Comparison of diagnostic methods for
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Dr. Dogan received his MD from Gazi University, Faculty of Medicine in 2000. After his extensive research in the forensic medicine field, he received his PhD in Biochemistry in 2012. He gives lectures on Forensic Medicine and Medical Ethics to medical students as well as students of the dentistry and law faculties. He is a reviewer for several international journals and he has published over 200 articles in refereed journals, chapters in textbooks and abstracts in scientific meetings. His publications have been cited more than 700 times.",institutionString:"Selçuk University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Selçuk University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"994",title:"Traumatology",slug:"traumatology"}],chapters:[{id:"65588",title:"Introductory Chapter: An Overview of Wound Healing",slug:"introductory-chapter-an-overview-of-wound-healing",totalDownloads:762,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"}]},{id:"64160",title:"Regulatory Mechanisms and Chemical Signaling of Mediators Involved in the Inflammatory Phase of Cutaneous Wound Healing",slug:"regulatory-mechanisms-and-chemical-signaling-of-mediators-involved-in-the-inflammatory-phase-of-cuta",totalDownloads:676,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"256299",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Pellizzon",slug:"claudia-pellizzon",fullName:"Claudia Pellizzon"},{id:"271401",title:"MSc.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Beserra",slug:"fernando-beserra",fullName:"Fernando Beserra"}]},{id:"62998",title:"Biomarkers of Wound Healing",slug:"biomarkers-of-wound-healing",totalDownloads:946,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"196452",title:"Dr.",name:"Newman",surname:"Osafo",slug:"newman-osafo",fullName:"Newman Osafo"},{id:"252789",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaw Duah",surname:"Boakye",slug:"yaw-duah-boakye",fullName:"Yaw Duah Boakye"}]},{id:"63086",title:"Medicinal Plants in Wound Healing",slug:"medicinal-plants-in-wound-healing",totalDownloads:1808,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"253340",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammadreza",surname:"Farahpour",slug:"mohammadreza-farahpour",fullName:"Mohammadreza Farahpour"}]},{id:"63675",title:"Wound Healing: Contributions from Plant Secondary Metabolite Antioxidants",slug:"wound-healing-contributions-from-plant-secondary-metabolite-antioxidants",totalDownloads:719,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"261027",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor Y. 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According to studies conducted, many of the pathogenic species of
The different methods used for diagnosis range from antigenic screening (Ag) to molecular techniques. Antigenic screening techniques have been associated with a high sensitivity of a detection limit of the
The bacterium is one of the most important findings for gastroenterologists, who for years sought answers to multiple intestinal problems. This is how the gastroenterologist Walery Jaworski in 1899 after analyzing samples of human gastric expirations isolated spiral elongated bacteria and called them
So, it took 79 years for the bacteria to be rediscovered by the Australian doctors Barry Marshall and Robin Warren, who managed to make the first isolation through a pure culture in 1979. This rediscovery allowed them to be Nobel Laureates in 2005 [15].
Taxonomically, we can describe
The multiple genotypic and phenotypic characteristics are different from those of
Although in general there is no difference between the sexes, in some developed countries, there is a higher prevalence of infection in men than in women [16].
The prevalence of
Epidemiological and microbiological evidences have several transmission routes that have been proposed in the studies carried out. The gastro-oral, oral-oral, and fecal-oral routes are the most important routes of transmission [12]. Other routes of importance are also breastfeeding and iatrogenic transmission which are also included as alternating forms for the transmission of the pathogen. The possibilities of spreading the pathogen are of three possible vectors that have been suggested to maintain the viable form of the bacteria: water, food, and animals.
The prevalence of
Through molecular methods,
In another study, developed by Moreno et al. [21]; Moreno and Ferrús, [22]
On the other hand,
Those foods that have a water activity (aw) >0.97 and a pH between 4.9 and 6.0 theoretically provide the ideal conditions for the survival and development of
Vegetables are one of the foods with the highest risk of fecal contamination, since they are in contact with soil and contaminated irrigation water, which would mean the spread of
On the other hand, the ability of
Milk could also act as a vehicle for
On the other hand, Meng et al. [36] analyzed 11 raw chickens and 18 samples of tuna meat ready for consumption (sushi).
Studies have also been conducted on the presence of
The presence of
The term gastritis should be reserved for the histologically demonstrated inflammation of the gastric mucosa. Gastritis is not the mucosal erythema seen during endoscopy, nor is it interchangeable with the term “dyspepsia” [13]. On the other hand, the different etiological factors that cause gastritis are multiple and heterogeneous; to gastritis it has been classified with a chronological base (acute or chronic), such as histological typologies, anatomical distribution or its pathogenic mechanism, clinical correlation, histological data, abdominal pain or dyspepsia, and endoscopic data in gastric mucosal investigation [13].
The pathogenesis of chronic gastritis by
Second stage of the inflammatory process of the gastric mucosa by
It is the uncontrolled growth of stomach cells. Malignant tumors can originate in each of the three layers: mucosa, muscle, and serosa. This is also known as gastric cancer that originates in the stomach [41]. The risk factor is considered any caused that increases the likelihood of having a disease such as cancer, even though several risk components do not mean that the person will have the disease; Some scientists connoted that the risks that take a person to be more prone to suffer stomach cancer are several such as:
Incidence according to sex: Stomach cancer is more common in men than in women [16].
Age: The rate of stomach cancer in people over 50 years increases sharply [42].
Ethnic origin: In the United States, stomach cancer is more common among Americans of Hispanic origin, black people, and Asians and islanders compared to white people who are not of Hispanic origin [41].
Geography: On a global scale, stomach cancer is more common in Japan, China, Eastern and Southern Europe, as well as Central and South America [41].
Several risk factors for gastric cancer have been described, which play a fundamental role in their genesis, some of them remain under discussion, and others, on the contrary, have been confirmed more and more clearly [43].
Within the genetic risk factors [41], we have:
Families of patients with gastric cancer: incidence 2–3 times higher
Blood group A.
Among the environmental risk factors [41], we have:
Food (variable in each country): dried and salted fish, very spicy foods, and red meats, among others
Ingestion of alcohol, hot drinks, and sodium nitrate; chewed tobacco
Radiation.
Within the premalignant risk factors [41], we have:
Atrophic gastritis, intestinal metaplasm, and dysplasia.
Pernicious anemia (20 times more frequent than in normal subjects).
Gastric polyps: multiple hyperplasia, greater than 2 cm with some degree of dysplasia 0.4–4% of association with gastric cancer [41].
People who have suffered from a certain type of stomach lymphoma, known as lymphoma of lymphatic tissue associated with the mucosa (MALT), have an increased risk of developing adenocarcinoma of the stomach, probably due to infection with
The gastric infection produced by
Entrance and lodging of
The diagnostic methods of
The other indirect methods are based on the detection of certain characteristics of the bacteria, such as the ability to hydrolyze through urea, and based on the breath test or the response of the immune system through the measurement of specific antibodies. Its primary advantage is its noninvasive nature [44].
The presence of the germ can be recognized with the usual hematoxylin and eosin stain, although it is more easily demonstrated with other stains such as Giemsa. The histology not only demonstrates the presence of the microorganism but also informs about the morphological changes of the gastric mucosa [44].
Under optimal conditions
The selection and inoculation of the bacteria depend on the number and types of tests to be carried out as well as on the factors, type of bacteria, clinical importance of the isolation, availability of the strain, and reliable method of verification [46]. Plate culture has advantages ranging from typifying the organism to determining its sensitivity to antibacterial agents, so it is important to study it from the epidemiological point of view, because it allows knowing the pattern of resistance to different therapeutic regimens with a specificity of the 100% and a lower sensitivity than other diagnostic techniques [3]. This microorganism is also urease, oxidase, and catalase positive, characteristics that are frequently used in the identification of the microorganism, although its isolation is relatively complex [16].
It is usually considered a difficult and tedious technique. However, adopting a series of minimal precautions, most laboratories achieve the growth of the microorganism [44].
Serological techniques only indicate a previous exposure to the microorganism but do not discriminate between people with active infection and disease in healthy individuals with prior exposure to infection [44]. Rapid tests are methods for the detection of antigens and antibodies in serum, plasma, whole blood, and other fluids, which give results in a few minutes [47]. These serological techniques are widely used today for rapid diagnosis in laboratories.
The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is widely used to perform epidemiological studies on a considerable number of individuals [48].
In a work done by Siavoshi et al. [49], for the intracellular detection of
This is a chromatographic immunoassay for the qualitative detection of
Molecular methods are the names given to all the laboratory techniques used to isolate DNA or extract it in high purity, visualize it to see its state, cut it and paste it (Iglesias [51]), or amplify a region in a huge amount of molecules: fragment cloning in bacteria or other vectors such as viruses as well as polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Infectious diseases have become the “spearhead” for the development of molecular diagnostic tests, with more than 50% of the techniques available today. The main explanation for this development is due to the difficulty of detecting a pathogen through classical microbiology [52] (Table 1).
Methods | Characteristic | Advantage | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
Histological techniques | Habitual staining of hematoxylin and eosin Giemsa stain | Demonstrates the presence of the microorganism and reports on changes in the mucosa | The technique requires samples obtained from a biopsy Proper selection of stain fixatives |
Culture | Cultivation of the microorganism in specific media under microaerobic conditions The optimum temperature of culture is from 35 to 37°C [53] | Isolate the microorganism to study its behavior (in vitro) | It is difficult to isolate, since Samples destined for culture remain viable for approximately 5 hours and when stored in saline at 4°C or for more than 24 hours if stored at 4°C in a transport medium specific for Another disadvantage is the high contamination of the environment with accompanying biota, which makes it difficult to isolate |
Serological techniques | Methods for the detection of antigens and antibodies (serum, plasma, and whole blood, among others) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) | Rapid laboratory tests | It can induce a false-negative result |
Antigenic screening | Chromatographic immunoassay for the detection of | Rapid laboratory tests | Possible false positives due to cross reactions with other organisms [56] |
Molecular Methods | DNA amplification of the pathogen | Great versatility as an analysis technique, sequences are amplified from minute amounts of target DNA, even from DNA contained in a single cell | Need to have information on the target DNA sequence Short size of the PCR products The ease with which DNA is amplified requires avoiding the danger of contamination inherent to the multiplier power of the reaction |
Comparison of diagnostic methods for
Mosquitoes are small, midge-like flies that constitute the family Culicidae. Females of most species are ectoparasites feeding on vertebrates’ blood through piercing the hosts’ skin to suck the blood. To-date, approximately 3500 species of the Culicidae have been described. The family Culicidae is a large and abundant group which occurs throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world and well beyond the Arctic Circle [1]. There are two subfamilies of Culicidae, that is, the Anophelinae (3 genera) and the Culicinae (110 genera). The subfamily Culicidae,
The public health concern of
About 80% of the world’s population is at risk for at least of exposure to one vector-borne disease; these diseases account for about 17% of the estimated global burden of communicable diseases and cause over 700,000 deaths annually, affecting disproportionately poorer populations [6, 9]. They hamper economic development through direct medical costs and indirect costs such as the loss of productivity and tourism. The social, demographic, and environmental factors strongly influence transmission patterns of vector-borne pathogens. Vector control is an important component for decision science in the prevention and control of vector-borne disease approaches. Consequently, the global distribution and ecology of these vectors and the geographical determinants of their ranges are essential in order to be effective. Therefore, it is important to work out where these mosquito species are found around the globe to identify the areas at risk. It is also important to predict where these species could become established if they were introduced, in order to identify areas that could become at risk in the future.
\nThe geographic distribution of
\n | Country | \nOccurrences | \n\n | Country | \nOccurrences | \n\n | Country | \nOccurrences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Americas | \nBrazil | \n5044 | \nEurope/Africa | \nSenegal | \n112 | \nAsia/Oceania | \nTaiwan | \n9490 | \n
USA | \n436 | \nCameroon | \n55 | \nIndonesia | \n603 | \n|||
Mexico | \n411 | \nKenya | \n52 | \nThailand | \n495 | \n|||
Cuba | \n177 | \nUnited Republic of Tanzania | \n44 | \nIndia | \n423 | \n|||
Argentina | \n170 | \nCôte d’Ivoire | \n40 | \nAustralia | \n282 | \n|||
Trinidad and Tobago | \n152 | \nNigeria | \n35 | \nViet Nam | \n223 | \n|||
Venezuela | \n130 | \nMadagascar | \n28 | \nMalaysia | \n112 | \n|||
Colombia | \n128 | \nGabon | \n27 | \nSingapore | \n44 | \n|||
Puerto Rico | \n120 | \nMayotte | \n20 | \nPhilippines | \n36 | \n|||
Peru | \n89 | \nSierra Leone | \n20 | \nCambodia | \n29 | \n|||
Americas | \nBrazil | \n3441 | \nEurope/Africa | \nItaly | \n203 | \nAsia/Oceania | \nTaiwan | \n15,339 | \n
USA | \n1594 | \nMadagascar | \n58 | \nMalaysia | \n186 | \n|||
Mexico | \n50 | \nCameroon | \n42 | \nIndonesia | \n161 | \n|||
Cayman Islands | \n15 | \nFrance | \n37 | \nIndia | \n150 | \n|||
Haiti | \n13 | \nGabon | \n27 | \nJapan | \n97 | \n|||
Guatemala | \n12 | \nAlbania | \n22 | \nThailand | \n82 | \n|||
Venezuela | \n7 | \nMayotte | \n21 | \nSingapore | \n44 | \n|||
Colombia | \n3 | \nGreece | \n18 | \nLao People’s Democratic Republic | \n26 | \n|||
Cuba | \n3 | \nIsrael | \n17 | \nPhilippines | \n22 | \n|||
Puerto Rico | \n3 | \nLebanon | \n15 | \nViet Nam | \n18 | \n
The
Note: This table was contributed by Kramer a leading author of the paper published in E-life journal (https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.08347.003).
It is likely that
The
Interestingly,
Historically,
The emergence of insecticide resistance to multiple classes of insecticides has been widely reported in
There are three major categories of insecticide resistance that have been described, namely, physiological resistance (target-site resistance and metabolic resistance) and behavioral avoidance. First, physiological resistance may develop due to the target-site resistance. Target site mutations are known to cause amino acid substitutions, which could affect the influx of insecticides into the target site. This may compromise the action of the insecticide rendering the vector tolerant or fully resistant to the insecticide. Another form of physiological resistance is due to metabolic resistance due to detoxification of insecticides by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases which allow the resistant vector to metabolize insecticides [36]. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and carboxylesterases (ESTs) are also described in this process. Over expression of P450s was associated with insecticide resistance in diverse vector species including
In Tanzania, like many other African settings, there is limited information on the
The mechanism of action of the pyrethroid compounds is through their toxic effect and subsequent disruption of the VGS channels in the insect nervous system [32]. The evidence suggests that
In addition to the
Thus is defined as the ability of a vector to detect and escape from an insecticide-treated area and avoid the toxin. This type of resistance has been shown in different classes of insecticides, including organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids [47]. It has been shown that vectors are capable of avoiding feeding if they come across certain insecticides or escape the area sprayed with the insecticides. There are currently limited studies exploring this mechanism of resistance in
Transmission of dengue fever (DF) occurs when a female
A mosquito with salivary gland infection may transmit infectious virions during salivation as it probes the tissues of another vertebrate host. Transovarial transmission of virions occurs from the female mosquito to her progeny, and females of the next generation can transmit the virus orally without having been infected through blood feeding. There is also a venereal transmission of some arboviruses from male to female mosquito as observed and reported by Amarasinghe and others [49] (Figure 2).
\nArboviral transmission cycle vectored by
Transmission of dengue virus occurs in 3 cycle, namely, enzootic cycle, epizootic cycle, and epidemic cycle. The enzootic cycle involves monkey-Aedes-monkey cycle, and this cycle is primitive and has been reported in South Asia and Africa [50]. The second is epizootic cycle, which involves the transmission of dengue virus from nonhuman primates to the next human in epidemic cycles by Aedes mosquito. Lastly, the epidemic cycle where the transmission cycle is through human
In this life cycle (human-to-
Infected humans are the major carriers of the virus where mosquito can acquire the virus through biting. The incubation time varies from virus to virus, but generally, arboviruses exhibit between 2–15 days from inoculation to development of clinical symptoms. During this period,
The reemergence of dengue disease in other places may be associated with the transovarial (via the eggs) transmission of dengue virus by
Usually, dengue transmission occurs in rainy seasons with appropriate temperature and humidity for surviving of adult and larva mosquito. On the other hand, in arid areas, the rainfall is scant, and therefore, during the dry season, the man-made containers become the main breeding sites for the
In the ambient temperature, the life cycle of
Several entomological factors have been associated with the initiation and maintenance of the epidemic including behavior, density, and vectorial capacity of mosquito vector population and introduction of the virus into a community.
\nThis can be done by professionals by giving the public awareness, which can help to empower people to take control of mosquito breedings around their surroundings and adult control. The public can be provided with the tools needed to reduce mosquito annoyance. This is when the community, families, and individuals involved in planning and implementation of local vector control activities in order to ensure that the program meets priorities and the needs of the people in the community.
\nFrequent larval breeding sites should be searched and treated as frequent as possible by trained field technicians and trained community members. Mosquito elimination in larval stages before emerging to adults will reduce the adult mosquito population. Reduction of mosquito breeding sites such as jars, barrels, pots, vases, bottles, tins, water coolers, and tyres can be done by environmental management, removing of solid waste and managing artificial man-made habitats. All domestic water storage containers should be cleaned and covered daily.
\nThis should aim to control
Application of repellents such as DEET, DIMP, and of like is of paramount importance in reducing or controlling human to vector contact. The application should be done during active hours of the day.
\nSurveillance is important detect mosquito species in a certain area and changes in populations. By having valuable data, we are capable of more successfully time larvicide applications and more correctly target the adulticide activities. The WHO recommends of regular household surveys of
Studies on the ecology of
There is widespread resistance to the commonly widely used insecticide, pyrethroids and organophosphates in
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