\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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This book is a collection of chapters offering the distilled knowledge of various worldwide experts in hepatic surgery and hepatic physiology. The various debates that are presented regarding the diagnosis and treatment of liver cirrhosis and its significant complications, in addition to the most up-to-date information regarding molecular aspects, provide the reader with the full spectrum of knowledge in this challenging and continuously evolving field.",isbn:"978-1-78923-886-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-885-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-445-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81279",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"liver-cirrhosis-debates-and-current-challenges",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"17163eb18a082da0fe70ccc20b7fe69a",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8838.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4716,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 5th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/57412/images/system/57412.jpeg",biography:"Dr Georgios Tsoulfas received his medical degree from Brown University School of Medicine and completed his general surgery residency at the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, as well as a transplant research fellowship at the Starzl Transplant Institute at the University of Pittsburgh. He then completed a two-year transplantation surgery fellowship at the Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School and then joined the Division of Solid Organ Transplantation and Hepatobiliary Surgery at the University of Rochester Medical Center as an Associate Professor of Surgery. He has currently moved back to Greece, where he is an Associate Professor of Surgery at the Aristoteleion University of Thessaloniki. He has published over 107 papers in peer-reviewed Journals and in PubMed, as well as 37 book chapters. He has edited 8 books and is a reviewer for 30 International Journal and on the Editorial Board of several others.\n The recipient of awards such as the Edward E. Mason award for excellence in patient care and education, he is a Fellow of the American College of Surgeons and a member of a number of professional organizations including the TTS, the American Society of Transplant Surgeons, Association for Academic Surgery, International College of Surgeons, American College of Surgeons, International Liver Transplantation Society, Society for Laparoscopic Surgeons and International HepaticoPancreaticoBilliary Association. Dr Tsoulfas is the recipient of the American College of Surgeons International Guest Scholarship. He is and has served as a member of multiple committees, including the International Relations Committee of the American College of Surgeons and the International Relations Committee of the American HepaticoPancreaticoBiliary Association (AHPBA). 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For example, in the USA, studies have reported gastrointestinal illness rates in the range of 0.5–2 episodes/year/person and incidence of 5–100 episodes/1000/week according to seasons and age. The number of episodes of gastrointestinal illnesses is similar in both 40-year-old studies and in recent ones [3, 4]. The gastrointestinal disorder, including chronic gastritis, duodenal and gastric ulceration, adenocarcinoma, and gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), may have a common cause which is gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The cardinal symptom is heartburn caused by the involuntary movement of gastric contents to the esophagus that occurs several times a day, mainly in postprandial period [5]. In particular, most reflux episodes are of short duration, asymptomatic, and limited to the distal esophagus [6]. However, some episodes occur with typical symptoms such as burning sensation in the chest that can also extend to the throat, gastric pain, episodes of regurgitation, dysphagia, and sensation of bolus in the throat [7]. One of the risk factors is bad eating habits that can aggravate gastroesophageal reflux and can contribute to the delayed gastric emptying with an increase of acid secretion in the stomach [8]. In the human stomach, the acid environment (pH 1 to 2) acts both as a primary defense against infections and intervenes in the early stages of digestion [9]. The gastrointestinal epithelium is a fundamental barrier protecting the gastrointestinal mucosa from damage through the ability of epithelial cells to spread and migrate across the basement membrane to repair the damage [4]. However, gastric acid (HCl) secreted from gastric parietal cells has been reported to determine gastric mucosal injuries, and, consequently, a prolonged exposition to strong acidic environment causes coagulation necrosis in exposed tissues [10]. A mild gastritis condition can cause long-lasting damage resulting in cellular injury which in turn causes inflammation [11] that creates further free radical-dependent tissue destruction [12, 13]. This injury involves DNA and can lead to stomach cancer genesis [14]. Some recent studies have shown that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are one of the most common causes of damage on the gastric mucosa through the production of free oxygen radicals (ROS) leading to lipid peroxidation and apoptosis [10, 15] of cells. In particular, superoxide anion (O−2) produced by mitochondria is the main cause of oxidative damage [16] and plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of gastric disorders [17]. Around 30 million people consume NSAIDs globally every day [18] since they are prescribed because of their efficacy in the management of pain, inflammation, and fever [19]. Adverse effects associated with NSAIDs, such as alterations in renal function, effects on blood pressure, hepatic injury, and platelet inhibition, are a challenge in clinical treatment optimization [20]. However, gastric mucosal perforation and bleeding are a major concern as well as the worst outcome of prolonged NSAID therapy [21]. NSAIDs are able to induce gastric mucosal lesions because of their acidic properties [22]. The mechanism behind gastric damage involves a highly acidic gastric environment that favors the migration of nonionized lipophilic NSAIDs into the epithelial cells [23]. Diclofenac is the most widely prescribed NSAID for treating pain, inflammation, and several forms of cancer [24, 25]. The main clinical problem exerted by diclofenac is toxicity related to oxidative injury of tissues, which appears to play a role in the pathophysiology of digestive tract ulceration [18, 25, 26]. For this reason, in order to prevent the damage, NSAID treatments are usually associated to proton-pump inhibitors (PPI) [27]. However, the anatomical and functional integrity of gastric mucosa rely on the balance between aggressive and defensive mechanisms [19]; for this reason, the success of pharmacological treatments in prevention or healing of gastric lesions depends both on the blockade of acid secretion and on the enhancement of mucosal protective factors [19]. In addition, current evidence suggests that PPI are also associated with numerous side effects such as hypergastrinemia, enteric infections, adverse cardiovascular events, and increased mortality rates [23]. Basing on these data, it can therefore be assumed that gastric acid can induce ROS production, lipid peroxidation, and apoptosis through a mechanism similar to that observed by NSAIDs [10]. For this reason, ROS, including H2O2, are a major cause of cellular oxidative damage [16], and they play a critical role in the pathogenesis of gastric disorders [2, 17]. After a gastric mucosa damage, several events occur in order to restore the integrity of the layer; normal epithelial repair consists of restitution of functions and regeneration of anatomical integrity involving epithelial proliferation followed by a remodeling phase [28]. During restitution, epithelial cells spread through the basement membrane to restore cell continuity, a process that is independent of cell proliferation. The clinical need to prevent or restore the damage of gastric mucosa in early stage encourages the search of novel agents able to counteract both the adverse effects of drugs and hyperacidic conditions with a better safety profile, in particular using natural compounds. A new group of widely used molecules includes alginates, a polymer of alginic acid derived from the cell wall of various brown algae. Alginate-based compounds have been available for several decades [29] and are listed as inactive ingredients with a substantial and independent benefit from alginate formulation [29]. Recently, there is a new growing interest in alginates as a therapy for GERD, including patients with continued symptoms despite acid suppression therapy [30]. Alginates are polysaccharides composed of two β-d-mannuronic acid (M) and α-1-glucuronic acid (G) monomers which are held together by β 1,4 bonds; these monomers are not organized in repeated units, and they can be considered as a set of heterogeneous molecules since they are distributed as several different repetitions called M, G, or MG blocks [31, 32]. These alginates are able to block the HCl reflux in a mechanic manner; indeed, they do not have any pharmacologic property [33]. The mechanism of action of alginates has been called “rafting”, which means that in the presence of gastric acid, they form a gel in which carbon dioxide (resulting from the splitting of bicarbonate) is trapped. Then the gel is carried to the top of the gastric contents neutralizing the acidity and preventing the ascent of acid material into the esophagus [34]. The advantage of alginate-based reflux suppressants over antacid alone is that they provide rapid and longer-lasting symptom relief [35].
Subsequently, it was seen that it is useful to associate alginates with natural substances. This association has been found to be effective in promoting stomach health, reducing inflammation, and supporting the immune system. Zinc, a micronutrient involved in multiple functions, is able to act as a coenzyme on several enzymes that protect cells against free radical damage [36]. Furthermore, zinc has direct effects against inflammation, as it helps to stabilize the membrane of mast cells, responsible for inflammation [37]. Other natural products with antioxidant property seem to play an active role in the stomach well-being, such as blueberries or licorice, that they are able to reduce the production of cytokines and at the same time to increase the production of the mucous membrane of the stomach [38]. Moreover alginate/antacid system has been used as a carrier of probiotic, drugs, and plant extracts [39]. For example, alginate/bicarbonate combined with two herbal gastroprotective extracts (
Recent studies have explored a possible role of vitamin D3, the active form of vitamin D, on gastroprotection as one of the extra skeletal effects this vitamin has [4, 23]. Vitamin D3 binds its receptor VDR which is present in several tissue targets in the digestive system, in particular in the oral region, and in epithelial cells of the oral cavity, tongue, and gums. In addition, vitamin D3 appears to have a therapeutic role in gastric mucosa as well, stimulating cell proliferation and differentiation [41] and regulating endocrine/paracrine gastrin and pepsinogen secretions [42]. Finally, vitamin D3 acts on smooth muscle cells in the pyloric region and in different areas of the small intestine [42]. Furthermore, the low plasmatic level of vitamin D3 is found to be responsible for an insufficient emptying of the stomach, swelling, constipation, and intestinal irritation [42]. After the binding between vitamin D3 and its receptor, several intracellular events involved in different mechanism start, including the protective role against oxidative stress [43], the regulation of autophagic pathways through the regulation of ATG16L1, a protein complex necessary for autophagy [44], and the ability to inhibit apoptosis by increasing the expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) leading to the nitric oxide (NO) production [43]. In this context, vitamin D3 can exert some beneficial effects on gastric tissue. For this reason, its use in association with other gastroprotective agents such as alginates can increase therapeutic efficacy of the formulation in respect to the efficacy that would be obtained only with gastroprotective drugs. Indeed, this effect is described in a recent study in which this association (vitamin D3 and raft-forming alginates, buffers, polysaccharides, and biophenols named Aquilea Reflux®) could be of greater efficacy when compared to other gastroprotectants (e.g., Maalox® or Gaviscon®) or other natural extracts (e.g., Neobianacid®) [4, 23]. Aquilea Reflux® is a dietary supplement that combines the properties of calcium alginate in a buffer solution, resulting from alkaline salts useful to counteract situations of high acidity, with a tyndalized probiotic (Pylopass®) and an extract of prickly pear and olive leaves (Mucosave®). The extract of prickly pear is useful for its emollient and soothing characteristics at the level of the digestive system. All these agents were added to vitamin D3. This study demonstrates for the first time that the combination between alginate-based gastroprotector agent and vitamin D3 has a beneficial effect joining the effects of a mechanical barrier with the modulation of intracellular pathways in order to maintain or restore the integrity of gastric epithelium. Indeed, Aquilea Reflux® is able to improve the adhesivity of cells which is crucial on cell migration involving two important extracellular matrix glycoproteins, vitronectin and fibronectin. This is more important because it indicates that vitamin D3 is able to improve the beneficial effects induced by alginates, thus supporting data about the mechanism of gastroprotection induced by alginates [45]. Another important element is a time of adhesion, which is an important reparative event; the combination is able to occur rapidly, confirming other data about the reparative events following acute gastric injury [46]. Since there is evidence that oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of acute gastric injury [47, 48, 49], Aquilea Reflux® has been also tested to verify if it is able to improve both cell viability and cell proliferation after H2O2 or HCl exposure. This combination significantly reduced ROS production and decreased cell viability loss, suggesting that cell damage and cytotoxicity can be reduced.
These results suggest that it may exert a better gastroprotective effect through an antioxidant pathway, inhibiting apoptosis and activating survival kinases. Such effect was stronger in preventing epithelial damage than what was observed using other gastroprotective agents such as Gaviscon®, Maalox®, or proton-pump inhibitors. Ultimately, it can be said that alginate-based gastroprotectors combined with vitamin D3 have beneficial properties on gastric epithelial cells, joining the effects of a mechanical barrier with the modulation of intracellular pathways in order to maintain or restore the integrity of gastric epithelium. In addition, comparing the activity to other natural products, such as Neobianacid® which is a mixture of polysaccharides and flavonoids able to improve the protection of the stomach and the esophagus thanks to the presence of Poliprotect® and a flavonoid fraction (
Effects of Aq and Neo alone and combined with diclofenac during acidic and hyperacidic conditions. In panel A cell viability and in panel B ROS production observed in gastric epithelial cells treated for 24 h. P= pantoprazole, D= diclofenac. The other abbreviations are similarly reported in the figure. Data are expressed as means ± SD (%) of five independent experiments normalized to control values. *p < 0.05 vs. control; **p < 0.05 vs. HCl; φp < 0.05 vs. diclofenac; φφp < 0.05 vs. HCl + diclofenac; arrows indicate p < 0.05 between different groups.
These data show that it is possible to improve the beneficial effects of alginates by combining active ingredients that are capable of intervening at the cellular level to improve viability and to reduce the production of ROS, from which significant damage to the gastric mucosa originates. The formulation called Aquilea Reflux®, with its combination of chemical, mechanical, and biological agents, has proven to be effective in preventing cellular alterations caused by NSAIDs in both acid and hyperacidic conditions, reducing ROS production and apoptotic mechanism, and increasing the activation of survival kinases and cell proliferation.
In conclusion it can be stated that the antacid and gastroesophageal reflux abilities of alginate-based preparations could be significantly improved by combining natural extraction components and vitamin D3, providing an association of chemical, mechanical, and cellular action to achieve a complete protective effect.
This study was partially supported by AGING Project, Dipartimento di Eccellenza.
Laborest Spa contributed by supplying the tested chemical substances.
Lorenzo Secondini and Mietta Catera are employees of Laborest Spa; however, they provide an unbiased contribution to this study.
HCl | gastric acid |
GERD | gastroesophageal reflux disease |
NSAID | non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs |
PPI | proton-pump inhibitors |
ROS | free oxygen radicals |
eNOS | endothelial nitric oxide synthase |
NO | nitric oxide |
The sun is a nuclear fusion reactor that contains gravity. It produces unimaginable quantities of energy. Solar energy is a very perfect source of power. It can be captured passively by solar panels or other collectors. When the collectors have been produced, there will be no carbon emissions or waste products [1]. There are no moving parts to hurt wildlife. There is no dependence on foreign entities. The energy is produced and delivered for free by the sun [2]. The uranium division begins progressing with the absorption of the smooth-moving neutron from the non-strong U-235 isotope. The obtained U-236 is split into Ba-139 and Kr-94 as well as three unfastened neutrons. The mass deficiency of approximately 20% of atomic mass units has also been converted into 210 MeV energy units [3, 4]. There were 447 nuclear fission power stations in service globally, 55 in construction and 111 in the design processes [5].
In the United States in 2018, 19.3% of the electricity supply was produced by 97 nuclear power plants. This amounts from zero percent to the other countries, for example, in New Zealand, and 71.7% in the European Union; the total global energy demand in 2018 was 10.3% [6].
With 11 new reactors under development, China has the most quickly expanding nuclear power program. Pakistan aims to construct three to four nuclear power stations by 2030 [7].
Several countries had nuclear installations in the past, but they still do not have nuclear plants in operation. Italy closed all the nuclear power stations between them by 1990, and, as a consequence of the referendums established by the Italians in 1987, nuclear power already has stopped [8]. A number of nations currently run nuclear power stations but are considering the process of nuclear technology. These countries are Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and Spain [3]. Also according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), solar power increased by 39% in the United States from 2014 to 2017 [4]. Starting at 10 GW and ending at 27, this growth trend for the field is very encouraging. In addition, carbon dioxide emissions have decreased by a few percent, the lowest since 1991 [5]. If it continues down this path, more study is likely to be carried out as a result of the growth in the market for efficient, cheap solar energy, in order to attempt to develop even more carbon-free or low-carbon fuels such as wind and nuclear power [6]. There are two big issues relating to nuclear plants: waste disposal and potential failure. Nuclear power plants produce dangerous wastes; for example, a 1-GW nuclear power plant can produce 300 kg of nuclear waste, with a half-life of almost 24,000 years, and cause environmental issues. The current methods for disposing of these kinds of waste are inadequate. The complete reprocessing of all radioactive waste and the chemical transformation of long fission products will be an ideal option. However, trends in this area have not progressed extensively [7]. The first and most critical problem is its disparity; the amount of solar energy that can be harvested depends widely on the time, location, season, weather, and several other factors. In order to improve this topic, engineers are exploring the development of new storage methods for large quantities of energy generated [5]. One of these storage techniques suitable for mountainous areas is pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES) that also uses excess energy generated during nonpeak hours of the day to pump water from a reservoir in a much high elevation. PHES is just one of the several potential storage methods used by many people, and it is so essential because it provides a clean, efficient use of solar energy when normally none is generated by replacing it with hydroelectricity [8]. Because of the good use and storage of solar energy, it becomes more difficult to determine whether to use solar energy or some other form of renewable energy for power companies and individuals. Despite the obvious cost of installing solar power, this is a higher investment opposed to the use of fossil fuels due to much lower maintenance and occasional overproduction of energy.
Solar energy is a key player in the sustainable power plan. In sunny places, many residents built panels on their roofs to support air-conditioning, heating, and other household needs and the panels were set up by themselves. Study in the collection and storage of solar energy should be a major effort worldwide [9]. But in less sunny areas, there are a few expensive homes which run 100% on solar power, using large battery banks to power them through the nights.
Solar energy has the capacity to boost everything we need; however our ability to turn the energy of the sun into electrical power and also to store energy is simply not fully developed. Energy storage in particular has proven to be challenging, as solar panels have a very irregular energy intake because it depends on season, climate conditions, time of day, and so on. The inability to use all solar power harvested efficiently is an issue that is likely to force even more development in the field to come soon after it has been resolved. The industry is full of possible innovations that have yet to be made and which can be recognized if time is taken to develop the innovative technology. Therefore, when looking at potential ways of storing the energy produced, PHES may not be the most cost-effective, but it is proven to be safe and can be added to some existing infrastructure at the same time as analysis seeks to make it more efficient.
Solar technology, i.e., renewable wind, offers a reliable and stable supply of solar energy during the year. As our natural resources are likely to decline in the years to come, it is necessary for the entire world to shift toward sustainable sources. Solar power is a reactive electromagnetic sunlight energy that can be used for a wide range of still-evolving applications, such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar electricity, solar thermal processing, artificial molten, salt power plants, and photosynthesis.
Solar energy is a significant source of green energy, and its techniques are generally characterized as either passive solar energy or active solar energy based on whether solar energy is absorbed and transmitted or transformed into solar energy. Strong solar technologies involve the use of photovoltaic devices, concentrating solar power and solar water heaters to harvest electricity. Passive methods include the alignment of a system or building to the sun, the use of products with desirable light properties or thermal mass, and the construction of spaces that automatically disperse air.
The biggest advantage of solar energy is that it can be quickly installed by both home and business consumers, because it does not involve any major construction, such as in the case of wind and geothermal power stations. Solar energy not only benefits individual owners but also benefits the environment. Figure 1 shows a simple model of a solar thermal system.
Solar thermal system [
The technology of solar cells is developing, and as our nonrenewable supply decreases, it is necessary for the world to transition into renewable energy sources. There are, though, a range of issues that prohibit solar energy from being used more widely. Solar energy drawbacks are likely to be resolved as technology advances, and their use grows as people continue to realize the benefits of solar energy.
Solar energy can either be thermal or photovoltaic. The photovoltaic type is one of the most stable types of converting radiant energy into electrical energy. It really is suitable in many countries with adequate sunlight, such as Iran, and countries close to the equator, in terms of the quantity and availability of this technology. The energy source does not relate to someone and requires permission to use it. This feature has given rise to solar energy becoming special among renewable energy sources. Solar energy from ancient times is used by people using a magnifying glass to light the fire. Throughout this way, the sunlight was concentrated on dark wooden surfaces, and the fire became ignited. Also, solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells convert solar energy directly into DC electricity. This power source may be used to power solar clocks, calculators, or signals. These are also found in areas which are not linked to the power grid. Figure 2 shows a concentrated solar power (CSP) plant. Solar heat energy (SHE) can be used to heat water or air, which requires ventilation of the room inside the house.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) plant [
Solar energy can be broadly categorized as active or passive solar energy depending on how they are captured and utilized. For active solar power, specific solar heating equipment is used to transform solar power into thermal energy, but there is no specialized equipment for passive solar power [11]. Active solar requires the use of mechanical devices such as photovoltaic panels, solar trap fans, and solar thermal collectors or reservoirs. Passive solar solutions transform solar energy into thermal energy without the usage of active mechanical devices. It is primarily a method to use curtains, doors, plants, positioning of buildings, and other basic methods to catch or block the sun for usage. Passive solar heating is a smart way to save electricity and optimize its consumption. An example of passive solar heating is what happens to your car on a hot summer day.
Although solar energy is recognized to be one of the cleanest and most renewable sources of energy today, it also has several environmental impacts. Solar energy uses photovoltaic panels to generate solar electricity. Nevertheless, the processing of photovoltaic cells to generate the energy includes silicon and to produce other waste products. Inappropriate handling of such materials can result in hazardous exposure to humans and the environment [12]. Installing solar power plants will entail a significant portion of land that may have an effect on established habitats. Solar energy does not pollute the air when converted to electricity by solar panels. It is found in abundance and does not help in global warming.
Solar power is now expected to play a greater position in the future due to recent developments that will result in lower costs and better efficiency. In fact, the solar photovoltaic industry is preparing to supply half of all future US power generation by 2025. More and more architects understand the importance of active and passive solar power and know how to successfully integrate it into building designs. Solar hot water systems can compete economically with conventional systems in some areas. Shell has predicted that by 2040, 50% of the world’s electricity supply would come from sustainable resources. Over recent years, the rate of generating photovoltaic cells has declined by 3% per year while policy subsidies have increased. While certain other information about solar energy is meaningless, this renders solar energy an even more efficient source of electricity. Solar energy is projected to be used by millions of households across the world in the next several years, as seen by developments in the United States and Japan. Aggressive financial incentives in Germany and Japan and China have made these countries global leaders in solar deployment for years [13].
A renewable resource that can be used to generate power is solar. The sun itself is a source of radiant, daylight, and other energy sources on Earth. Steam engines are a perfect illustration of radiant energy, by having sunrays magnified by mirrors guided to the turbine to heat water and produce steam, which in effect drives the turbine and causes steam to escape, and this pushes the piston. Calculators often work on solar power by storing light rays and transmitting energy to enable the calculator to function even though no light is present. Trevor Smith1 notes that “solar rays can be used to fuel or cool houses, supply hot water and produce steam for turbines generating energy. Sunlight can be converted directly into energy by photovoltaics, a fast-growing branch of solar technology.” This allows people to generate energy from renewable resources. James Bow notes that in 1977, 1 W of solar power costs $76.67. In 2014, the cost dropped to around $0.60. This suggests that modern solar power projects are far more economical, which means that renewable energy has come a long way and will continue to grow. One of the greatest declines in solar power is that, first, the sun is still growing and dropping, ensuring that the energy provided and processed is confined to the location of solar panels. Second, the batteries used to store electricity generated by the sun are expensive and produce a large amount of emissions. Third, in order to allow the best of the light, wide quantities of solar panels or mirrors need to be installed, which could be a function of restricted resources. The energy generated by the solar is a type of renewable energy used by today’s society.
Nuclear power is the energy of an atom. Atoms are very tiny objects which make up a single body in the universe. There is enormous power in the links that connect the nucleus unchanged. Power is generated when the ties are disbanded. Nuclear energy may be used to create electricity, but it must be produced first. Nuclear power can be produced by both nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fission, atoms are separated into smaller atoms, which generate steam. Nuclear power stations have been used for electricity generation. Another method of generating nuclear energy is through nuclear fusion. The combination of atoms to each other and the creation of heavier atoms are established. When atoms are coupled, a lot of energy is released. These reactions occur together in the sun to generate thermal energy to radiation. Numerous studies are currently underway, although this technique has not yet been commercialized and it is not known if it is possible to generate electricity from this method. Uranium (U-235) is the most commonly produced nonrenewable material for nuclear fission. Plants use a particular type of U-235, as the atoms are readily isolated. During nuclear fission, the neutron hits and splits the uranium atom, releasing a large sum of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released as the uranium atom is separated. Some neutrons proceed to hit other uranium atoms, and the process begins over and over again. It’s a chain reaction, too. Although uranium is around 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is extremely scarce. Most of the US uranium is extracted in the western United States, but only 17 percent of the plutonium reactors is generated abroad. Uranium provided to US reactors in 2013 arrived from a number of nations, including Russia, Australia, and several other African countries. Figure 3 displays the map of uranium mines in the world [14].
Map of uranium mines in the world.
There are 648 nuclear power stations in the world. There are 61 nuclear power stations and 99 research facilities in the United States. Nuclear plants are found in 30 states, and 46 are situated east of the Mississippi River. After 1990, nuclear power has supplied around one-fifth of US electricity annually. Nuclear power provides as much electricity as all the fuel consumed in California, New York, and Texas together. Nuclear energy plants supply more than 20% of US energy. Figure 4 shows the map of nuclear power stations in the world.
Map of nuclear power stations in the world.
Uranium fission occurs with the capture of the slow neutron by the non-isotope U-235. The resultant U-236 generates three free neutrons and separates into Kr-94 and Ba-139. The mass defect of roughly 0.2 atomic mass units is converted into 210 MeV energy units.
Many power stations, like nuclear power plants, use heat to produce electricity. Power plants rely on steam from hot water to drive massive turbines, which then produce electricity. Because of using fossil fuels to produce electricity, nuclear power plants employ nuclear fission energy. The fission occurs in the nuclear power plant reactors. Nuclear reactors are devices which contain and regulate nuclear chain reactions while releasing heat at a regulated rate. The nucleus of the device, which includes nuclear fuel, is at the top of the plant. The uranium fuel is constructed of ceramic pellets. Each ceramic pellet contains at about the same amount of energy as 150 gallons of gasoline. Such energy-rich pellets are packaged in 12 foot wire fuel pipes. The array of fuel rods, sometimes hundreds of them, is called a burn unit.
The heat generated during the fission at the center of the reactor is used to boil water to steam, which turns the turbine blades. The energy can be generated while the rotor blades rotate. Afterwards, the steam is pumped back into the atmosphere in a different power plant system called a cooling tower. The product will be collected.
Nuclear power plants do not emit carbon dioxide emissions during operation compared to fossil fuel-fired power stations. Methods for the extraction and refining of uranium oxide and the processing of nuclear fuel, however, require a large amount of power. Nuclear power stations supply large quantities of metal and concrete which also require a substantial amount of energy to be produced. When fossil fuels are used for the production and refining of uranium oxide or for the installation of a nuclear power plant, the emissions generated by the burning of these fuels may be associated with the energy emitted by nuclear power plants. The main environmental concerns linked to nuclear power include the processing of toxic waste such as uranium mine tailings, expended reactor fuel, and other nuclear waste. These materials can stay radioactive and dangerous to human health for thousands of years. Animals are subject to strict laws governing their care, delivery, preservation, and treatment for the protection of human health and the environment. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates the operations of nuclear power plants. Nuclear waste is classified as small and large rates of emissions. Radioactivity of these materials may range from just over natural background rates, including in mill tailings, to much higher amounts, such as spent nuclear fuel or sections of a nuclear plant. Radioactivity of toxic waste is decreased as time passes by a process called nuclear decay. The period of time taken to reduce the radioactivity of hazardous material to half of the original level is considered the contaminated half-life of the substance. Short-lived radioactive waste is also treated permanently prior to disposal in order to mitigate the future danger of contamination to staff handling and carrying waste, as well as to the amount of pollution at production sites.
Nuclear waste stored in tanks is very dangerous. These vessels are kept under special conditions in the water with safety shields until their half-life exceeds the standard of security. Various countries have specific laws on the processing of nuclear waste. The United States has set out strict rules on the storage and management of radioactive fuel and waste. Some nuclear power plant fuels can be stored in dry storage tanks. In this way, nuclear fuel tanks are stored in separate rooms with cement or steel air-conditioning devices.
Typically, once a nuclear reactor stops, it shifts. It involves the controlled extraction of the reactor and other devices that have been damaged from operation and the elimination of radioactivity to a degree that permits other uses of the site. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has stringent regulations regulating the decommissioning of nuclear power facilities, including the washing up of radioactively polluted reactor processes and equipment, including the disposal of atomic waste.
Uncontrolled nuclear reactions in a nuclear reactor will potentially contribute to extensive pollution of air and water. The probability of this occurring at nuclear power plants in the United States is known to be very low due to the complex and robust safeguards and multiple protection measures in effect at nuclear power plants, the preparation and expertise of reactor workers, the monitoring and service operations, and the legislative standards and oversight of the United States. A wide-field near nuclear power plant is controlled and supervised by trained security forces. Some of the reactors have containment vessels that are designed to withstand extreme weather events and earthquakes.
According to the laws of physics, energy is neither produced nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one kind to another, including the transfer of electrical energy into mechanical energy of electric motors. From the structure of the atom, much of its mass exists in a part called the core, and this mass contains protons with a positive electric field and neutrons with an ineffective or neutral electric field. Studies and experiments have indicated that neutrons weigh a lot more than protons. Nuclear energy is the energy generated by a nuclear explosion or a nuclear fusion under the specific conditions of the nucleus of an atom. A lot of energy can be released as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion happens. Once the heavy element, uranium, was exploded with neutrons, it was found that something special occurred instead of causing radioactivity as other materials. This cycle has been called fission. When nuclear fusion or nuclear fission happens as a product of neutron impacts, not only are two lighter elements produced and many radiations released, but more neutrons are generated, as can be seen in Figure 5. It is therefore obvious that concurrently released neutrons can start a chain reaction by acting on released light atoms, increasing the intensity of the reaction. This reaction may spread throughout uranium.
Uranium-235 radioactive fission.
A lot of energy would be produced through the fission of the uranium-235 nucleus (see Figure 5). To consider the amount of this energy, it’s enough to remember that this amount is around 60,000,000 times greater than when a carbon atom burns. During a nuclear fission reaction, the atom decomposes and releases a lot of kinetic energy into the environment. Obviously, kinetic energy is directly related to the generation of heat. The first reactors to generate a functional volume of electricity were installed in the Calder Hall in England. Atomic bombs may be produced of mere fissionable material. Of the two bombs dropped on Japan to end the World War 2, one contained plutonium and the other very highly enriched uranium-235.
There is no question that nuclear technology has found its way into the future; however, like most electricity forms, it still suffers from certain significant disadvantages.
Various nuclear energy projects are ongoing in both developed and emerging countries, such as India. Not to note, the benefits of nuclear technology are well ahead of the drawbacks of fossil fuels. That’s why energy generation technology has been the most preferred technology.
By concatenating uranium extraction from seawater, manifestly safe breeding reactor technology, and borehole disposal of nuclear waste, a viable, planetary-scale nuclear energy network can be developed, i.e., another that is capable of supplying such an enormous quantity of energy at such a high degree of intensity that it can be relied on to sustain much—and possibly much—of the human society in virtually much possible scenarios of significant concern. For that way, nuclear technology is qualitatively distinct from other consumable technology options and must be assumed to be completely renewable in other respects. Throughout the immediate future, it is possible that the opportunity to build and demonstrate manifest protection for the latest generation of modern nuclear plants would be necessary to establish the basis for a prosperous future focused on nuclear technology.
Human civilization needs fossil energy because of its current facilities and its basic needs. This need and the high use of fossil fuels in the industrial, commercial, and residential sectors have contributed to major rapid climate change. The challenge of global warming is one of the massive problems confronting governments around the world. Earth heating may change the ecosystems and create many long-term problems. Greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide are rising water levels in the oceans. Some droughts are in risk of extinction. These concerns are so significant that crisis analysts have described the modern century as a fuel for sustainability and protection of the planet.
Many countries have adopted official targets for the share of renewable energy in their grids, and others are considering them (Figure 6). Now that the governments of the world have a common issue, human beings will take collaborative action. Global organizations have been set up to manage this issue. The usage of renewable resources is one of the proposals created by global organizations to manage this crisis. Those alternative sources of energy include renewable energy and nuclear power. Countries must make decisions based on the long-term future to determine and improve the energy structures of the nation and calculate the various costs. At present, taking into account the cost factor, it is not possible to fulfill all energy demand from clean energy sources. But the good news is that this is possible with the cooperation of nuclear and renewable energy. Several countries have, in their perspective, made the energy demand share dependent on renewable and nuclear energy. Specific planners engage in predicting future projects and their costs. Figure 6 constitutes some of the OECD-calculated costs. The key competition today is between solar and nuclear energy. The cost of using solar energy over active nuclear energy continues to be substantial and significant. They are also ideal for all levels of challenging electricity. Costs for involvement in the energy market are assessed by the OECD per year. In Figure 6, the authors made the data comprehensible. Six countries pioneered the use of nuclear energy and renewable energy sources. Figure 6 shows that the United States has been able to keep the cost of participating energy resources low, with the highest level of technology.
Costs of combining nuclear technology with renewable energy.
If the nuclear energy program is properly and sustainable way installed and the cost limit is eliminated, supplying electricity from nuclear energy resources will be reasonable and resolve these critical challenges for decades to come. It therefore seems necessary that we, as founders and citizens of a global society, begin to lay down the technological and structural foundations that will enable a viable, full-scale nuclear energy network to become operational in the immediate future while at the same time doing the same with regard to other realistic types of renewable energy supply on a scale [14].
One of the problems for nuclear power plants, as discussed earlier, is the difficulty of supplying 100 percent of electricity through these power plants. If we allow the setup and control share to be 10 percent and that share is given by solar energy, then the problem will be solved. However, if their share is assumed to be relatively large, then the cost of the system will increase, presenting another challenge.
These are rather heroic calculations given the paucity of sources, but they do indicate plausible effects. Increasing the penetration of renewable has small effect on backup costs since they tend to increase in direct proportion to the renewable capacity (MW) that needs backup and the increased capacity adds proportional MWh. However, balancing costs increase because more spinning reserve capacity is required at lower load factors. Since research is lowering the price of the solar-connected grid, the next problem is network costs. When renewable sources of energy such as photovoltaic systems manage to meet a district or village’s full demands, then there will be a crisis. Power plants continue to use energy for spending networks indefinitely, and it is not clear how cost-effective these networks are. In this case, it would be illogical to establish and to develop a network [15]. (As a side note, backup and balancing are less costly in the United States because the dispatchable power is typically gas fired, which is less costly there.)
Another inference can be drawn from these results: the marginal cost of the system will generally increase with increased penetration of renewables, essentially due to their intermittentness and tendency toward remote locations. In addition to marginal system cost per MWH, there is another critical metric: marginal cost per ton of CO2 emissions reduced by increased deployment of renewables. After all, that is a primary policy driver for renewable targets.
The United States has set ambitious targets for renewable penetration: 33% by 2020, not including hydro. Further consideration (up to 51% in the legislative proposal) has been given for the future. The 33% level is thought to result in an implicit cost of $50/ton carbon reduction. Some energy companies have carried out important research on target utilization of 50% nuclear power and 50% solar energy. This research includes researching this topic in both scientific and economic terms. It was represented in Figures 6 and 7. If the target is 50%, the lowest cost is $403, and the lowest cost is $340 for 40%. When energy storage technologies, such as nighttime high-altitude storage, are planned for solar energy, then the scenario will be more complex. This scenario shows that the size of large power plants can be utilized with good systems. For plants larger than 5000 mW, $636 per ton saves economic power [16]. Figure 7 shows the costs involved with combining nuclear and renewable energy.
The cost of getting a combination of nuclear energy and renewable energy paid by different countries.
The next challenge is solar and nuclear energy competition. Although solar power plants will fall in price each day, in most countries the price of renewable energy is still higher than in nuclear power plants. The cost of integrating and merging systems is also important. Currently, the value of building nuclear power plants in many countries is very high due to the companies concerns of moment, technology, sanctions, security, and safety hazards. It is possible to eliminate those limitations in solar energy. The same problems may not be as wide for state-owned companies or regulated markets that services have ready access to cheap capital, and that partly explains why Asia’s enthusiasm for nuclear reactors is far stronger than it is in the United States or Europe. Researchers are working to reduce the costs of technology, but the nuclear industry is not strong, although that could improve small modular reactors if they can be developed in the process. According to Figure 7, given the right facilities, the United States has to pay the lowest costs for involvement in nuclear and solar energy. South Korea also has the right structure to take this scenario forward.
Nuclear and renewable energies qualify for subsidies that vary from country to region. Some subsidies are direct, such as feed-in imports for renewable energy sources, while others shift the risks from utilities to customers.
The final guidelines would help to better compensate for nuclear and renewable costs and could help to reduce the costs of both:
Comparisons of nuclear and renewables costs should account for systems integration and differences in capacity factors.
In order to estimate nuclear costs, more attention should be given to the choice sensitivity of discount rate, as the discount rate drastically impacts the relative economic attractiveness of a nuclear project.
Findings on problems that may restrict the use of a nuclear reactor in “load-following” phase are important and should be given high priority.
Priority should be given to new reactor technologies like SMRs and regulatory reform in order to reduce nuclear capital costs. The final results of this section will include the following explanation. These explanations will help in choosing and policy making in the field of solar and nuclear energy. The outlook for these results is for the next 10 years. This outlook may change by changing conditions and creating critical conditions such as dramatically lower fossil fuel prices.
Nuclear power is dirty, dangerous, expensive, and not carbon-free and encourages nuclear proliferation. The nuclear power plant itself does not release toxic gasses such as CO2. Nevertheless, nuclear power leads to climate change; for any phase in the fuel chain used to produce electricity at the end of the day, a lot more energy is required, such as uranium extraction and uranium enrichment, which are highly energy-intensive methods. The life study of the whole fuel chain clearly indicates the relation to nuclear electricity to climate change. In a pioneering study [17], more than 100 studies have identified important but simple results, analyzing the life cycle of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to greenhouse gasses produced at nuclear power plants around the world. The results show that if the life expectancy of a plant is equal to the greenhouse gas emission equivalent to that energy production, then the emission equals 1.4 g of carbon dioxide per kilowatt hour (gCO2e/kWh) up to 288 gCO2e/kWh is variable. The mean greenhouse gas emissions equate to 66 gCO2e/kWh.
As a first conclusion, the extensive use of solar energy services for at least the next decade may be out of the issue. Photovoltaic and solar thermal systems, especially large thermal, wind, and biomass systems, will enter and expand energy networks quickly. Other renewable energy systems will be developed and priced to reduce consumption, such as biogas (wastewater, landfills, and livestock), geothermal, and possibly wave and tidal energy. This growth will be high in the next 10 years, but market with conventional systems will still take time [18]. Nuclear power is also an option when contemplating a transition from the dirtiest of fossil fuels, and thus nuclear power should be debated together with renewables. Nuclear time for building, risk, waste, and, in particular, costs must be tracked, because nuclear costs are increasing when solar energy costs are dropping. Small- and large-scale renewable energy projects and emerging storage systems are being increasingly developed by communities and nations. Also China, probably the most ambitious nation in terms of nuclear power, is introducing more wind and solar power relative to nuclear power—and not just nameplate capacity—which is actually produced. Last year alone, China installed 20.72 GW of wind (4.8 GW of production while its power factor is just 23%) and 28 GW of renewable energy (10.6 GW of production), with about 90% of its solar installations coming from utilities. In the same year, more than five nuclear plants (5.7 GW output) were added to the existing wind and solar power. China is only one example of how wind and solar power can be installed quickly while producing more electricity. At the period (and if) China finishes its 28 nuclear power plants (many are still behind schedule), with an estimated potential of 34 GW, further wind and solar power would be installed around the same timeframe—again, taking into account efficiency factors [19].
For the coming 10 years, here in the United States, the five US nuclear power facilities are 2 years behind track and have a budget of billions of dollars. Once live, they will produce 5.1 GW while renewables would produce a rather modest 131 GW.
The other two factors are systems for the energy, safety and security systems. In a nuclear power plant, when things go awry, it can be really bad because of accidents, threats, or critical situations that happen. It should be noted that the smallest incident in a nuclear power plant can often incapacitate or destroy a city or a country. Is it likely? Who knows for sure? Could you foresee the next earthquake in Southern California or somewhere else in the United States or Japan or the rest of the world? What about the next wave washing down a coastline? How about the next cyber threat or the Middle East militant organization? Compare a tragedy for a nuclear power plant against a solar power plant. When you ask me why I’m against constructing new reactors, it’s about economy, health and protection, and the reality that we can expand on current hydro and nuclear power facilities with all the renewables—and we can do it quicker.
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
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