition did not exceed volume five as a separate publication, and contrary to what Grigoriev & Shafranovskii (1949) state volume six did not appear as a separate volume. Instead it made an appearance as an article in the Gornoi Zhurnal. In addition the plates are numbered I- LXXVII. In the copy examined, plates LXXV-LXXVII were bound in at the end of volume five and not included in the Atlas proper. Page size: 225 x 148 mm.
Schuh displays such an obsessive commitment getting the facts right that it is hard not to cheer him on in his solitary and unrewarded work.
Care to evaluate early editions of Giorgio Agricola’s De Re Metallica, one of the most influential works of metallurgy? Now you can (Figure 7). And, is there a Polish edition, should you prefer it? Yes there is.
De Re Metallica by Giorgio Agricola. From upper left to lower right: Latin, 1530; Italian, 1550; German, 1557; German, 1580; Italian, 1563; Latin, 1657. See Schuh for many others editions and citations.
The History is labeled “(Rough Notes)”. We would be grateful for the ability to produce “rough notes” mostly complete and so remarkably refined. Nevertheless, the History is incomplete. This is manifest as sections marked for insertion, sections taken verbatim from other sources, but always set-off with “REWORK” as a warning, and sections that were delivered directly from machine translators without refinement (In fact, Schuh was engaged in writing machine translating software, presumably to assist him in this work (Wilson, 2004, 2012)).
Schuh’s History begins in pre-history, 25,000 years ago when humans first learned to distinguish quartz-rich flint rock from softer stones. He then discusses the ancients. Treatment of Islamic scholars is especially comprehensive. While Shafranovskii writes of the importance of al-Biruni’s gemology, we learn from Schuh that this Persian Shiite scholar loathed Arabs, mined the emerald riches of the now lost Mount Muqattam, and made remarkably accurate measurements of specific gravity in the 11th century. He reviews the contributions and biographies of some three-dozen other Muslim mineralogists, emphasizing the curative properties of minerals purported in medieval texts as well as the use of minerals as poisons.
Chapter 5 covers physical crystallography. We read carefully the passages associated with Malus, Arago, Brewster, and Biot, pioneers in crystal optics whose work we have previously studied in detail (Kahr & McBride, 1991; Kahr & Claborn, 2008; Shtukenberg & Punin, 2007, Kahr & Arteaga, 2012). From these circumscribed aspects of the history of crystallography that we know best, we can declare that Schuh’s understanding is accurate and deep, his comments nuanced and sophisticated. If we multiply this judgment by the thousands of episodes in the history of crystallography that he knows better than we do, it is hard to imagine how half a lifetime was enough for Schuh.
Certain subjects receive short shrift. For instance, section 8.5 Liquid Crystals, says precisely this and no more. “Liquid crystals were discovered and studied in the 19th century and were studied primarily by Lehmann, Schenk and Vorlander. By 1908 a theoretical framework for liquid crystals was established and other theoretical studies by E. Bose, Max Born, F. Rhimpf, O. Lehmann, and G. Friedel were made. It was not until after World War II that practical applications for this class of substances were created. Today, every laptop computer, not to mention virtually every digital display utilizes liquid crystals as a display.” We cannot know if he intended more for later – or whether this was enough for a subject somewhat tangential to Schuh’s main love, mineralogy. We are fortunate to now have excellent liquid crystal histories including Crystals that Flow (Sluckin, Dunmur, & Stegemeyer, 2004) containing translations and reproductions of important papers with commentary, Schuh’s principle resource for his brief remarks. See also the more accessible general history (Dunmur, Sluckin, 2010).
Section 11.0, “Regional Topographies”, has “short histories outlining the development of mineralogy and crystallography in the countries of the world.” He means, all the countries. He didn’t make it through the >200 or so countries and territories, but there are 110 entries including those for Tasmania, the Faroe Islands, and Macedonia (Schuh is the Alexander of crystallography historians – he aspired to conquer the world).
In the chapter on “Mineral Representations”, we learn of the first book illustration of a mineral crystal, gypsum from Meydenbach in 1491 (Figure 8, Pober, 1988,) and the fact that some minerals illustrated themselves – Naturselbstdruckes – by the direct transfer of mineral texture to paper with ink. Figure 9 shows striations printed from a meteor section (Schreibers, 1820).
Schuh includes chapters on nomenclature, journals, collectors and dealers, instruction, and instrumentation. The latter naturally contains a detailed discussion of the development of the goniometer, from the simplest protractors to the most artfully machined, multi-circle, reflecting instruments. More interesting, however, his discussion of how the goniometer was turned “inside-out”, not for the purpose of indexing crystals but rather for constructing accurate plaster or wood models of crystal polyhedra. At first, apparatuses constructed by Fuess (Figure 10) for cutting precise sections from crystals were adopted to cut crystal models. Goldschmidt (Figure 10) published the first description of a device specifically designed to prepare models. His device was refined by Stöber (Figure 10).
Left: Gypsum, Meydenbach, (1491).
Naturselbstdruck. Meteroite slice.
Crystal drawing is surely a lost art. While it is unlikely to be recovered given crystal drawing software, Schuh allows us to appreciate it better than anyone else. Early representations of crystals from nature aimed at capturing the true symmetries, first appeared in the sixteenth century. See Bodt and Linnaeus, Figure 11a,b. Shading was used to capture three-dimensionality. It 1801, Haüy first introduced dashed lines to represent hidden faces (Figure 11c). This became standard. Twinning and concavities appeared in later plates, especially those of Dana in his System of Mineralogy (1877) (Figure 11i).
Crystal model making devices. From left to right:
Crystal drawing from Schuh, 2007c. (a) Boodt, 1647; (b) Linneaus, 1768; (c)
Section 15.3, “Minerals Illuminated in Colors”, is the most luscious. We will indulge in a page of representations of in Figure 12 because we can in an on-line journal without consuming ink.
Color mineral illustrations from Schuh, 2007c. (a) Seba, 1734; (b) Knorr, 1754; (c). Rumphius, 1705; (d) Baumesiter, 1791; (e) Bertuch, 1798; (f) Wulfen, 1785; (g) Uibelaker, 1781; (h) Wirsing, 1775; (i)
The History ends with a planned eighteenth chapter. Nothing was written but the chapter title: “18: STUDY OF CAVES”. This is a foreboding final phrase. It represents all that remained unsaid by the author’s premature death, and all that will remain hidden.
The range and detail of Schuh’s History, supported by the Biobibliography, is unlikely to be surpassed for a very long time. It is an extraordinary achievement that deserves wider notice. It is the single narrative in English that we felt was lacking when we began the translation of Shafranovskii. The chasm is filled. The considerable effort of a full translation of Shafranovskii is not longer as urgent (if it ever was). We now terminate our translation project, having introduced English readers to the flavor of Shafranovskii’s history, the most complete work of its kind until that of Curtis P. Schuh.
Business ethics sometimes denoted to as economic structural ethics merely restricts its edge of point to economic concerns. Concurring to Islamic perspective, the term very closely related to principles in the Qur’an is
Decisions and actions are arbitrated to be ethically conditional on the intention of the private. God is Omniscient and comprehends every intention perfectly and completely.
Good intents followed by good actions are deliberated as acts of worship in Islam. Lawful (
Islam permits an individual the freedom to believe and act however he or she desires, but not at the cost of justice and accountability.
Belief in God bestows the individual with comprehensive freedom from anybody or anything except God.
Choices that provide benefit the minority or majority are not essentially ethical in themselves. So Islamic ethics is not at all a numbers game.
Islam business ethics routines an open system method to ethics, not a sealed, self-oriented system. Selfishness has no provision in Islam.
Ethical choices are centered on a concurrent interpretation of the Quran and the natural world.
Unlike the moral systems encouraged by several creeds, Islam inspires humankind to practise
The Islamic ethical system is neither fragmented nor uni-dimensional. It is a part of the Islamic view of life and therefore complete. There is internal consistency or equilibrium (
Hence have we created of you a community (
The area of Islamic business ethics is extensive with varied dilemmas and issues. One of the important Islamic ethical issues have, for several years, established substantially less consideration than it deserved- the accountability of business or economic organisations to scrutinise the subject of sustainable development in the social order. Business organisations globally have faced and created resource depletion and pollution. Interest on questions of ‘environmental and sustainable’ activities began after the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) assembled at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. After a span of time, in 2002, the matter on ‘sustainable development’ sustained to offer the themes at the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)6. These gatherings have laid a glut of groups motivated on the matters of environmental social responsibility and sustainable development.
\nThis paper is organised as follows. First section provides introduction. Second section discusses on the notion of sustainable development. Then section three lead us the discussion on Islamic perspectives of sustainable development. Section four agues the point of view that sustainable development is an Islamic ethical issue. Section five focuses on the sustainable development attempts for business. Paper concludes in the section five,
\n“Our Common Future’ a declaration of the World Commission of Environment and Development circulated in the year 1987 presented the most extensively mentioned explanation of ‘Sustainable Development’. In its canter is the simple concept of confirming a fairer class of life for everybody, now and for generations to come7. It describes ‘Sustainable Development’ as: ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs8. Even though the concept is straightforward, but the task is significant. It entails addressing four goals simultaneously, all over the world:
Societal improvement which grants the demands of everybody;
Efficient safeguard of the natural environment;
Wise utilisation of environmental resources; and
Upkeep of high-pitched and steady degrees of economic development and generate employment.
Corresponding to Islamic teachings, the sustainable development is an essential element to the humankind [3]. Both societies and individual are duty assured to promote and promote its natural possessions, including air, water, seas, climate, flora and fauna and desist from any action likely to cause damage or pollution to the environment resources or distract the balance [4, 5]. As per Islamic ethics, the basic reasoning of the link between humans, God and the natural environment is initiated on the belief that God created when entire universe and rendered it subject to human race but not merely for the later on to take advantage of it for their substantial benefit. Rationally, humankind’s eventual objective on the earth is to pray to God, hence not only all their collaborations with the world are subject to God’s laws but also by maintaining sustainability in developing the earth [4, 6].
\nIn view of the above, it seems that the idea of sustainable development looks to be relatively simple, however the subjects ‘breadth and depth’ generate complications. It is revealed that sustainable development must be commercially feasible, collectively just, and environmentally relevant [7]9. Several complex and sensitive matters are intrinsic in these explanations and a few of them are:
\nHow can an imaginary upcoming peers be safeguarded as well as to what degree should contemporary civilisation be let go to safeguard future peers! The free market facilitates ‘push’ the businesses to deliver the goods and services presently required for purchase. Additional the company partly establish future wants and needs of customers via product advancement in reply to current peripheral pressures as well as existing internal capabilities. In replying to these existing pressures or capabilities, many economic companies (businesses) employ life-cycle assessment to evaluate prospective future environmental effects of product layout, production capacity as well as recyclability.
\nThe term under above captioned should be understood in perspective between developed Muslim countries and businesses in developing countries, between business having substantial environmental effects and those having nominal environmental influence or between start up business and the long-stand-up businesses. In the each one of these three circumstances, the cost of sustainable development may generally be more costly to the former businesses than the latter. Therefore, what should be deemed economically feasible for a larger retail outlet in Saudi Arabia may entail financial ruin for a small and micro business in Pakistan. Helman [8]10 contends that there is a obvious trend in the developing area towards superior environmental policies that comprise the quest of the alternatives economic development that may reduce adverse environmental impacts. Additional Pearce and Warford [9]11 say: ‘through the technological alteration, replacement between possessions of resources and higher values for goods that adulterate, environmental aims and economic growth which can be made more compatible (p.31).’ In respect of technology change, there is no doubt that the advances of technology, it becomes more competent in the development aspect. Underlying one of the causes – because of industrialisation proves in developing Muslim countries often begins with the employing of outdated technology, then in terms production of every aspects should be environmentally expensive. When the advanced technology introduced, the efficiency rises causing an rise in productive movement with fewer flaws and wastes, and consequently a drop in the rate at which resources reduction occurs. Furthermore, as the Muslim countries move ahead, less environmental toxic waste may be allowed. When the economic development reaches the sophisticated stage, business conglomerates use more sophisticated technology, triggering a net drop in resource pollution and depletion. As the per capita income rise, governmental and social awareness about the environment also increase; more anti-pollution rules and regulations are decreed. Therefore, an upturned U-shaped curve may be used to symbolize the shifts in a human society that begins at a point minus environmental value, rapidly improves, and then slow down and turns around when that a human society has the money and time to pay to safeguard the environment.
\nThe dynamics of grit of social equity or social development should vary on who was acquiring the benefit take on, what degree of economic development occurred in the vicinity, whether resources utilised were replenishable and what social and political issues were being confronted or resolved.
\nThe environmentally oriented development may be contemplated in such direction so that it should signify the response to whether the natural environment should be safeguarded for its own sake or for the interest of human beings. Al Quran says12: “Nuisance has occurred on sea and land because of (the need) that the hands of men have won.” The Quran warns man to ward off the mischief by human hands and to seek refuge from all mischief (Al Quran 30: 41 and 113: 2–5). It is clear warning to man to abstain from wrong pursuits and corruption against the ethical norms which God has set in nature for the benefit of man and other creatures. The Prophet of Islam (Peace and blessing be upon him) said: “Ibrahim declared Makkah a sacrosanct city. I do so for the Madina territory between the two
It is fact that there is no a proper Islamic definition of sustainable development, but, its lack from existing works on Islamic economics- does not imply that such a concept cannot be developed. Asad [12] argues16: “In an thought like Islamic -one can not dividing line between the ‘spiritual’ and the ‘material’ scopes - and so also should not dividing line between man’s faith and his practical life … ” The Quranic depiction of nature, as originate in the many verses, revealed both in Makkah and Madina, is multi-layered. God creates environment, the Al-Quran categorically declares17. Where God is portrayed by Unity (
As Asad said [12], the Islamic doctrine proclaims that: “Man is an animal in the sense of naturally belonging to that cluster of living beings which are gifted with the faculties of perception, sensation and movement, as well as in the wisdom of being reliant on physiological desires and functions more or less approximating those of other animal existences”22. Man’s aspect lies in ‘trust of volition and reasons’ (Al-Quran translated by Asad)23 whereby man was granted the ability to use choice between evil and good. This rational realisation gives man to consequence the ‘ability to form concepts and to bring them together in uncountable mixtures by means of psychological processes which can be directed and absorbed by his will.’24 Subsequently, whereas other animals acclimatise to their environment or suffer the fatal consequences, man has become increasingly skilful in adapting his environment to suit his own ends, through animal husbandry, agriculture, medicine, human settlements, or more generally we might say, though science and technology. Islam approves all these actions and thus in Islamic perspective, the environmental change is an foreseeable element of life25. However, according to Islam, man should not perform these activities arbitrarily. The sayings of the Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) frequently exhort man to be compassionate towards animals26. Therefore, the Quran, as well as setting up a idea of nature in connection to God and man, also sets out an moral code to guide book to man: waste is abhorred27, as is arrogance and all its manifestations in boastful exhibitions of wealth. As a substitute, Islam encourages fairness and distributive justice28. Also there is in existence a body of Islamic source of law, courting from the period of the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) which forbids private proprietorship of shared property resources such as grassland, wildlife, woodland and water, which should be handled for the common good. Sardar [13] said that forests and wildlife are protected in
Chapra [14] argued that a Muslim’s belief is put first because it gives the worldview which impacts the whole human persona - behaviour, tastes, life-style and preferences, and mindsets towards human beings, environment and resources. It seeks to stimulate a balance between the spiritual and material urges of the human self, enhance family and social solidarity, promote peace of mind in the human being and avert the development of anomalies. A Muslims’ faith delivers the moral filter which aims at keeping self-centredness within the boundaries of social interest by varying personal preferences as per social urgencies and eradicating or lessening the use of possessions for the purposes that aggravate the realisation of the social vision30. All these elements which fulfil the goals of the
A free-market industrial economy employ market-defined prices as a purifying mechanism to allocate resources. The usefulness of the price scheme only, nevertheless, can hinder the fulfilment of socio-economic objectives. Under a structure of state influence, the distribution of resources is in the big hand of a bureaucracy, which is unwieldy and ineffective. According to Chapra [15]31, the Islamic worldview suggests that the market structure have to be preserved, but that the mechanism of price be matched with a mechanism that minimises excessive claims on properties. This tool is the ‘moral filter’. It means that people should pass their possible demands on resources all through the ‘filter of Islamic values system’ so that several claims may be eliminated before being stated in the market. Siddiqi [16]32 claims that the resources should not be authorised to redirect to the production of extravagance goods until the manufacture of necessary goods are guaranteed in sufficient amounts. The classification of extravagant or luxurious is associated to the basic requirement. of consumption in the society. This suggestion being significant departure from the norms which are not acceptable. Keynes [17]33 argues that even though ‘the desires of human beings may well seem to be avid,’ … ‘they fall into two types-those requirements which are utter in the sense that we feel them whatever the situation of our fellow human beings possibly, and those are relation ones in the logic that their gratification lifts us over/above or makes us feel greater than others. Desires of the second class, which meet the aspiration for superiority, might indeed be voracious; for the greater the general level, the higher still are they’(p.67). However it is not so true of the utter needs, but’ Islamic jurists’ classifications of conveniences (
Further, the Islamic intellectuals who dispensed with the subject of sustainable development that people need to know that it is not a brand new idea. The dilemmas of unsustainable development has been identified in the religious rules like in Al-Qur’an nearly 1400 years ago are argued as follows:
\nAlmighty God has designed the universe with perfect order and balance [18]. Also God has designed all with a plan and the whole univers belongs to God: “See you not that God formed the earth and the heavens in Truth? If He so will, He can eliminate you and set (in the right place) as a new formation?” (Qur’an 14:19). “To Him feel right what is on earth and in the heavens and all between them, and all underneath the soil” (Qur’an, 20:6) “…do not damage on the planet after it has been put in order; that would be the most excellent for you, if you have faithfulness”. (Qur’an, 7: 85). Further in the Qur’an God has stated this over and over that the plants, animals and the natural resources are specified for the entire benefits of men and whole human being should usage them in appropriate order for their betterment: “Who has made the earth your couch, and the heavens your canopy; and sent down rain from the heavens; and brought therewith fruits for your sustenance; then set not up rivals unto God when you know (the truth)” (Qur’an, 2:22). This verse of Al-Qur’an plainly asserts the significance of natural resources for nourishment of mankind. Hence, men should make sure of what God has established and they must realise the reality that the whole thing in the cosmos world belongs to God and men donot have right to misappropriate no matter what he possess the wealth. Misappropriating of resources is not allowed in Islam. In this regards Al-Qur’an states that “O Children of Adam! Dress you with beautiful clothing at every time and perform your prayer: eat and drink: but waste not by excess, God adores not the wasters.” (Qur’an, 7:31) So, conferring to these Quranic learning, it is the responsibility of mankind to protect and keep the nature as usual and make use of the resources in a wise and balanced way.
\nThe conventional idea of development was largely involved with the issue of economic development by accepting into matter the ideas of Gross National Product (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As per Islamic economic ethics, the GNP and GDP are not appropriate indicators to emphasise whether a balanced development took place or not [5]. The economic inequality between rich and poor is widened. The major problem in this issue is that, though there is enormous earning, but the distribution was not equitable. In this matter, Islam chooses a different method by taking both distribution and earnings under care. Also Islam stresses on the honest earning from productive sources. The strong devotion of Islam to brotherhood and justice needs that richest people of the society take over care of the essential requirements of the underprivileged. Individuals are obligated to work for a living and simply when this is impractical where the state intercede. The
Another social organisation which helps to reduce poverty is called
At the time when every action of humanity has come in the sphere of business, ethics in commerce has come to be an essential concern all over the globe. Corporate scam has come to be a common issue. Performance of business initiatives are urged in Islam. But Islam stresses on doing business in an ethical and just manner. Islam underlines on consumer privileges by encouraging the businessmen to deliver with just product at proper weight to the consumers. Following are some of the verses in the Qur’an which endorse of this issues:
“Provide right amount and weight, nor deny from the people the items that are owing; and do not harm on the ground after it has been put in order”. (Qur’an, 7:85)
“Give full gauge when you assess, and weigh up with a sense of balance that is in a straight line; which is the highly fitting and not most disadvantageous in the final fortitude” (Qur’an, 17:35)
“Give full measure and affect no failure (to others by deception)” (Qur’an, 26:181)
“Despair to those who trade in cheating, Individuals who, have to be given by measure have to be offered exact just measure. But when they will give by measure or weight to men, give a smaller amount than due. Do they not believe that they will be asked with accountability?- On a great (dooms) day, a day when (all) humankind will stand in front of the Lord of the Planets?” (Qur’an, 83:1–6)
From the above mentioned verses of the Qur’an, it turn out to be sure that Islam does not endorse fraudulent actions. Islam despises those who are dishonest and illegal in their dealings. God prompts men that they are responsible for all their own actions. What men act will be measured and reported. It will be recalled here that Islam does not endorse revenue from any fruitless source [3, 5].
\nQuestion might evolve why does or will the company or an economic establishment put into exercise the sustainable development and in what way to execute ‘moral filter’ without despotism or coercion. The filter process of values should be socially consented and some way it has to be conceived to motivate the consumers and, business men to bear these values. In Islamic view point, social transformation must be slow and should not be attained through force. The Quranic restriction, “There is no force in religion” (Al Quran 2:256) is pertinent here. Eaton [19]35 contends that change can happen by encouraging people to modify their ways and by establishing an example. Usually this is how Islam speedily spread through a larger part of the globe in the 7th and 8th centuries. For an example, when the Muslim traders travelled to remote lands, the people of those places where fascinated by the merchants’ business and social conduct and so turn out to be curious about their faith. Several of these people subsequently converted in Islam. A similarity exists today with regard to the ‘green’ activities, which persists to spread around the world. The implementation of environmentally awareness behaviour is following through instance, education and encouragement, as well as by regulation. Certainly, in the environmental perspective, regulation is insufficient. Just when the political support and will of the populace are robust then it is necessary to impose environmental regulations adequately.
\nThe stakeholders engaged are all the planet’s denizens, both non-human and human. Sustainable development should make the highest fair or least destruction by letting those dwellers to survive in the world where there is breathable air and drinkable water, fertile soil and renewable resources prosper. It is hard to use traditional monetary cost an benefit analysis to establish whether sustainable development is useful. Firstly, many present and future costs may be assessed and lowered back to current values; it is perhaps difficult to even realise what types and quantities of costs may be necessary in the forthcoming. Secondly, the advantages of sustainable development are considerably extra qualitative than monetarily quantitative; for an example: the value of a live species cannot be assessed. At the same time with no finances involved, the end result would be unquestionably convincing; no matter how higher the costs of sustainable development are, the advantages of existing and continued presence by the planet’s species must go beyond that cost. In Islamic ethics, the advantages of life be greater than the costs to get it.
\nThus, Islamic scholars recognise that sustainable development ((refinements (
In Islam, the commercial activities are deemed to be a socially beneficial act. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was engaged in business for much of his life. Huge importance is connected to views concerning to consumption, ownership and purposes of a business initiative and the code of conduct of several agents. Islamic socio-economic approach comprises comprehensive analysis of certain economic variables such as circulation of wealth, consumption, taxation, and fair-trading. Shariah originated from the Quran and custom (
Islam is a complete code of conduct that impacts on the moral, legal, social economics and environmental aspects. Its enormous impact in institutional form through the Shari’ah law(guidance derived from the Qur’an and Sunnah traditional of the Prophet Mohammad). For that reason, research efforts in the Muslim countries with strong religious institutions such as Islam should consider the importance of religion with business issues [22, 23]. Khan and Karim [24] assert that Islam motivates business, socio-economic and environmental life in the Muslim countries and in the society in a way which can be associated with the sustainable development with clear codification of ethical standards and its enforcement mechanisms. Atan and Halim [25] argue that features of sustainable development and social justice deeply rooted in the Qura’n and the Sunnah, as these resources oblige companies or businesses to execute their guidelines in society and environment. According to Dusuki [26], Shari’ah is an important source with significant value in the Islamic paradigm, offers a religious bond that exceeds the notion of development and sustainability. Katisioloudes and Brodtkourb [27] endorse this statement by pointing out that Islam gives basic knowledge upon which sustainable development methods can be developed.
\nA study investigated by Koleva [28] on the role of Islam for the practice and understanding of sustainable development with reference to CSR and by relaying on empirical evidence collected from business organisations in the three GCC countries- Saudi Arabia, Oman and UAE. Their findings suggest that Islam as religion is very important for the 63 participants in this survey and stated that their religion helps in realising that makes logic to replication the concept of sustainable development in their business as well and CSR. With this end it ventures Islam as a vital part in the formation and re-formation of the sustainable development spectacle within the observed sample. Consequently, the empirical results show in the study done by Koleva [28] which suggest that contextual specifications of developing countries (Islamic region) might lead to different perception and thoughtful in the matter of sustainable development and also different dynamics in the business-society affiliation.
\nThe prospect for participating in environmentally ‘correctness’-a corporation should decide its participant methods in the sustainable development actions. One likely technique may be the usage of the chain of command of ethical behaviour advocated by Des-Jardins [29]38. The hierarchy comprises of four levels of success:
\nA specific economic activity functioning at the basic stage of behaviour should merely conform by the rules of the territory in which it runs. Such an economic movement would make no sustainable development works since the idea is not embedded into the regulation in any country in the world. This economic efforts would persist within legally appropriate pollution levels, even though it would probably look at those levels as impediments to productive actions. Such movement or organisations may be more likely to obtain certifications for pollution as they should operate ‘close to the edge’ of suitability. Executives of such organisations could have the view that the expenses of pollution management and ecology are bigger than the immediate gains; this executive may be very ‘bottom line’ orientated. Furthermore, such executives would certainly perceive the money spent on environmental elements not as investment but then as a cost that corrodes effectiveness. Mission declarations of these movement or organisations may never declare a concern for or emphasis on the real environment. They should bend on the letter of the directive that entails the use of ‘top existing technology’ or ‘top existing management technology.’ Thus, these corporations’ behaviours should be deemed as legal, religious as well as technological.
\nAn economic organisation or corporation managing a notional level of conduct would have included the concept of sustainable development concerned in its structural strategy. As Hart39 [30] claims that there should be no haphazard projects intended at preventing or controlling pollution. Concentrating on sustainability entails putting business policies to a new test. Taking over the whole planet as the framework in which it does business, enterprises must ask question whether it is the part of the resolution to environmental and social problems or component of the problem. In this matter the business organisations should include specifically mention of sustainable development at their mission statements and may have recognised and exposed highly noticeable and eloquent environmental supervision policies. Several of these companies may be quick to layout, develop, and execute environmental management techniques as stipulated by ISO 14001 and to ask for accreditation or self-affirmation within that standard. Company or firms do claims that will be deemed to be operational at the theoretical stage of behaviour in connection to sustainable development and environmental policy. Their polices evidently draw attention to the point that the business viewpoints and its devotion to the environment as one that is vital to the organisation’s fundamental values. These businesses are not engaged in sustainable development or environmental protection related activities since some bureau has legally authorised such contribution; they are engaged because they consider those actions to be largely sound. Companies working at this stage of behaviour appreciate that their firms and those in the downstream and upstream value chain may not be successful in a world with out reusable resources or polluted water and air. Consequently, as the organic ecosphere of the planet is battered, the capability of the left over ecosystems to boost the firm’s value chain partners declines-leaving a business with no capacity to conduct business. Therefore, participating in sustainable development is the single ‘right ‘choice. An extra gain is that the sustainable movements also produce a good business idea in the long run.
\nAn economic or business organisation functioning at the presently attainable level of conduct would recognise that some gains may arise from participating in environmentally-friendly actions that are not lawfully mandated. These companies, however, possibly take part in such events for the ‘wrong’ causes: revenue enhancement, cost reduction or reputation enhancement. In further words, the activities are to be expected to gain short-term monetary profits larger than their costs. Therefore, these corporations are likely to fix improved pollution control strategies than are mandatory by law, to involve in clean-up projects that should be showcased by their public relation department and to implement programmes and catchphrases that emphasis on environmental ‘perfection.’ Some cases the Executives of this firms may not involved in the sustainable development projects as they are too unclear and may create a huge current cost whose upcoming profit is quantitatively unidentified. Mission statements of these companies might cite a concern for or emphasis on the physical environment, but then more than possible any such conversation would be given in a management letter or in the explanations of business products, production locations or product lines. These companies may be considered by society as environmentally sensible businesses that are functioning for the more good- but in actuality, the larger good is mainly that of the business organistion40.
\nAn economic or business organisation functioning at the practical level of conduct would admit that advantages arise from participating in environmentally responsive events. These business organisations, however, may strive to make sure of the ‘right’ matter in relation to the environment since it is ‘right’ rather than in good reputation or short-term profit. These business organisations and their executives appreciate the requirement for, and significance of environmentally friendly production and changing their activities, to take part in environmental modernisations that may be costly but that may prove extremely beneficial of upcoming outcomes. In performing so, the businesses should anticipate that consumers should appreciate the benefits of such pioneering practices which are worth acquiring at a greater cost than those of a fewer environmentally sensitive contenders. There should be no question that these businesses are profit motivated: management has a fiduciary duty towards a number of groups such as shareholders, creditors, employees, and consumers- to maximise profits and, therefore efficiency. Gwilliam [31]41 claims that, for both services and infrastructure, it is required to be conceded that private sector contribution will be attained only on the basis of an appropriate projected revenue scheme. Indication from a study done by Margretta [32]42 shows that concerned about the economic consequences, business or companies working at the practical level of behaviour are genuinely concerned about the environment and stakeholders. Therefore, the sustainable development is an idea that is heralded and recognised by the business organisations or companies. Companies operating at the practical level of behaviour may strive to find out ways to generate services and products in a way that signifies the principles of the green market. An indisputable fact in favour of business obligation and the free market value in the vicinity of sustainable development is a shift in consumer inclinations based on a intensified consciousness about the environment. This change is the central act that regularly stimulates and promotes businesses as well as changing behaviours and thoughts in favour of environmentally sound systems. Increasingly, the consumers are achieving their individual obligations in the field of environmental value. The assumption that business alone is to blame for degradation, or is actually the protector of the environment is illogical- a company only sells what consumers are willing to buy. In the dearth of a appropriate market, the businesses would merely go out of enterprises. Consumers eventually control the disappointments or achievements of firms and their products.
\nThe objective of Islamic commercial approach is to eliminate all residues of injustice, inequality, oppression and manipulation from the high society. An individualistic point of view on the sacred destiny of humankind is a counter balanced by an arduous understanding of society and societal collaboration [33]43. In this argument this paper emphasised that the strong dedication of Islam to wellbeing and justice of human beings insist that Islamic community should contribute in the sustainable development events. This paper explained that with their chains of dealers across consumers, many businesses are developing more awareness of the sustainable development/environmental aspects and effects of their businesses. Perceived as a variety of behaviour, business environmentalism may range from just compliance of laws with recognising and passing on a sustainable development goal (SDG) of the UNO. The view point on the scale at which a firm prefers to operate is manifested in its environmental policies, strategy and action plan.
\nThe theory of ‘sustainable development’ come to be the slogan in the development literature. By revealing the teachings of a religion (Islam), this paper emphasises that even though the notion of sustainability is a fresh matter in the development literature, Al-Qur’an essentially underlined all the concerns of sustainable development about 1400 years ago. In Islam economic inequality is disliked and for this reason, the notions like
The economic rewards of moving in the quickest flourishing economic markets and commercial organisations in the world, the sustainable development approaches can offer Muslim countries with the generous of investment if they want to recover health care, civil rights, education and economic prospects. An symmetry in human activities is essential in the businesse vents to safeguard social wellbeing. The sustainable development is a part and parcel of Islamic economic developmental actions, which will fill up the gap of the society’s serious issues, like economic opportunities, health care, education and sustainable strategies which will pressurise the track of the businesses and trades ansd directly effect on privileged circumstances and technology of the ecological matter. By describing to the teachings of Islam -one of the monolithic religions in the world that the idea of sustainable development is not ambiguous to religious beliefs specially Islam as a religion. The similar study may be done with the doctrines of other two monolithic religions (Judaism and Christianity) to find out whether religions and development are conflicting to each other or not. It may be mentioned here this study did not consider to make any solution to this issue rather it made an attempt to wide up a new way of idea: are the doctrines of Islam as religion can provide guidelines to the businesses on sustainable development model in the current world?
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Hypertension-induced structural remodeling is associated with an increased risk of life-threatening arrhythmias and heart failure in both humans and experimental animals. Recent studies suggest that abnormal distribution and/or downregulation of Cx43 accompanied with altered protein kinase C (PKC)ε signaling in spontaneously hypertensive rats were linked with increased propensity to ventricular fibrillation compared to normotensive rats. By contrast, the long-term treatment of hypertensive rats with cardioprotective compounds such as melatonin, omega-3 fatty acids, or red palm oil resulted in protection from lethal arrhythmia. Their antiarrhythmic effect was attributed to the attenuation of abnormal Cx43 topology and modulation of Cx43 mRNA as well as protein expression and its functional phosphorylated forms. The latter might be attributed to upregulation of PKCε. It appears that maladaptive consequences of hypertension resulting in abnormal myocardial distribution of Cx43 and its downregulation can contribute to arrhythmogenesis and occurrence of malignant arrhythmias. On the other hand, the attenuation of myocardial Cx43 abnormalities by treatment with melatonin, omega-3 fatty acids, or red palm oil confers arrhythmia protection in rodent model of essential hypertension. Findings uncover novel mechanisms of cardioprotective effects of melatonin, omega-3 fatty acids, and red palm oil. Well-designed clinical trials are needed to explore antiarrhythmic potential of these compounds in human essential hypertension.",book:{id:"5216",slug:"update-on-essential-hypertension",title:"Update on Essential Hypertension",fullTitle:"Update on Essential Hypertension"},signatures:"Tamara Egan Benova, Barbara Szeiffova Bacova, Csilla Viczenczova,\nMiroslav Barancik and Narcis Tribulova",authors:[{id:"181938",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Narcisa",middleName:null,surname:"Tribulova",slug:"narcisa-tribulova",fullName:"Narcisa Tribulova"},{id:"185905",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamara",middleName:null,surname:"Egan Benova",slug:"tamara-egan-benova",fullName:"Tamara Egan Benova"},{id:"185907",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Szeiffova Bacova",slug:"barbara-szeiffova-bacova",fullName:"Barbara Szeiffova Bacova"},{id:"185908",title:"Dr.",name:"Csilla",middleName:null,surname:"Viczenczova",slug:"csilla-viczenczova",fullName:"Csilla Viczenczova"}]},{id:"48384",doi:"10.5772/60418",title:"A Review on Amiodarone as an Antiarrhythmic Drug",slug:"a-review-on-amiodarone-as-an-antiarrhythmic-drug",totalDownloads:2774,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Antiarrhythmic drugs are used to suppress abnormal heart rhythms by different mechanisms. Amiodarone as an iodinated benzofuran derivative is a potent antiarrhythmic drug that is being used for the treatment of a wide variety of cardiac arrhythmias. Amiodarone has been reported to cause frequent and potentially serious toxicity. It was estimated that the prevalence of side effects was 15 % in the first year and increased to 50% with long-term therapy. Thyroid, lung, liver, ophthalmologic and neurologic systems can be affected by Amiodarone. Most of the adverse effects of the drug are related to its dosage and duration of administration. Therefore the effectiveness of Amiodarone in long-term treatment of patients with heart arrhythmia is limited because of the development of its adverse side effects.",book:{id:"4584",slug:"abnormal-heart-rhythms",title:"Abnormal Heart Rhythms",fullTitle:"Abnormal Heart Rhythms"},signatures:"Fereshteh Mehraein",authors:[{id:"173324",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fereshteh",middleName:null,surname:"Mehraein",slug:"fereshteh-mehraein",fullName:"Fereshteh Mehraein"}]},{id:"34335",doi:"10.5772/25800",title:"Ryanodine Receptor Channelopathies: The New Kid in the Arrhythmia Neighborhood",slug:"ryanodine-receptor-channelopathies-the-new-kid-in-the-arrhythmia-neighborhood",totalDownloads:2259,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"997",slug:"tachycardia",title:"Tachycardia",fullTitle:"Tachycardia"},signatures:"María Fernández-Velasco, Ana María Gómez, Jean-Pierre Benitah and Patricia Neco",authors:[{id:"64594",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez",slug:"ana-gomez",fullName:"Ana Gomez"},{id:"71604",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez-Velasco",slug:"maria-fernandez-velasco",fullName:"Maria Fernandez-Velasco"},{id:"71606",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Benitah",slug:"jean-pierre-benitah",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Benitah"},{id:"71607",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Neco",slug:"patricia-neco",fullName:"Patricia Neco"}]},{id:"41776",doi:"10.5772/52512",title:"Principles of External Defibrillators",slug:"principles-of-external-defibrillators",totalDownloads:3718,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3289",slug:"cardiac-defibrillation",title:"Cardiac Defibrillation",fullTitle:"Cardiac Defibrillation"},signatures:"Hugo Delgado, Jorge Toquero, Cristina Mitroi, Victor Castro and Ignacio Fernández Lozano",authors:[{id:"38793",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Toquero",slug:"jorge-toquero",fullName:"Jorge Toquero"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"41776",title:"Principles of External Defibrillators",slug:"principles-of-external-defibrillators",totalDownloads:3710,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3289",slug:"cardiac-defibrillation",title:"Cardiac Defibrillation",fullTitle:"Cardiac Defibrillation"},signatures:"Hugo Delgado, Jorge Toquero, Cristina Mitroi, Victor Castro and Ignacio Fernández Lozano",authors:[{id:"38793",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Toquero",slug:"jorge-toquero",fullName:"Jorge Toquero"}]},{id:"46160",title:"Basic Mechanisms of Cardiac Arrhythmias",slug:"basic-mechanisms-of-cardiac-arrhythmias",totalDownloads:4464,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"3815",slug:"cardiac-arrhythmias-mechanisms-pathophysiology-and-treatment",title:"Cardiac Arrhythmias",fullTitle:"Cardiac Arrhythmias - Mechanisms, Pathophysiology, and Treatment"},signatures:"Andrey Moskalenko",authors:[{id:"63235",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",middleName:"V.",surname:"Moskalenko",slug:"andrey-moskalenko",fullName:"Andrey Moskalenko"}]},{id:"48384",title:"A Review on Amiodarone as an Antiarrhythmic Drug",slug:"a-review-on-amiodarone-as-an-antiarrhythmic-drug",totalDownloads:2769,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Antiarrhythmic drugs are used to suppress abnormal heart rhythms by different mechanisms. Amiodarone as an iodinated benzofuran derivative is a potent antiarrhythmic drug that is being used for the treatment of a wide variety of cardiac arrhythmias. Amiodarone has been reported to cause frequent and potentially serious toxicity. It was estimated that the prevalence of side effects was 15 % in the first year and increased to 50% with long-term therapy. Thyroid, lung, liver, ophthalmologic and neurologic systems can be affected by Amiodarone. Most of the adverse effects of the drug are related to its dosage and duration of administration. Therefore the effectiveness of Amiodarone in long-term treatment of patients with heart arrhythmia is limited because of the development of its adverse side effects.",book:{id:"4584",slug:"abnormal-heart-rhythms",title:"Abnormal Heart Rhythms",fullTitle:"Abnormal Heart Rhythms"},signatures:"Fereshteh Mehraein",authors:[{id:"173324",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fereshteh",middleName:null,surname:"Mehraein",slug:"fereshteh-mehraein",fullName:"Fereshteh Mehraein"}]},{id:"61466",title:"Idiopathic Ventricular Arrhythmias",slug:"idiopathic-ventricular-arrhythmias",totalDownloads:1529,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias (VAs) occur with a mechanism that is unrelated to myocardial scar. Idiopathic VAs most commonly occur in patients without structural heart disease, but can occur in those with structural heart disease. Idiopathic VAs present as a sustained or a non-sustained ventricular tachycardia or premature ventricular contractions. Imaging examinations such as echocardiography, nuclear tests, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging are helpful for excluding any association of an idiopathic VA occurrence with myocardial scar. For the past two decades, the sites of idiopathic VA origins, commonly endocardial but sometimes epicardial, have been increasingly recognized. Idiopathic VAs usually originate from specific anatomical structures and exhibit characteristic electrocardiograms based on their anatomical background. Idiopathic VAs are basically benign, but they require medical treatment or catheter ablation when idiopathic VAs are symptomatic, frequent, or cause tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy. This book chapter describes the up-to-date information on the prevalence of idiopathic VA origins relevant to the anatomy, diagnosis, and treatment of idiopathic VAs.",book:{id:"6536",slug:"cardiac-arrhythmias",title:"Cardiac Arrhythmias",fullTitle:"Cardiac Arrhythmias"},signatures:"Takumi Yamada",authors:[{id:"68148",title:"Prof.",name:"Takumi",middleName:null,surname:"Yamada",slug:"takumi-yamada",fullName:"Takumi Yamada"}]},{id:"59994",title:"Atrial Flutter: Diagnosis and Management strategies",slug:"atrial-flutter-diagnosis-and-management-strategies",totalDownloads:1501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Atrial flutter (AFL) is a regular, macro reentrant arrhythmia traditionally defined as a supraventricular tachycardia with an atrial rate of 240–320 beats per minute (bpm). Pathophysiology of atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation (AF) is closely related to the similar risk of stroke and they coexist clinically. 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