Hemorrhagic diatheses–adapted from Vezeau [15] and Goswami et al. [16].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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The target is, hopefully, to achieve “net-zero” greenhouse gas by 2050 and switch to clean power to fuel much of the transportation, buildings and industry. Therefore, intensive research and collaborative projects dealing with the installation of many wind turbines, both onshore and offshore, have taken place to decarbonize electricity grid systems through the exploitation of wind power. In this context, modern and larger horizontal-axis wind turbines with power capacity reaching 15 MW and rotors of more than 230-meter diameter are under continuous development for the merit of minimizing the unit cost of energy production. Such valuable advances in this competitive source of clean energy have made vast research contributions in developing wind industry technologies worldwide.
\r\n\r\n\tIn addition to the confrontation with the social acceptance, transport and erection, and sustainability of political and economic support for wind energy exploitation, the main challenges for a continued up-sizing of wind turbines in the future are the accurate wind measurements, materials and structures of the rotating blades which are expected to be fully made of carbon fibers, development of drive train technologies using permanent magnet generators, as well as multi-stage gearboxes, which could improve reliability. Towers will continue to be made of steel and/or concrete in the form a modular construction.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to present advances and challenges of the design, manufacture and operation of wind turbines, and to provide a rich platform of research to the field of wind turbines. Suggested topics encompass wind measurement and forecasting, rotor blades, drive train technology, construction of tower and foundation, system integration and diagnostics, as well as offshore wind industry. The authors are encouraged to combine design, manufacturing processes and operation and maintenance procedures with a description of the implemented approaches and techniques, dealing with the individual subject as they find appropriate.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-493-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-492-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-494-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"bb4190017e28a8332ce6b3e791ddeef1",bookSignature:"Prof. Karam Youssef Maalawi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11176.jpg",keywords:"Wind, Wind Turbine, Wind Measurement, Rotor Blade, Drive Train, Tower, System Integration, Offshore Wind Industry, Weather Model, Erection Procedure, Floating Foundation, Storage Technology",numberOfDownloads:184,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 15th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Karam Youssef Maalawi is a holder of two distinguished awards in Engineering science and the Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime Achievement Award. He is also a consultant engineer at the Egyptian Organization for Standards and Quality and the rapporteur of the Technical Committee for Energy Systems Management. He was endorsed by Marquis Who's Who as a leader in the aerospace engineering industry.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"18593",title:"Prof.",name:"Karam",middleName:"Youssef",surname:"Maalawi",slug:"karam-maalawi",fullName:"Karam Maalawi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/18593/images/system/18593.jpeg",biography:"Karam Y. Maalawi is a professor of Aeronautics and Mechanics at the Mechanical Engineering Department, National Research Centre in Cairo, Egypt. He holds a Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Aerospace Engineering (Cairo University). Dr. Maalawi has published extensively in the field of structural optimization and wind turbine design and performance. Likewise, he has utilized the vast range of knowledge at his disposal to contribute to several research projects regarding aerospace engineering technology, wind turbine structures and renewable energy applications. He is a consultant engineer at the Egyptian Organization for Standards and Quality and the rapporteur of the Technical Committee for Energy Systems Management. For his outstanding contributions to his profession, the National Research Centre has recognized him with two awards for engineering sciences. He has been presented with the Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime Achievement Award and endorsed by Marquis Who's Who as a leader in the aerospace engineering industry.",institutionString:"National Research Centre",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"National Research Centre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"80980",title:"Methods and Devices for Wind Energy Conversion",slug:"methods-and-devices-for-wind-energy-conversion",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"64918",title:"Prof.",name:"Janis",surname:"Viba",slug:"janis-viba",fullName:"Janis Viba"},{id:"295276",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitaly",surname:"Beresnevich",slug:"vitaly-beresnevich",fullName:"Vitaly Beresnevich"},{id:"295282",title:"MSc.",name:"Martins",surname:"Irbe",slug:"martins-irbe",fullName:"Martins Irbe"}]},{id:"80960",title:"Optimizing Berthing of Crew Transfer Vessels against Floating Wind Turbines: A Comparative Study of Various Floater Geometries",slug:"optimizing-berthing-of-crew-transfer-vessels-against-floating-wind-turbines-a-comparative-study-of-v",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81755",title:"Wind Power Forecasting Models",slug:"wind-power-forecasting-models",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"222763",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",surname:"Shouman",slug:"enas-shouman",fullName:"Enas Shouman"}]},{id:"81356",title:"Wind Turbine Aerodynamics and Flow Control",slug:"wind-turbine-aerodynamics-and-flow-control",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80973",title:"Prediction of Environmental Sound Pressure Levels from Wind Farms: A Simple but Accurate Model",slug:"prediction-of-environmental-sound-pressure-levels-from-wind-farms-a-simple-but-accurate-model",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81070",title:"Low Specific Power Wind Turbines for Reduced Levelized Cost of Energy",slug:"low-specific-power-wind-turbines-for-reduced-levelized-cost-of-energy",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81089",title:"Offshore Wind Farm Grid Connection with Diode Rectifier Unit HVDC and Phase Shifting Transformer",slug:"offshore-wind-farm-grid-connection-with-diode-rectifier-unit-hvdc-and-phase-shifting-transformer",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81157",title:"Wind Turbine Bearing Failure: A Personal View",slug:"wind-turbine-bearing-failure-a-personal-view",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"327797",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Campbell",slug:"john-campbell",fullName:"John Campbell"}]},{id:"81489",title:"Simulation Analysis of DFIG Integrated Wind Turbine Control System",slug:"simulation-analysis-of-dfig-integrated-wind-turbine-control-system",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81102",title:"Toward Self-Reliant Wind Farms",slug:"toward-self-reliant-wind-farms",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82008",title:"An Algorithm for Default Detection of Wind Turbine Generators",slug:"an-algorithm-for-default-detection-of-wind-turbine-generators",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Biodiesel is a mixture of alkyl esters and it can be used in conventional compression ignitions engines, which need almost no modification. As well, biodiesel can be used as heating oil and as fuel (Mushrush et al., 2001; Wardle, 2003). So far, this alternative fuel has been successfully produced by transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats using homogeneous basic catalysts (mainly sodium or potassium hydroxide dissolved in methanol). Traditional homogeneous catalysts (basic or acid) possess advantages including high activity (complete conversion within 1 h) and mild reaction conditions (from 40 to 65 °C and atmospheric pressure). However, the use of homogeneous catalysts leads to soap production. Besides, in the homogeneous process the catalyst is consumed thus reducing the catalytic efficiency. This causes an increase in viscosity and the formation of gels. In addition, the method for the removal of the catalyst after reaction is technically difficult and a large amount of wastewater is produced in order to separate and clean the products, which increases the overall cost of the process. Thus, the total cost of the biodiesel production based on homogeneous catalysis, is not yet sufficiently competitive as compared to the cost of diesel production from petroleum. An alternative is the development of heterogeneous catalysts that could eliminate the additional running costs associated with the aforementioned stages of separation and purification. In addition, the use of heterogeneous catalysts does not produce soap through free fatty acid neutralization and triglyceride saponification. Therefore, development of efficient heterogeneous catalysts is important since opens up the possibility of another pathway for biodiesel production. The efficiency of the heterogeneous process depends, however, on several variables such as type of oil, molar ratio alcohol to oil, temperature and catalyst type. Thus, the objective of this chapter is to present a review of the effect of the aforesaid variables on important characteristics of biodiesel such as methyl esters content. Some characterization techniques for both, biodiesel and heterogeneous catalysts will also be addressed.
Nowadays, there are four known methods to reduce the high viscosity of vegetable oils to enable their use in conventional compression ignitions engines: blending with diesel, pyrolysis, emulsification and transesterification. The pyrolysis and the emulsification, however, produce heavy carbon deposits, incomplete combustion, an increase of lubricating oil viscosity and undesirable side products such as alkanes, alkenes, alkadienes, aromatic compounds and carboxylic acids. Regarding the direct use of vegetables oils as fuel for combustion engines, this requires the engines to be modified (Demirbas, 2005; Ma & Hanna, 1999). Also, the direct use of vegetables oils is not feasible due to their high viscosity and low volatility which affect the atomization and spray pattern of fuel, leading to incomplete combustion, severe carbon deposits, injector choking and piston ring sticking (Ryan et al., 1984; Xie & Li, 2006). Thus, the most common way to produce biodiesel is by transesterification of triglycerides of refined/edible types of oils using alcohol, in presence of an acid or a basic catalyst (López et al., 2005). The alcohol used for transesterification is usually methanol. Producing biodiesel is a bulk process; the general scheme of the trasesterification reaction is presented in Figure 1, where R is a mixture of various fatty acid chains.
Reaction for oil transesterification.
In principle, transesterification is a reversible reaction, although in the production of biodiesel, the back reaction does not occur or is negligible because the glycerol formed is not miscible with the product, leading to a two-phase system. Nevertheless, an excess of alcohol is usually employed to force reaction towards the right side. The stoichiometry of reaction is a 3:1 molar ratio of alcohol to oil, to produce 3 mol of biodiesel and 1 mol of glycerol. Though, in practice it is usually increased from 6:1 to 1000:1 to favor the formation of products and increase its performance. In this context, the amount of alcohol used can be reduced by conducting the transesterification in steps: part of the alcohol and catalyst are added at the start of each step, and the glycerol is removed at the end of each step (Encinar et al., 2005; Gerpen, 2005; Harvey et al., 2003; Verziu et al., 2008). Complete conversion of the triglyceride involves three consecutive reactions with monoglyceride and diglyceride intermediates which are reversible reactions as shown in Figure 2 (Harvey et al., 2003; Suppes et al., 2004).
Reaction scheme for oil transesterification
While transesterification is an equilibrium reaction between esters and alcohols, the reaction may be under kinetic control before thermodynamic equilibrium is achieved, and this would favor the formation of monoalkyl esters (Meneghetti et al., 2006).
The transesterification reaction produces two liquid phases: alkyl esters and crude glycerol (the heavier liquid). In a typical stirred tank reactor, glycerol is collected at the bottom after some time of settling. Phase separation can be observed within short time (approximate 10 minutes) and can be complete within 2 to 20 h, when the reaction is carried out at laboratory scale (Demirbas, 2005).
In the case of alcohols, these can be primary or secondary monohydric aliphatic alcohols having from 1 to 8 carbon atoms. Among the alcohols that have been used to produce biodiesel, either homogeneously or heterogeneously, are methanol, ethanol, propanol, isopropanol, butanol, pentanol and amyl alcohol (Demirbas, 2005; Fukuda et al., 2001; Meneghetti et al., 2006). The use of methanol is advantageous as it can quickly react with triglycerides (polar and shortest chain alcohol) and is a relatively inexpensive alcohol, while the same reaction using ethanol has as drawback that the produced ethyl esters are less stable and a carbon residue is observed after reaction. The use of ethanol as solvent, however, is becoming more popular since this alcohol is a renewable resource and does not raise the same toxicity concerns than methanol (Demirbas, 2005; Geise, 2002; Meneghetti et al., 2006). Similar yields of biodiesel can be obtained using either methanol or ethanol. With the former, however, mild reaction temperature (approximately 60 °C) can be employed, whereas for the latter and other alcohols (butanol) at similar molar ratios higher temperatures (75 and 114 °C, respectively) are required for optimum conversion (Geise, 2002). Also, the reaction time is shorter in the methanolysis because of the physical and chemical properties of methanol: polar character and the short chain alcohol. For instance, Meneghetti et al. (2006) reported that the production of biodiesel from castor oil was faster with methanol compared with ethanol. In such a study, maximum yields of esters were obtained after 1h of reaction time with methanol or 5 h with ethanol.
Biodiesel is usually prepared in the presence of homogeneous base or acid catalysts. With homogenous base catalysts (sodium and potassium hydroxides, carbonates, sodium and potassium alkoxides, principally) the reaction is faster than with acid catalysts (sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, hydrochloric and sulfonic acid principally) (Fukuda et al., 2001; Ma & Hanna, 1999). However, the main disadvantage of the aforementioned homogeneous catalysts is the undesirable production of both, soap and glycerol. This fact increases the production costs. On the other hand, heterogeneous catalysts could improve the synthesis methods by eliminating the neutralization salts in the glycerol and therefore the number of separation steps can be reduced (Mac, Leod et al., 2008). Also, heterogeneous catalysts exhibit a less corrosive character and can be used in a fixed-bed reactor, leading to safer, cheaper and more environment-friendly operation (Dossin et al., 2006b). In addition to the type of catalyst, important parameters of the transesterification reaction are the molar ratio of alcohol, type of alcohol, temperature, reaction time and degree of refinement of the vegetable oil (Fukuda et al., 2001; Geise, 2002; Ma & Hanna, 1999; Marchetti et al., 2007; Vicente et al., 2004). Also, stirring is a critical point in the efficiency of the process, higher stirring is recommended to create a homogeneous phase. We must remember that the insolubility of fat materials in short chain alcohols reduces the rate of transesterification. That means that transesterification does not proceed properly, unless the reaction mixture is homogenized in some way, at least during the initial stages of the process (Mittelbach & Remschmidt, 2004). In consequence, it has been shown that the use of a cosolvent greatly accelerates the reaction so that it reaches substantial completion within a few minutes. The primary concerns with this method are the additional complexity of recovering and recycling the cosolvent. Although this can be simplified by choosing a compound with a boiling point near to that of the alcohol in use. The most commonly used cosolvents are tetrahydrofuran and methyl tertiary butyl ether. Nevertheless, hexane has been successfully employed as co-solvent to obtain a 95.5 % of methyl ester content (Gerpen, 2005; Mittelbach & Remschmidt, 2004; Peña et al., 2009) when assessing three alkaline catalysts (CH3ONa, NaOH, and KOH).
Usually, the choice of feedstock depends largely on the resources availability, and depending on the origin and quality of the feedstock, changes to the production process may be necessary. The use of non-edible oils or spent oils as well as heterogeneous systems is preferred because they are more environmentally friendly.
For the production of biodiesel there are not technical restrictions regarding the use of vegetable oils or animal fats. Nevertheless, there are preferred vegetable oils with high fatty acid content and whose wide world production is significant.
Constituent fatty acids of vegetable oils are mostly unsaturated. Oils, therefore, are liquid at room temperature, so that their use as diesel fuel depends mainly on their viscosity. Moreover, animal fats, because of their higher content of saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature, and cannot be used in diesel engines in its original form. Although it is not common to use mixtures of vegetable oils with diesel in different proportions, depending on the viscosity of oil, these blends can be used in diesel engines. Nowadays, the major production of canola, followed by sunflower, soybean and palm oils is an important factor to select them to produce biodiesel (Körbitz, 1998). Though, the most assessed vegetable oils in the transesterification reaction are the castor, corn, cottonseed, crambe, peanut, soybean, palm, rapeseed and sunflower oils, mainly due to their content of glycerides (Demirbas, 2005). Animal fats have not been studied to the same extent as vegetables oils, however there are some works about poultry fat used to produce biodiesel, for example. Oil from algae, bacteria and fungi also has been investigated (Hernando et al., 2007; Leadbeater & Stencel, 2006; Ma & Hanna, 1999; Reddy et al., 2006). In addition to vegetable oils and animal fats, other materials such as spent frying oils have been used for biodiesel production; however, some changes in the reaction procedure frequently have to be made due to the presence of water or free fatty acids in the biodiesel (Bockisch, 1998). In consequence, the main raw material is vegetable oil. Some natural glycerides (vegetable oils) contain higher levels of unsaturated fatty acids (Table 1) (Ma & Hanna, 1999). These oils are liquids at room temperature and their direct use as fuel is precluded by high viscosities and requirement of engines modification. Therefore, it is convenient that vegetable oils are converted into their alkyl esters (biodiesel) by transesterification.
Relevant characteristics of oils typically used for biodiesel production are given in table 2.
At the moment almost all commercial biodiesel production plants are using homogenous alkaline catalysts. However, the major disadvantage of homogeneous catalysts is the fact that these cannot be reused. Besides, as above explained, the homogeneous process implies further stages of washing, which involves an increase in production costs. Recently, the biodiesel production using heterogeneous catalysts has been carried out at industrial level and in such a process the employed catalyst has been reported to be a mixed oxide of zinc and aluminium (Bournay et al., 2005). Indeed, the development of solid acid or basic catalysts for the transesterification reaction has been an important issue addressed by the scientific community. As a result, various types of catalysts have been assessed such as alkali earth oxides, alkali oxides, not metal oxides, metal oxides, cation exchange resins, metal phosphates and acid supported on different materials. Despite all the efforts, heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production have not been widely exploited at industrial level, yet.
Fatty acid composition
Properties of typical vegetable oils employed to produce biodiesel from transesterification reaction (
Heterogeneous acid and basic catalysts could be classified as Brönsted or Lewis catalysts. This catalyst character determines the transesterification reaction rate. It has been concluded that the stronger basicity and therefore the presence of more active sites improves the performance of catalysts in the transesterification reaction. Hence, biodiesel is usually produced in the presence of an alkaline catalyst. Different studies, however, have been carried out using acid catalysts (Di Serio et al., 2005; Lotero et al., 2005; Mac, Leod et al., 2008;\n\t\t\t\t\tMarchetti et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2006).
One should bear on mind that the benefit with solid catalysts, acid or basic, is the lesser consumption of catalyst in the reaction. For example, to produce 8000 tons of biodiesel, 88 tones of sodium hydroxide may be required, while only 5.6 tons of supported MgO are sufficient for the production of 100,000 tones of biodiesel. Besides, heterogeneous catalysts exhibit a less corrosive character and can be used in a fixed-bed reactor, leading to safer, cheaper and more environment-friendly operations and the number of separation steps is less than when using homogeneous catalysts. The heterogeneous catalysts do not leave neutralization salts in the glycerol, and are plausible to be retained in the reactor by filtration (Di Serio et al., 2008; Kaita et al., 2002; Kawashima et al., 2009; Kovacheva et al., 2001; MacLeod et al., 2008; Madje et al., 2004; Park et al., 2010; Suppes et al., 2004; Waghoo et al., 1999; Xie & Li, 2006; Yan et al., 2008).
The most commonly studied heterogeneous basic catalysts are alkaline metals carbonates (Na2CO3, K2CO3), alkaline earth metal carbonates (CaCO3), alkaline earth metal oxides (CaO, MgO, SrO, BaO) and other oxides as ZnO (Dossin et al., 2006b; Encinar et al., 2005; Fukuda et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2007; López et al., 2005; Ma & Hanna, 1999; Mac,Leod et al., 2008; Verziu et al., 2008). A comparison of attained yields with the aforementioned catalysts would lack of objectivity since all the related studies have been performed under significant different operating conditions such as temperature, raw material and molar oil:alcohol ratio. Therefore, in the following paragraphs a summary of the most relevant results will be presented rather than a comparison. Moreover, the effect of important catalyst characteristics such as active phase, calcination temperature, catalytic support and catalyst concentration will be addressed.
For instance, the transesterification of rapeseed oil catalyzed by MgO, CaO, SrO and BaO at the same reaction conditions (64.5°C, reaction time 3.5 h, 18:1 methanol/oil molar ratio and 10 % catalyst dosage) resulted in <5 %, 58 %, 60 % and 86 % of methyl esters content, respectively. Actually, the catalytic activities decrease in the order of BaO>SrO>CaO>MgO, which suggests that the catalytic activities of alkaline earth metal oxides are associated with their alkalinity. However, the use of BaO is not practical enough since it is soluble in methanol and also forms highly toxic compounds. Regarding SrO, this oxide possesses a strong tendency to react with CO2 and water present in air to form strontium hydroxide and strontium carbonate, thus losing its catalytic ability (Yan et al., 2008). Among the above-mentioned oxides, the CaO and MgO have been extensively studied in the transesterification reaction. About the former, its catalytic activity has been compared with other calcium compounds (calcium hydroxide and calcium alkoxides) at the same reaction conditions. The reported reactivity order is Ca(OH)2<CaO<Ca(CH3O). This is in agreement with Lewis theory: the methoxides of alkaline-earth metals are more basic than their oxides and these are more basic than their hydroxides (Gryglewicz, 1999; Kawashima et al., 2009). Veljkovick et al. (2009) studied CaO catalysts for the transesterification of sunflower oil at 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil, 1 % wt catalyst based on oil weight and the CaO calcination temperature was 550 °C. A 98 % conversion was achieved at 60 °C and 2 hr reaction time. Yoosuk et al. (2010), attempted to increase the CaO catalytic activity by producing it from CaCO3 calcination, using a calcination temperature of 800 °C for 3 h. This treatment is likely associated with crystallites fracture and the generation of more porosity and basic sites. This study was carried out using palm oil with methanol at 15:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil, 7 % wt catalyst, 60 °C and 1 hr reaction time. The catalysts tested were the modified calcium oxide and commercial calcium oxide. A 94 % of methyl esters content was obtained with the former while the latter led to attain only 75.5 % wt. Thus, it was concluded that the hydration treatment and subsequent calcination favors the formation of stronger basic sites and possesses a strong effect over crystallinity and crystallite size. López et al., (2007) studied the catalytic activity of calcium oxide for biodiesel production from sunflower oil (at 60 °C, 13:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 3 % wt catalyst). The reaction was complete in 100 min giving 94 % conversion. In this study, the poisoning of active surface sites of calcium oxide by the atmospheric H2O and CO2 was observed. In the same study, to improve the catalytic activity of CaO, this was subjected to an activation treatment at high temperature (> 700 °C) prior reaction and as a result the carbonate group (main poisoning specie) was removed from the catalytic surface. Regarding MgO, Dossin et al. (2006a) studied the ethyl acetate transesterification reaction with methanol catalyzed with MgO at 283-323 K and 0.1-10 methanol/ethyl acetate molar ratio, with 1.6-2.2x10-4 kg of catalyst mass. A biodiesel with 99 % purity was obtained after 2 h. This confirms the MgO as a viable heterogeneous solid base catalyst for the transesterification of ethyl acetate, not good enough for other oils as rapeseed or soybean oil though. This has been evidenced by Di Serio et al. (2006), who tested MgO in the industrial production of biodiesel from soybean oil transesterification at 180 °C and 12:1methanol to oil molar ratio. Only a 72 % conversion was achieved.
On another study (Yoo et al., 2010), using CaO under supercritical state (at 200°C to 220°C, 40:1 methanol/oil molar ratio and 1.0 % wt of catalyst), the achieved conversion was near to 96 %. At the same conditions, the ZnO was the optimum catalyst for the transesterification of rapeseed oil with more than 96 % conversion towards biodiesel.
Broadly speaking, a strategy to increase catalysts activity has been to make them nanocrystalline. This type of materials has recently received much attention because of the effect of particle size and shape in their physical and chemical properties. The unusual physical and chemical properties are associated with crystal faces, edges, corners, and defects that lead to enhanced surface reactivity; and the percent dispersion as a measure of the available fraction of atoms on the surface for incoming reactants. Thus, the successful nanocatalytic process is due to an increased surface area and greater concentrations of highly reactive sites. Although nanotechnology is rapidly developing into a stand-alone industry that covers a host of applications and industries, there are only few works related with nanocatalysts applied in the transesterification reaction reaction (Edelstein & Cammarata, 1996; Klabunde, 2001).
As example of this we can mention the nanocrystalline calcium and magnesium oxides. CaO has been employed as heterogeneous catalyst for the transesterification of soybean oil. In such study the achieved conversion was 99 % wt at a reaction time of 12 h, room temperature and 1:27 oil/methanol molar ratio (Reddy et al., 2006). In particular, the reactivity of nanosized oxides is associated whit their increased surface area, greater concentrations of highly reactive edge and corner defect sites, and stabilized lattice planes. Improvements in the results with nanocrystalline calcium oxide are not surprising since it is well documented that nanoparticles and nanocrystals possess unusual physical and chemical properties. Verziu et al. (2008), studied the catalytic activity of nanocrystalline magnesium oxide, with three different morphologies, in the transesterification of sunflower oil. The obtained yield was 90 % at 70 °C and 4:1 methanol to oil molar ratio. However, there was the detachment of magnesium caused by saponification.
As for numerous heterogeneous catalytic systems, another important variable affecting the catalytic activity in the transesterification reaction is the support of the catalyst, which also affects surface area, basicity, mechanical strength and cost. Some studies have reported the use of CaO or MgO supported on mesoporous silicas, aluminas or zeolites, to provide greater surface area and therefore basicity (Di Serio et al., 2006; Mac,Leod et al., 2008;\n\t\t\t\t\tMartínez et al., 2011; Suppes et al., 2004; Xie et al., 2006;\n\t\t\t\t\tDi Serio et al. 2006, Yan et al., 2008). For instance, samples of CaO/MgO, CaO/SiO2, CaO/Al2O3 and CaO/Zeolite HY were employed to catalyze the transesterification of rapeseed oil at 64.5 °C during 3.5 h and with a 18:1 methanol:rapeseed oil molar ratio. It was shown that with a 10 % catalyst content a 92 %, 60 %, 36 % and 23 % of biodiesel was obtained, respectively (Yan et al., 2008). In this context, it is worth mentioning that Di Serio et al. (2006) studied the transestification of soybean oil at 180 °C and 12:1 methanol to oil molar ratio and the obtained conversion was 92 %. In another work (Samart et al., 2009), a 90 % soybean oil conversion was reported when using mesoporous silica loaded with 15 % wt of KI at 70 °C using 1 mol of vegetable oil, 16 mol of methanol, 5 % wt of catalyst and after 8 h of reaction. NaX zeolite loaded with 16 % nanoparticles CaO was reported as a base catalyst in sunflower oil transesterification at 60 °C, 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil and 10 % wt catalyst, 93.5 % biodiesel was achieved within 6 h (Martínez et al., 2011). All the aforesaid show the relevance of the catalytic support.
On the other hand, regarding acid catalysts, these possess the advantage of being active for both, esterification and transesterification reactions. Lopez et al. (2005) tested the activity of several heterogeneous acid catalysts and reported the following reactivity order: Amberlyst 15 (79 %)> sulfated zirconia (57 %)> Nafion NR50 (33 %)> tungstated zirconia > others, in the transesterification of triacetin with methanol at 60 °C, and 6:1 alcohol to oil molar ratio. Amberlyst-15, cation-exchange resin, and Amberlyst A27, anion-exchange resin, have also been studied for transesterification reactions. A relatively low reaction temperature (60 °C) resulted in poor sunflower oil, conversion: 0.7 and 0.4 % respectively, when carrying out the reaction at atmospheric pressure and using a 6:1 methanol-to-oil initial molar ratio (Vicente et al., 1998). A further possibility for accelerating the transesterification reaction with acid catalysts is the use of heterogeneous catalysts such as WO3/ZrO2, SO42-/ZrO2 and Amberlyst-15 catalysts. These systems were tested in the esterification of 4 % wt oleic acid in soybean oil. The reactions were carried out using 9:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil, 0.29 g of catalyst per mol of oil at 75 °C. At all cases, a conversion of about 93 % was obtained (Park et al., 2010). Even when the results regarding conversion may seem promising, one should not forget that acid catalysts are more corrosive than basic ones. This being a main drawback of such catalytic systems.
Sodium molybdate (Na2MoO4) was used for the transesterification of different types of lipids derived from soybean oil with methanol. In this case, a high methanol-to-oil molar ratio (54:1) was required in order to be effective, at 65 °C, with 5 % wt catalyst contents in 3 h. The achieved conversion was higher than 92.5 % (Nakagaki et al., 2008). Besides, Carma et al. studied the Al-MCM-41 mesoporous molecular sieves with Si/Al for esterification of palmitic acid with some alcohols (methanol, ethanol and isopropanol), at 130 °C, 0.6 % wt catalysts and 60:1 alcohol to oil molar ratio. The found conversions were 79, 67 and 59 %, respectively to each alcohol (Carmo Jr. et al., 2009).
The application of beta zeolite modified with La in the methanolysis of soybean oil was reported by Shu et al. (2007). In this system, a 49 % triglyceride conversion was obtained. Besides, Karmee and Chadha (2005) have been studied Hβ-zeolite, montmorillonite K-10 and ZnO catalysts in the transesterification of non-edible oil of Pongammia Pinnata crude at 120 °C with 10:1 ratio of methanol to oil, and 0.115 % wt catalyst, and attained 59, 47 and 83 % conversion, respectively (Karmee & Chadha, 2005).
The NKC-9 cation-exchange resin has been used in a fixed-bed reactor to carry out the esterification of oleic acid. The conversion was over 98 % at 65 °C, 2.8:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil and 500 h of continuous running, showing an excellent operational stability (Feng et al., 2011).
The use of seashell and eggshells heterogeneous catalyst of the methanolysis of vegetables oils, has provided promising results (Sarin et al., 2009). They use various vegetables oils such as jatropha, castor, sunflower, soybean, rapeseed, cotton, corn, coconut, and observed 98 % conversion. The operating conditions were 2 hr reaction time, 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil and 4 % wt of catalyst.
According to the aforementioned works, the advantages of working with heterogeneous alkaline catalysts are evident, and therefore any variable increasing the basicity of the catalytic system will positively impact its performance.
Though there are a wide range of analytical techniques for heterogeneous catalysts characterization, the selection depends on the information provided by the techniques. The typical characterization techniques are: pore size distribution and surface area (BET), which are established by adsorption and desorption of nitrogen. In this method, the solid samples are evacuated under vacuum and temperature in such a way that the catalytic surface be free from water and other impurities and thus available for being occupied with nitrogen molecules. Specific total surface area is calculated using the BET equation, whereas specific total pore volume is evaluated from N2 uptake at a relative pressure (P/Po) of N2 equal to 0.99.
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) is the most widely employed technique for general crystalline material characterization. This technique allows the identification of crystalline phases in bulk materials and the determination of crystallite size and shape from diffraction peak characteristics. Figure 3 shows an example of XRD patterns for samples of NaX and CaO nano-16%/NaX used in the transesterification of sunflower oil.
Total basic site density and acid strength distribution of the heterogeneous catalysts can be measured by temperature-programmed desorption of CO2 (CO2-TPD). The temperature of desorption and the maximum desorbed CO2 are illustrative of the strength and amount of basic sites, respectively. The basic site density is obtained by integration of area under the curve. Figure 4 shows the CO2-TPD profiles for 3NaX and ion–exchanged (NaX-ie) samples. Both samples exhibit a desorption peak at approximately 150 °C. This peak can be ascribed to the interaction of CO2 with sites of weak basic strength. A second desorption peak (3NaX sample) appeared at higher temperature (700 °C), which may be attributed to the interaction of CO2 with occluded sodium oxide species that possess stronger basic sites. These results demonstrated that the stronger basic sites (3NaX sample) were responsible of the high activity in the transesterification of sunflower oil (Ramos et al., 2008).
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) provides a high resolution image of the surface of a catalyst (topographical information) over a length scale from nanometers up to several hundred micrometers. It can operate at magnifications that are adjusted from about 20X-5(105). It provides of information concerning catalytic particle morphology, active phase homogeneity and composition near surface regions of the material since X rays can be detected from all the elements in the periodic table (Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy, EDS). Figure 5 depicts the scanning electron micrograph of supported 16 % of CaO nanoparticles on NaX zeolite. Typical quasi-spherical morphology of NaX zeolite can be observed.
XRD patterns for samples (a)NaX and (b)CaO nano-16%/NaX. (
CO2-TPD profiles for impregnated (3NaX) and ion-exchanged (NaX-ie) samples. (
a) SEM image of the CaO nano-16%/NaX Catalyst; (b) EDS chemical mapping for Ca (Matínez et al., 2011).
X Ray Photoelectron Spectrometry is an analytical technique that utilizes photo-ionization and analysis of the kinetic energy distribution of emitted photoelectrons to estimate the elemental composition and chemical state of the elements on the surface of a material by projecting soft X-ray onto the surface and detecting the energy of photoelectrons emitted from areas a few nm (up to 5) from the sample surface. Figure 6 shows the depth profile analysis with Ar+ gun of the 16% nano-CaO/NaX material. In this example the results suggest a homogeneous distribution of CaO nanoparticles on the NaX surface.
XPS depth profile for CaO nano-16%/NaX. (
The European standard EN 14214, which went into effect in 2003, supersedes the biodiesel standards in European countries that are members of the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Therefore, no standards from individual European countries are given. The European standard EN 590 for conventional diesel fuel contains a provision that conventional diesel fuel can contain up to 5 % FAME meeting the standard EN 14214.
In addition to the biodiesel standards, analytical standards have been developed in the United States and Europe for the purpose of including them as prescribed methods in biodiesel standards. Table 3 lists such relevant analytical standards.
Some more important parameters of biodiesel are methyl ester content, kinematic viscosity, density, methanol, acid value, flash point and cetane number.
European Standard EN 14214 for Biodiesel
The methyl esters are quantified according to the European norm UNE-EN 14103. This indicates a minimum of 96.5 % of fatty acid methyl esters for biodiesel fuels. The standard analytical procedure for determination of methyl esters content involves capillary gas chromatography on polar stationary phases, applying internal calibration with methyl heptadecanoate and detection via flame ionization.
Viscosity is an important property of biodiesel since it affects the operation of fuel injection equipment (at low temperatures affects the fluidity of biodiesel) (Demirbas, 2005). Higher viscosity leads to a higher drag in the injection pump and thus causes higher pressures and injection volumes, especially at low engine operating temperatures (Wörgetter et al., 1998). Viscosity is closely related to the fatty acid composition of a given biodiesel sample. It increases with increasing length of both the fatty acid chain and the alcohol group, so that ethyl esters show slightly higher values than the respective methyl compounds. Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C is measured according to EN ISO 3104. The standard analytical procedure for the kinematic viscosity indicates the measure of the time that a given volume of liquid flows by gravity through a capillary viscometer at a known and well controlled temperature. Kinematic viscosity is the product of time of flow and the viscometer calibration constant.
Density and therefore specific gravity is another important parameter of biodiesel quality. Fuel injection equipment operates on a volume metering system, hence a higher density for biodiesel results in the delivery of a slightly greater mass of fuel (Demirbas, 2005). The specific gravity of biodiesel ranges between 860-900 kg/m3 at 15 °C. The standard analytical procedure for the determination of density of biodiesel fuel involves the use of a standardized glass hydrometer or an oscillating U-tube at the prescribed temperature.
Regarding methanol content, this must not exceed 0.20 % in biodiesel fuels (EN 14214). This parameter is important for fuel quality since high methanol content poses safety risks in biodiesel transport and storage due to correspondingly low flash points.
Acid value or neutralization number is a measure of mineral acids and free fatty acids contained in a fuel sample. It is expressed in milligrams of KOH required to neutralize 1 g of fatty acid methyl esters and it sets to a maximum value of 0.5 mg KOH/g in the European norm (EN-14214).
Flash point is a measure of the flammability of fuels and thus, an important parameter for assessing hazards during fuel transport and storage. The flash point is measured following the European norm EN ISO 3679 (>120 °C). The technique indicates that a defined volume of the sample is introduced into a closed cup flash point test, which holds at the flash point temperature estimated of the material to be analyzed. After a period of time, a flame is applied and presence or absence of inflammation is observed. Additional tests are performed at different temperatures with new samples until it determining the flash point with the specified sensitivity.
Cetane number is a dimensionless indicator of the ignition quality of a biodiesel, if the cetane number is high, combustion can occur before the fuel and air are properly mixed, resulting in incomplete combustion and smoke, and if is low, engine roughness, misfiring, higher air temperatures, slower engine warm-up, and also incomplete combustion occur. The European norm EN 14214 indicates a minimum cetane number of 51.
All the aforementioned parameters determine the quality of biodiesel produced either homogenously or heterogeneously. Methyl esters content, however, can be considered as the most important property since its value dictates the value of the other parameters. This means that if the standard regarding methyl esters content is fulfilled is very likely that the standards of the other parameters are also satisfied. This may be the reason for the literature not being so keen on reporting a full biodiesel characterization and then methyl esters content has become the usual reported indicator of biodiesel quality. An exemption would be the castor oil whose initial viscosity is already high and hence producing biodiesel with high viscosity as well. Viscosity possesses an inverse correlation with methyl esters content. As above explained, viscosity is also a property of paramount importance that affects the fuel injection equipment, mainly at low temperature when an increase in fuel viscosity affects its flow.
In the section regarding catalysts (3.2), it was mentioned that a methyl esters content between 79 and 99 % can be achieved via heterogeneous catalysis. It is worth mentioning that the so produced biodiesel (with a methyl esters content near to the norm) can be employed in blends consisting of 20 % biodiesel and 80 % petroleum diesel (Demirbas, 2005). This simple action would lead to a large reduction on carbon dioxide emissions. One should remember that carbon dioxide has been identified as a compound that importantly affects the climate global warming.
Finally, it can be said that the heterogeneous catalysts that nowadays are more promising for biodiesel production are calcium and magnesium based since high conversions and methyl esters content are attained with them even at mild reaction conditions (see section 3.2).
The development of efficient heterogeneous catalysts is important since opens up the possibility of another pathway for biodiesel production. The efficiency of the heterogeneous process depends, however, on several variables such as type of oil, molar ratio alcohol to oil, temperature, catalyst type, even type of reactor. According to the aforementioned works, the advantages of working with heterogeneous alkaline catalysts are evident and encourage to further and deeper research with them, mainly in the area of reaction engineering (kinetics and reactor design).
The authors are grateful to Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (2886/2010 U).
All surgical procedures, including dental surgery, present risk of complications, which may include pain, nerve injury, swelling, infections, and hemorrhage. Dental surgery is defined as any dental intervention including an incision in the oral mucosa or gingiva, including anything from a simple dental extraction to alveoloplasties [1]. Bleeding control is an important step during dental surgery procedures [2] because excessive bleeding complicates surgery and increases the risk of morbidity. To avoid such complications when long-lasting bleeding occurs, despite the proper use of traditional techniques for hemorrhage control, a broad range of hemostatic agents are available, as adjunctive measures to enhance hemostasis in the course of dental surgeries [3]. Despite the expressive rise in the amount and types of topical hemostats in the past decade, high-level evidence regarding the management of these agents during bleeding in dental surgery is still lacking.
\nThe periprocedual management of patients receiving therapeutic anticoagulation represents a challenge for dental practitioners, as the risk of bleeding must be counterbalanced against the risk of systemic or local thromboembolic phenomena. Recommendations for dental interventions in individuals receiving anticoagulation therapy remain quite unclear, in spite of practice guidelines from both dental [4] and medical [5] fields.
\nThis chapter aims to discuss the effective ways of managing bleeding complications in dental surgery, mainly in high-risk patients. The role of biosurgical materials to prevent or solve these complications, during and after dental surgery procedures, will also be addressed, as well as their modes of action, practical applications, adverse effects, and effectiveness.
\nThe physiological mechanism that prevents and hinders bleeding at the area of an injury while preserving regular blood flow everywhere else in the circulation is called hemostasis [6]. The hemostasis process has two major components. Primary hemostasis initiates promptly after vascular injury, and it can be divided into four consecutive and superposed stages: (A) vasoconstriction, (B) platelet adhesion, (C) platelet activation, and (D) platelet aggregation [7, 8, 9, 10]. Primary hemostasis results in the formation of a platelet plug [10]. Secondary hemostasis comprises a sequence of serine protease zymogens and their cofactors, which interact successively on phospholipid surfaces (damaged endothelial cells or platelets), leading to the development of covalently cross-linked fibrin [10, 11, 12]. This cross-linked fibrin mesh is then incorporated into and around the platelet plug. It strengthens and stabilizes the blood clot. These two processes are intertwined and occur at the same time [6]. These systems are regulated by multiple anticoagulant mechanisms, which are responsible for maintaining blood fluidity in the absence of injury, generating a clot that is consistent with the trauma. Hemostasis and the avoidance of bleeding or thrombosis are directly related to the adequate balance between procoagulant and anticoagulant systems [6].
\nHemorrhage in dental surgery can be categorized as:
Primary hemorrhage: bleeding occurs during surgery
Reactionary hemorrhage: bleeding occurs 2–3 hours after surgery
Secondary hemorrhage: bleeding occurs until 14 days after surgery, probably due to an infection
Hemorrhage can also be categorized according to the area injured: vascular, bone, and soft tissue [13, 14]. Bleeding diathesis is an unusual susceptibility to bleeding and may be genetic, autoimmune, or acquired (Table 1) [15, 17]. Selected bleeding disorders will be covered in this chapter.
\n\nThe most prevalent hereditary bleeding disorders are von Willebrand disease and hemophilia, affecting 1% of the population and 20,000 people in the USA, respectively [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Dental patients presenting inherited bleeding present a significantly higher risk of perioperative bleeding. The frequency and severity of bleeding are related to disease-related factors, such as the severity of the hemophilia. Factors related to the patient include the level of periodontal disease, vasculopathy or platelet dysfunction, and procedure-related factors (teeth extracted—type and the number—or the size of the wound area) [23].
\nOne example of autoimmune bleeding diathesis is the immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), an idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura condition, characterized by isolated thrombocytopenia without a clinically apparent cause [24].
\nThe most common acquired bleeding diathesis is the one related to hemostasis-altering medications. Anticoagulant agents are among the most prescribed medications in the USA [25]. For decades, anticoagulants have been prescribed to prevent arterial and venous thromboembolism [1]. Prolonged bleeding and bruising are some of the adverse events related with these medications [4]. The most frequently used drugs are therapeutic platelet inhibitors, vitamin K antagonists, or direct oral anticoagulants. Patients susceptible to hemorrhage may present severe bleeding resulting from dental surgery procedures. The use of biosurgical hemostatic agents to decrease or control bleeding may be beneficial for patients at risk for bleeding diathesis.
\nBleeding complications can occur either in healthy or systemically compromised patients. Some patients tend to bleed excessively during or after dental surgery, due to different factors, such as anticoagulant therapy, inherited bleeding disorders, uncontrolled hypertension, extreme trauma to soft tissues, and non-compliance to postoperative recommendations. In these cases, the use of an effective hemostatic agent enhances hemostasis, providing a wide spectrum of benefits, such as superior management of the anticoagulated patient, shorter operation time, as well as smaller wound exposure and shorter recovery time.
\nThe ideal topical hemostatic agent should be biocompatible, affordable, and effective [14, 26, 27]. In recent years, the number of different topical hemostatic agents has increased significantly (Table 2). Knowledge and familiarity with the wide range of topical hemostatic agents available are essential for dental practitioners, including their effectiveness, mode of action, and adverse effects. A well-informed professional will be able to opt for the most effective and practical agent for each situation. In relation to the use of local hemostatic in dental procedures, available scientific data is not homogenous. Most publications use one or more local hemostatic agents to compensate for the anticoagulant effect and prevent postoperative bleeding [29]. The most common local biosurgical hemostatic agents used in dentistry and approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are listed in Table 2.
\nTypes and trade name of some biosurgical agents–adapted from Pereira et al. [28].
Local biosurgical hemostatic agents can be classified into (A) passive or mechanical, (B) active, and (C) flowables [30].
\nConsidered as the most effective agents for small amounts of bleeding, passive or mechanical agents provide platelet activation and aggregation. This results in a matrix formation in the bleeding area that works as a barrier to stop bleeding, by activating the extrinsic clotting pathway and providing a surface that will allow coagulation to occur faster [30]. As these agents are biologically inactive, they rely on the individual’s own fibrin production to attain hemostasis. Passive hemostats are only indicated for individuals with an unscathed coagulation cascade [27]. They are generally applied as frontline agents, since they are readily available, do not require special storage or handling, and are relatively affordable [14, 27, 31].
\nGelatin is a hydrocolloid derived from acid partial hydrolysis of purified animal collagen. It is presented as a gelatin sponge, powder (mixed to form a paste), or film. Gelatin can be placed dry or after moistening it with saline [14, 28, 32, 33]. Gelatin-based products adapt effortlessly to wounds making it appropriate for application into irregular surfaces [27]. Although their mode of action is not completely understood, gelatin-based products likely act more physically than chemically in the coagulation cascade [28, 34]. Affordability, ease of use and good hemostatic activity make topical hemostats with gelatin matrix a popular tool for reducing the morbidity caused by hemorrhage [27, 28] after dental extractions and periodontal surgeries.
\nThe most popular absorbable gelatin sponge in dentistry is Gelfoam®. It is a hemostatic compressed sponge obtained from purified porcine skin gelatin. Gelfoam® is capable of absorbing many times its weight of whole blood [35]. Generally, when applied in soft tissues, its complete absorption occurs within 4–6 weeks.
\nCollagen absorbable products are nontoxic and non-pyrogenic. They are sourced from either bovine dermal collagen or bovine tendon. Collagen hemostats provide a matrix for clot formation and consolidation. These products also improve clotting factor release and platelet aggregation and degranulation, thereby breaking up clot formation. Their presentation in sheets and flours allows for easy adaptation and adhesion to irregular surfaces. Although they are commercialized at a higher price than gelatin-based hemostats, hemostasis can usually be accomplished relatively quicker (1–5 min). Collagen absorbable products are easily removed, reducing the risks of rebleeding and the need for various applications. They are absorbed in 8–10 weeks if remained in place. Adverse effects linked to bovine collagen products might include swelling and allergic reaction [30].
\nHelistat® is a collagen-based product originated from purified and freeze-dried bovine flexor tendon and is available as a spongelike structure [14, 27]. Helistat® can hold many times its own weight of fluid, as it is highly absorbent. Collagen induces platelet agglomeration when in contact with blood. In order to achieve hemostasis, Helistat® must be kept at the site (approximately 2–5 minutes). Subsequently, it can be removed, replaced, or left in place. It is easily manipulated, and it must be handled dry, and any excess must be removed. Complete reabsorption occurs within 14–56 days [14, 27, 36]. Helistat® may foster bacterial growth, acting as a nidus for abscess formation [14, 27, 37]; therefore, it should not be placed in wounds with any kind of contamination or infection. Possible adverse reactions of Helistat® or similar products are allergic reaction, foreign body reaction, and adhesion formation [27, 38].
\nSimple oxidized cellulose was first introduced in the early 1940s in the USA. In the 1960s, a new topical hemostatic-oxidized regenerated cellulose (ORC) was launched as a meshwork made from treated and sterilized cellulose—Surgicel®. ORC products are originated from vegetal-based alpha cellulose, available in absorbable knitted fabrics (low or high density), and prepared as sterile fabric meshworks. They are ready-to-use products that may be kept at room temperature and absorb 7–10 times its own weight [27, 30]. ORC cause contact activation and platelet activation, and, when absorbed, a gelatinous mass is created, assisting in the establishment of the clot formation [30]. Thrombin is ineffective with these agents due to low-pH factors. ORC are utilized in the management of capillary, venous, and small arterial bleeding, and they require dry application, without addition of saline or thrombin [27, 39] and are absorbed within 4–8 weeks, depending on the volume applied, the tissue bed, and the magnitude of blood saturation [27, 40, 41, 42]. To prevent delayed healing, excessive volumes should be removed [27]. ORC should not be used in osseous defects as it may intervene with bone regeneration [14, 27, 31]. Adverse effects also include reactions related to the acidic nature of ORC. This characteristic may induce necrosis and inflammation of the surrounding tissue and makes thrombin inefficient with these agents. When left in the wound, they may lead to fluid encapsulation and foreign body reaction [14, 27].
\nThe most common commercial products in this category are Surgicel®, Oxycel®, and Surgicel Nu-Knit®. Surgicel® and Surgicel Nu-Knit® come in knit, solid fiber form, whereas Oxycel® comes in knit, hollow fiber form; however, they function basically in a similar manner [30].
\nOxidized cellulose (OC) agents are produced from sterilized and treated cellulose, presented as a meshwork. In the presence of blood, they present a three- to fourfold increase in volume and are converted into gel. OC dissolve completely in 1–2 weeks into biodegradable end products glucose and water, and they do not interfere with wound healing [14, 27].
\nActCel® binds to calcium ions, resulting in more calcium available for the coagulation cascade [14, 27, 37]. Biochemically, it intensifies the coagulation process by increasing platelet aggregation and physically by 3D clot stabilization. ActCel® is especially indicated in third molar extractions, to avoid the occurrence of dry sockets, and in orthognathic and periodontal surgeries [27]. ActCel® is hypoallergenic, as it does not contain collagen, thrombin, or chemical additives. It also has important bacteriostatic properties [27, 43], which are particularity relevant in infected wounds [27].
\nGelita-Cel® is a relatively quick acting, oxidized resorbable cellulose hemostatic gauze of natural origin. It presents a decreased risk for encapsulation, as it resorbs as fast as 96 hours [14, 27, 37].
\nPolysaccharide hemospheres are a fairly new class of topical biosurgical hemostatic agents, produced from vegetable starch, and they contain no animal or human elements. They are commercially presented in powder form. Polysaccharide hemospheres increase barrier formation by creating a hydrophilic effect, dehydrating the blood, and concentrating its solid components [14, 27]. Due to their 3D scaffold, they are devised to enhance clot formation and organization, even in the absence of intrinsic coagulation activity [14, 44, 45]. Polysaccharide hemospheres should be used with caution in diabetic patients, as they consist of sugars [27].
\nArista™AH is the only FDA-approved product in the polysaccharide hemosphere category. It is used in dental surgery as an adjunctive hemostatic agent, when conventional mechanical procedures, such as pressure and ligature, are not effective or practical.
\nHemostatic adhesives are often used as adjuncts to standard hemostatic procedures to control bleeding from surgical areas [30]. One of the most well-known products in this category is BioGlue®. It consists of a solution of 10% glutaraldehyde and 45% bovine albumin solution purified by precipitation, heat, and chromatography radiation [28, 46]. BioGlue® has been extensively used for its sealants and hemostatic characteristics. The risk of leaking through the suture tracks is the main disadvantage of BiolGue® [27]. In the search for newly created adhesives with the chemical features and the safe reabsorptive profile required to benefit dental surgery patients, several clinical trials are currently in process.
\nActive hemostatic agents are biologically active, as they play a direct role in the coagulation cascade, inducing the formation of a fibrin clot [26, 27].
\nThrombin is key to hemostasis, as well as to the inflammatory and cell signaling processes. It is the base of the fibrin clot, fostering the transformation of fibrinogen to fibrin [28]. Topical thrombin hemostats are originated from either bovine or human plasma, and they can also be produced through recombinant DNA techniques [14, 27]. In the past, the only thrombin hemostat available was composed of bovine plasma (Thrombin-JMI). Although it has proven to be efficient in terminating bleeding, bovine thrombin induces an important immune response [28, 47]. Individuals on hemodialysis, with increased levels of antibodies against topical bovine thrombin, had higher incidence of vascular access thrombosis, severe coagulopathy, and bleeding after exposure to bovine thrombin [28, 48]. As an attempt to avoid these hazardous effects, thrombin derived from human plasma (Evithrom®) and recombinant human thrombin (Recothrom®) were developed. In 2010, Browman et al. [49] demonstrated, in a comparative study between recombinant human thrombin and bovine thrombin, that human recombinant thrombin showed the same efficacy in surgical hemostasis, a comparable safety profile, and a remarkably lower immune response than bovine thrombin. Thrombin may be applied topically, as a solution combined with gelatin sponges mixed with a gelatin matrix, as a dry powder, or as a spray [14, 27]. It is commonly used in conjunction with Gelfoam® to stop moderate to severe bleeding.
\nFibrin sealant or fibrin glue originates from bovine and/or human blood components and simulates the last phases of the coagulation cascade, generating a fibrin clot [30]. These agents control local, as well as diffuse, bleeding from the surgical area. Nevertheless, they are ineffective in controlling intense bleeding. Its use in dentistry includes tooth extraction sites, bone grafting, and periodontal surgery [14].
\nTisseel® was the first fibrin sealant approved by the FDA. It has in its composition human thrombin and fibrinogen, intermixed with aprotinin and CaCl2. Because aprotinin is a bovine protein, it is a potential allergen. Multiple exposures may cause allergic reactions, as well as anaphylactic reaction approaching lethality [30, 50]. As for its ideal application, a dry operating field is required; Tisseel® is particularly effective when applied prior to bleeding. In this situation, fibrinogen may polymerize before blood pressure increases local microcirculation flow. When used after the onset of bleeding, one should apply local pressure over the wound to allow polymerization [28, 51]. Tisseel® is available in a pre-filled syringe, allowing for effective application using the EasySpray and DuploSpray MIS systems.
\nAnother option for fibrin sealants, Evicel®, originates from pooled human plasma. It is available as two separate vials of fibrinogen and human thrombin. Prior to use, the two deep frozen solutions must be thawed and mixed after defrosting and heating up (20–30°C) [30].
\nCrosseal™ is a virally inactivated, second-generation surgical sealant. It is produced from concentrated human clottable proteins, namely, biological active component (BAC), which contains the active component fibrinogen, and human α-thrombin (1000 IU/ml) [52]. This fibrin sealant is applied using an application device which drips/sprays Crosseal™ onto the bleeding site.
\nThere are two main categories of flowable biosurgicals: products containing porcine gelatin, which can be combined with thrombins (bovine, human-pooled plasma thrombin, or rhThrombin), and bovine collagen-based agents, packed with human-pooled plasma thrombin. The flowable agents are deemed the most effective of all the local hemostatic agents [30, 53].
\nSurgiflo® is an absorbable, sterile, hemostatic porcine gelatin matrix, combined with Thrombin-JMI, a topical bovine-derived thrombin. It should be placed directly to the bleeding areas to activate the hemostatic process [30]. A compression period is required for polymerization of the sealant components [28].
\nFloseal® consists of a bovine gelatin matrix, plasma-extracted human thrombin, and CaCl2. Its gelatin granules expand (10–20%), as it comes in contact with blood, producing a seal when the product is applied to a bleeding area [27, 30]. The thrombin fraction of the product triggers the regular pathway of the coagulation cascade, converting fibrinogen to a fibrin polymer and creating a clot around the firm matrix [27], which is reabsorbed within the expected period of standard wound healing (6–8 weeks) [14, 27, 33, 42, 54]. A distinctive feature of Floseal® is the need for the presence of blood for activation [30, 55]. Neither compression, nor a dry surgical field is required for its application [28].
\nBecause of this biosurgical flowability, they can easily adapt to irregular wounds. Flowables have been utilized as frontline topical hemostats in major dental surgeries, in patients where conventional procedures are ineffective. They can be utilized as an adjunct to hemostasis in practically all dental surgical interventions. Flowables are effective on both hard and soft tissues [27, 30]. They have a risk of transmitting infectious agents and are contraindicated in patients who are allergic to materials of bovine origin [27].
\nAlthough traditional methods, such as ligature and manual pressure, can promote hemostasis, they are not an effective approach of bleeding control in less accessible sites and complex injuries. Furthermore, bleeding control is especially challenging in patients presenting acquired or congenital coagulation disorders.
\nTopical biosurgical hemostatic agents comprise a wide range of products aiming at minimizing the risk of bleeding. In recent years, several clinical trials have analyzed the effectiveness, advantages, and limitations of biosurgicals, as well as performed comparisons among the different types of biosurgicals and other non-biologic agents. Despite the beneficial effect of these local hemostatic agents in preventing bleeding in dental surgery, available data comparing their effectiveness and efficiency is still scarce and inconclusive. Methodological heterogeneities, such as the lack of a standard therapy and comparable treatment regimens, are noticeable among studies, as well as the reduced number of randomized controlled trials [2, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70].
\nIn summary, local hemostatic agents are very distinct products with diverse indications. Presently, there is no definite evidence-based approach to guide the dental practitioner when selecting a local hemostatic agent. They must be aware of the characteristics of each single hemostatic agent, to elect the most suitable product for every particular clinical situation. In addition, current available data shows that no topical agent can be regarded as superior or more effective than the others [2]. Further experimental research and controlled clinical trials are warranted to define the most cost-effective biosurgical hemostatic agents in dentistry.
\nThe dental practitioner should assess the bleeding risk of the patient, as well as the bleeding risk of the surgical intervention, preoperatively. After assessing both bleeding risks, the professional can then conceive an intraoperative and postoperative plan. The international normalized ratio (INR) must be evaluated in patients reporting an elevated risk of bleeding. While a standard parameter of coagulation has an INR of 1 [71], the therapeutic range runs from 2.0 to 3.5. In this case, it is recommended to use local hemostatic measures independently or in combination with conventional methods. These agents can be used before, during, and after dental surgeries.
\n\n
Comprehensive medical history, including all medications in the patient’s regimen, to identify potential bleeding issues prior to the surgery [26].
In order to decrease surgical bleeding, patients receiving anticoagulant therapy may need to break up exodontia into multiple appointments [26, 72].
Laboratory values such as platelet count, INR, and prothrombin time are of critical value in medically compromised patients [26].
Demographic risk factors (female sex and older age) [73].
Supplemental patient-related risk determinants: diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, hemostatic disorders, renal impairment, and other major organ system failures [73, 74, 75].
Timing of the appointment: early morning visits allowing patients to return to the dental office in case of postsurgical hemorrhage [26].
Patients at a higher bleeding risk are those reporting family history of bleeding and previous bleeding problems after dental surgery or trauma and individuals using medications, such as aspirin, anticoagulants, and/or long-term antibiotics. Any illnesses associated with bleeding problems, such as leukemia, congenital heart disease, liver disease, or hemophilia, present a higher risk of bleeding. The dental professional needs to be aware and prepared for any intercurrence, during or after a surgical procedure. Individuals presenting advanced periodontal disease are also considered as having a higher risk of perioperative bleeding. In such cases, the surgical plan should include a preoperative phase, consisting of scaling and root planning and a proper chlorhexidine gluconate mouth rinse regimen, 2 weeks before an elective procedure [26].
\nThe risk of bleeding of a dental intervention may be ranked as high, moderate, and low [25, 76, 77, 78]. In most patients, antithrombotic therapy is not interrupted before dental interventions with low bleeding risk, due to the disastrous complications of thrombosis (Table 3) [25, 76, 77, 78]. Moderate and high bleeding potential interventions might need the temporary discontinuation of the antithrombotic therapy [25, 76, 77, 78].
\nDental interventions that do not require anticoagulation therapy interruption*–adapted from Kaplovitch and Dounaevskaia [25].
Dental surgical interventions are considered by most recommendations, as minor procedures presenting self-limited blood loss and low bleeding risk. Bleeding, in most cases, can be managed with local hemostatic agents [79, 80].
\nThe dental care of individuals receiving therapeutic anticoagulation becomes critical when invasive procedures are needed. At this time, the clinician must decide either to maintain the anticoagulation therapy and risk bleeding complications or withdraw the anticoagulation medication and risk developing systemic thrombosis [1]. After decades of controversial data, there is currently a nearly unanimous consensus that anticoagulation therapy, for most dental surgeries, should not be discontinued. The higher risk of bleeding complications is compensated by the elevated risk of developing thromboembolic complications [1, 81, 82, 83, 84].
\nNational dental and medical group statements and multiple evidence-based clinical guidelines have considered the issue independently and support the maintenance, for most dental patients, of anticoagulation therapy (American Dental Association; American Academy of Dental Sleep Medicine; American Heart Association; American College of Cardiology; American Academy of Neurology; American Society of Anesthesiologists; Society for Neuroscience in Anesthesiology and Critical Care; American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP)) [1]. In a 2012 statement [76], the ACCP recommended continuing anticoagulation therapy with warfarin, with the additional utilization of a local hemostatic. The ACCP advised a 2–3-day anticoagulation therapy suspension, in order to lower the INR levels to a range of 1.6 and 1.9 [76, 85].
\nLately, the dental care of patients receiving anticoagulant treatment has been the focus of expressive scientific interest, in both dental and medical fields. A recent literature review showed that only 31 (0.6%) of more than 5400 patients receiving over 11,300 dental surgical interventions while continuing to take vitamin K antagonist anticoagulants (warfarin in most cases) demanded more than local maneuvers for hemostasis. No cases of fatal hemorrhage were reported. In over 2600 individuals whose anticoagulation was discontinued for dental interventions, 22 thromboembolic complications (0.8% of medication withheld), including 6 fatal events (0.2% of medication withheld), were observed [83]. Similar results have been shown in a literature review of dental surgery and antiplatelet medications. Of more than 1200 patients receiving over 2300 dental surgical procedures while continuing their antiplatelet medications (aspirin in most cases), only 2 (0.2%) needed more than local measures for hemostasis. Conversely, in over 320 individuals undergoing 370 antiplatelet interruptions for dental procedures, 17 (5.3%) suffered thromboembolic complications [86].
\nAvailable data shows that the majority of dental interventions can be safely conducted in patients receiving anticoagulation treatment, when considering older medications [4]. However, there are fewer studies reporting the provision of dental care in individuals using newer direct oral anticoagulants. The clinical implications of these newer anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapies have only been recently investigated [80, 87]. The protocol followed by the dental practitioner when managing these patients varies significantly and shows inconsistencies reflecting the lack of large-scale studies and evidence-based clinical guidelines [80, 88, 89]. The risk of postoperative bleeding after invasive periodontal treatment in individuals using different anticoagulation therapies was assessed, retrospectively, in 456 individuals receiving an antiplatelet and/or anticoagulant therapy [90]. Data was collected after 484 invasive periodontal interventions, with 99.6% of patients continuing their medications during the procedures. Postoperative bleeding was reported only following three interventions (0.35%), and it was controlled with local hemostatic maneuvers. Although the authors did not specify which type of local hemostatic procedure was used, this retrospective study showed a very low risk of bleeding in patients receiving an invasive periodontal intervention while using an anticoagulant or antiplatelet medication [90]. These results support the recommendation that such medications do not need to be discontinued in anticipation to invasive periodontal interventions.
\nExtended inter- or postoperative bleeding following dental surgery is infrequent, seldom demanding anything more than the use of local hemostatic biosurgicals. The judgment of whether or not to interrupt anticoagulation treatment can be both intricate and dynamic, and it should be based on the indication for pharmacological therapy, as well as previous thromboembolic history. The discontinuation of anticoagulant therapy may be required in dental interventions with moderate and high bleeding risk [25, 76, 77, 78]. Currently, most clinicians dealing with anticoagulant management tend to personalize the periprocedural management of the bleeding potential, according to the individual risk of each procedure—low, moderate, or high—following the current clinical practice recommendations based on best evidence and maintaining the anticoagulant therapy. Thereby, the patient anticoagulant regimen should be continued in specific low-risk dental procedures, without consultation or fear of disproportionate bleeding demanding additional intervention (Table 3) [25].
\nUndoubtedly, anticoagulant agents are effective in preventing thromboembolism. Nevertheless, their potential for critical adverse effects cannot be ignored. The use of antithrombotic medications is the most frequent cause of an adverse drug event requiring individuals to seek out emergency care [25, 91]. The majority of drug interactions with anticoagulants lead to elevated risk of bleeding. The nature of the interactions cannot be predicted, as they are expressed through both pharmacodynamic mechanisms and pharmacokinetic properties [25].
\nRegarding patient safety, potential risk for interaction, as well as knowledge of appropriate prescribing and monitoring, is crucial. Equally decisive is selecting the appropriate anticoagulant agent and monitoring the potential for drug–drug interaction [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 25]. Common anticoagulants and their interaction with the most common medications prescribed for dental patients are described in Table 4 [25, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98].
\nCommon anticoagulants and potential interactions with dental medications–adapted from Kaplovitch and Dounaevskaia [25].
Most studies evaluating the occurrence of peri- and postoperative bleeding show anticoagulation therapy can be maintained when adequate local hemostatic maneuvers are used.
\nAs an example, a controlled clinical trial compared the occurrence of bleeding following dental extractions in individuals receiving oral anticoagulants (experimental group) versus patients that had never received oral anticoagulant therapy (control group). Tooth extractions were performed, and a piece of oxidized cellulose was placed only into the sockets in the experimental group. The wound borders were sutured, and a gauze saturated with tranexamic for 30–60 minutes was applied with pressure in the wound. Both groups presented similar bleeding complications [99]. In a similar clinical trial [100], 161 tooth extractions were performed in patients undertaking warfarin. After tooth extraction, an oxidized cellulose gauze was placed in the socket, and the wound was sutured. Patients were assigned to four groups, according to their INR range (INR was 1.5–1.99 in group 1; 2.0–2.49 in group 2; 2.5–2.99 in group 3; and 3.0–3.7 in group 4). No significant differences were found in the postoperative bleeding among groups.
\nBased on the latest evidence and clinical practice recommendations on the perioperative management of dental patients receiving direct oral anticoagulants, on single or dual antiplatelet therapy or vitamin K antagonists, as well as on the current scientific knowledge on biosurgical hemostatic agents, the following conclusions can be made:
The majority of dental procedures can be securely executed without the withholding of anticoagulants, using only local hemostatic therapy. In fact, current recommendations and consensus support the continuation of antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy. Discontinuing these drugs can increase the risk of thromboembolism, at the cost of minor bleeding, which can be restrained without difficulty. The appropriate use of local hemostatic measures, such as topical biosurgical hemostatic agents, should always be considered whenever indicated.
In order to safely treat a patient receiving anticoagulant therapy, familiarity with anticoagulants and with the potential for drug–drug interactions is required, in addition to knowledge about the topical hemostatic options available.
Topical biosurgical hemostatic agents are diverse agents with distinct indications. The dental practitioner must be aware of the properties of each single agent, in order to properly select the product needed in each different clinical condition.
Based on current available data, no topical hemostatic agent can be regarded as superior or more effective than the others. Further experimental research and controlled clinical trials are warranted to define the most cost-effective biosurgical hemostatic agents in dentistry.
A definite protocol for excessive bleeding is still required for dental surgery in patients with hemorrhagic diathesis. The most effective local hemostatic agent with lesser complications should be determined in future research, considering their availability and cost-effectiveness.
The authors are grateful to Kisa Iqbal BSc Hons, DDS Candidate c/o 2020, New York University College of Dentistry, for editing this article.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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This chapter aims to present the main good practices, challenges, and opportunities related to Industry 4.0 paradigm.",book:{id:"6291",slug:"digital-transformation-in-smart-manufacturing",title:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing"},signatures:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Raffaele Cioffi and Federico\nZomparelli",authors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"},{id:"205141",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Zomparelli",slug:"federico-zomparelli",fullName:"Federico Zomparelli"},{id:"208748",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Cioffi",slug:"raffaele-cioffi",fullName:"Raffaele Cioffi"}]},{id:"35715",doi:"10.5772/38693",title:"The Role and Importance of Cultural Tourism in Modern Tourism Industry",slug:"the-role-and-importance-of-cultural-tourism-in-modern-tourism-industry",totalDownloads:41056,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:57,abstract:null,book:{id:"2298",slug:"strategies-for-tourism-industry-micro-and-macro-perspectives",title:"Strategies for Tourism Industry",fullTitle:"Strategies for Tourism Industry - Micro and Macro Perspectives"},signatures:"Janos Csapo",authors:[{id:"118766",title:"Dr.",name:"János",middleName:null,surname:"Csapó",slug:"janos-csapo",fullName:"János Csapó"}]},{id:"37707",doi:"10.5772/51110",title:"Principle of Meat Aroma Flavors and Future Prospect",slug:"principle-of-meat-aroma-flavors-and-future-prospect",totalDownloads:7443,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:null,book:{id:"3276",slug:"latest-research-into-quality-control",title:"Latest Research into Quality Control",fullTitle:"Latest Research into Quality Control"},signatures:"Hoa Van Ba, Inho Hwang, Dawoon Jeong and Amna Touseef",authors:[{id:"153361",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Van Ba",slug:"hoa-van-ba",fullName:"Hoa Van Ba"},{id:"163181",title:"Prof.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Amna",slug:"touseef-amna",fullName:"Touseef Amna"}]},{id:"38973",doi:"10.5772/51460",title:"Risk Management in Construction Projects",slug:"risk-management-in-construction-projects",totalDownloads:102492,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:51,abstract:null,book:{id:"2175",slug:"risk-management-current-issues-and-challenges",title:"Risk Management",fullTitle:"Risk Management - Current Issues and Challenges"},signatures:"Nerija Banaitiene and Audrius Banaitis",authors:[{id:"139414",title:"Dr.",name:"Nerija",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitiene",slug:"nerija-banaitiene",fullName:"Nerija Banaitiene"},{id:"149658",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitis",slug:"audrius-banaitis",fullName:"Audrius Banaitis"}]},{id:"12330",doi:"10.5772/10393",title:"Drilling Fluid Technology: Performances and Environmental Considerations",slug:"drilling-fluid-technology-performances-and-environmental-considerations",totalDownloads:34573,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:null,book:{id:"3726",slug:"products-and-services--from-r-d-to-final-solutions",title:"Products and Services",fullTitle:"Products and Services; from R&D to Final Solutions"},signatures:"Mohamed Khodja, Malika Khodja-Saber, Jean Paul Canselier, Nathalie Cohaut and Faïza Bergaya",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27589,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2294,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]},{id:"37593",title:"Standard Operating Procedures (What Are They Good For ?)",slug:"standard-operating-procedures-what-are-they-good-for-",totalDownloads:26482,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"3276",slug:"latest-research-into-quality-control",title:"Latest Research into Quality Control",fullTitle:"Latest Research into Quality Control"},signatures:"Isin Akyar",authors:[{id:"36323",title:"Dr.",name:"Isin",middleName:null,surname:"Akyar",slug:"isin-akyar",fullName:"Isin Akyar"}]},{id:"38348",title:"Globalization and Culture: The Three H Scenarios",slug:"globalization-and-culture-the-three-h-scenarios",totalDownloads:16772,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3009",slug:"globalization-approaches-to-diversity",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Approaches to Diversity"},signatures:"Abderrahman Hassi and Giovanna Storti",authors:[{id:"148330",title:"Dr.",name:"Abderrahman",middleName:null,surname:"Hassi",slug:"abderrahman-hassi",fullName:"Abderrahman Hassi"},{id:"152537",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Storti",slug:"giovanna-storti",fullName:"Giovanna Storti"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"7",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82425",title:"Financial Reporting and Analysis of Tesla Green Technology in the United States Market",slug:"financial-reporting-and-analysis-of-tesla-green-technology-in-the-united-states-market",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105065",abstract:"This study aims to discuss and analyze the financial position and performance of the US Tesla green technology company in the United States. This study uses a case study approach, financial data, and website methodologies to collect and analyze the research data. The case study is Tesla, Inc., which is a US electric vehicle and clean energy company based in Austin, Texas. Tesla is a green technology company that produces and designs electric cars, battery energy storage from home to grid-scale, solar roof tiles and solar panels, and related products and services. Tesla is growing fastly by introducing new green products, and it is now one of the world’s most valuable enterprises. It has a high market capitalization of almost US$1 trillion to become the world’s most valuable automaker. This study concludes that Tesla has changed their strategy to become the most worldwide sales of purely battery electric vehicles, capturing 23% of the market and 16% of the plug-in electric battery in the market for 2020. It has also developed a significant installer of photovoltaic systems through its subsidiary Tesla Energy in the United States. One of the largest global battery energy-storage systems suppliers is Tesla Energy, with 3.99 gigawatt-hours installed in 2021.",book:{id:"11251",title:"Banking and Accounting",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg"},signatures:"Nizar Mohammad Alsharari"},{id:"82427",title:"Our Globalization Era among Success, Obstacles and Doubts",slug:"our-globalization-era-among-success-obstacles-and-doubts",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105545",abstract:"In the last decades, the never-ending and unlimited expanding of both international economies and operations became globalization. Among its main features, one could recall the enormous increase of world macro-economic quantities (Gross World Product, Inter-continental Trade, FDI), as well as financial values (public debts and currency printing). The chapter tries to quantify them, by a statistical analysis of historical data (Section 1). Section 2 is dedicated to the strategic problems of firms, in particular the threats and opportunities for (inter) national firms willing to become global, and obstacles are included in Section 3. This given, it deals with the behavior of countries from the political and juridical points of view, and those ones passed form initial perplexities, distaste, or even hostility to a favorable behavior. Conclusions (Section 4) recall both the problematic alternative for globalized companies between “the world as our next door” and their social responsibilities and the similar problem for host countries, between socioeconomic advantages and protection of local workers, resources, and environment.",book:{id:"11476",title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg"},signatures:"Arnaldo Canziani, Annalisa Baldissera and Ahmad Kahwaji"},{id:"82289",title:"Consumer Culture and Abundance of Choices: Having More, Feeling Blue",slug:"consumer-culture-and-abundance-of-choices-having-more-feeling-blue",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105607",abstract:"The defining feature of contemporary consumer culture is the escalation of consumption opportunities and the expanding space for choice. An unbridled and unrestricted range of products is part of material prosperity, rising living standards, and emancipation of human freedoms. The growing demands for constant consumer decision-making in an increasingly opaque environment of potential targets of choice exposes consumers to the risk of procrastination, passivity, and resignation, as well as psychological discomfort. The goal here is to contribute to theories of consumer behavior in the context of the psychological experience of choice under the conditions of the accelerated quantity of consumption volumes against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic. While conventional offline shopping was drastically curtailed during the coronavirus crisis, freedom of consumer choice was maintained despite many proclamations to the contrary. I seek to provide support to the claim that freedom of consumer choice was maintained and often amplified during the pandemic in the online virtual environment of digital commerce formats. Freedom of consumer choice has merely been transformed into a horizontal level of application by the relatively rapid and fluid conversion of market activities into the cyberspace of a growing number of e-stores and online supermarkets, unconstrained by the physical space of shelves and counters.",book:{id:"11581",title:"A New Era of Consumer Behavior - Beyond the Pandemic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11581.jpg"},signatures:"Ondřej Roubal"},{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? Empirical Evidence from an Emerging Economy",slug:"does-board-structure-matter-in-csr-spending-of-commercial-banks-empirical-evidence-from-an-emerging-",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105589",abstract:"This chapter examines the impact of board elements on CSR spending by private commercial banks in an emerging economy, considering Bangladesh as a case. In doing so, we collected necessary data from the annual reports of 30 commercial banks listed on the Dhaka Stock Exchange, covering the period 2007–2020. In addition, we reviewed the patterns of CSR spending by commercial banks to understand the CSR universe in Bangladesh. We adopted the OLS model with two-way clustering to measure the effects of board elements on CSR spending. Our results confirm that factors, such as independent directors and board size, have a significant and positive relationship with CSR expenditures, while board gender deters the same. Also, board meetings do not have any significant connection with CSR spending. For control variables, factors, such as firm size and leverage, tend to promote the CSR spending of commercial banks, while profitability has no such relationship. As for the sectoral distribution of CSR funds, we found that although the absolute amount of CSR expenditures by banks has increased substantially over the years, they are primarily limited to health, education, natural disasters, and humanitarian activities. These findings are expected to have significant policy implications.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Bishnu Kumar Adhikary and Ranjan Kumar Mitra"},{id:"82395",title:"Toward a Better Understanding of Green Human Resource Management’s Impact on Green Competitive Advantage: A Conceptual Model",slug:"toward-a-better-understanding-of-green-human-resource-management-s-impact-on-green-competitive-advan",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105528",abstract:"Today, green human resource management (GHRM) has become a key business strategy where HRM plays an active role in the ongoing green movement. Thus, the topic of GHRM is of growing interest among management scholars. However, despite the theoretically important role of GHRM, relatively small number of research has been discovered so far about how GHRM, in companies striving to achieve environmental sustainability, could help them gain a green competitive advantage (GCA). Thus, based on the resource-based view (RBV) arguments, the main objective of this paper is to develop a conceptual model of the relationship between GHRM and green competitive advantage through green knowledge, green values, and green commitment. This model is expected to provide a strategic map that could be utilized by the practitioners and managers so that GHRM implementation can be more effective in contributing to green competitive advantage. Overall, the present article extends knowledge on the resource-based view by contributing to the literature on GHRM and its interactions with the main assets that lead to green competitive advantage.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Hosna Hossari and Kaoutar Elfahli"},{id:"82248",title:"Sustainability and Excellence: Pillars for Business Survival",slug:"sustainability-and-excellence-pillars-for-business-survival",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105420",abstract:"The chapter presents an overview of management models starting with self-assessment (ISO 9004) and continuing with the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) Excellence Model. Stakeholders’ analysis and their needs and expectations diagnostic are the baseline for building sustainable businesses. Sustainability and excellence are connected, and particular details of these approaches’ implementation are presented. Partnership development appears a key principle in the EFQM model. Based on companies’ strategies analysis, a simplified model may be proposed in order to support business survival in changing environments. Some guidelines to allow assessment of excellence fundamentals implementation are given. Based on experience and without seeing as exhaustive, a summary sheet of possible approaches and deployments is given. This may be used as a practical tool to connect actions implemented in organizations with the excellence model enablers, so as to facilitate assessment to explore the performance maturity level. The same sequence of Plan-Do-Check-Act relates approaches stated by ISO 26000 and sustainability initiatives. Embedding excellence and sustainability into business strategic objectives allows the management to define the framework for competitive continuous improvement.",book:{id:"11476",title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg"},signatures:"Irina Severin, Maria Cristina Dijmarescu and Mihai Caramihai"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:75},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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