Local weather data from a meteorological station located near the study area during 2013 (source: [29]).
\r\n\tMethadone maintenance treatment (MMT) has become the main pharmacological option for the treatment of opioid dependence. Methadone remains the gold standard in the substitution treatment, which is a harm reduction intervention, because the patient does not become abstinent, but there are a series of positive changes. Currently, the surveillance of methadone substitution treatment is considered an ongoing challenge, given the need for the individualization and the increasing of the therapy efficiency. Methadone has been also studied as an analgesic for the management of cancer pain and other chronic pain conditions.
\r\n\r\n\tThe complexity of methadone pharmacology, the high inter-individual variability in methadone pharmacokinetics, the risk of opioid diversion, the overdose and other adverse events pose many challenges to clinicians.
\r\n\tThe aim of the proposed book is to update and summarize the scientific knowledge on the opioid dependence, including the mechanism of opioid dependence, the misuse of prescription opioids and the substitution therapy of opioid dependence.
The world human population has been estimated at 7.2 billion in mid-2013 and is projected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050 [1]. There is an urgent need for current world food production levels to substantially be increased in order to avoid hunger and starvation of ever increasing human population. Rice and wheat are important sources of food for people around the world. Moreover, rice is considered as a staple food for about half of the world’s population [2]. More than 56-61 per cent of the world’s population lives in the Asian Region and the Asian population is growing at 1.8 per cent per year which adds 45-51 million more rice consumers annually [3,4]. Over 90 per cent of the world’s rice is produced and consumed in the Asian Region by countries such as China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Japan [4]. It has been estimated that rice production has to be raised by at least 70 per cent over the next three decades to meet the growing demands [5]. The demand for rice and its value-added products is growing steadily, with consumption stretching beyond Asia. For example, annual rice consumption in Australia increased from approximately 5 kg/capita to 10 kg/capita during the past nine years [6].
World rice production in 2013 accounts for 496.6 million tonnes of milled rice and only 37.3 million tonnes (i.e. 7.5% of total production) was traded between countries [7]. Australia produced 1.16 million tonnes of paddy rice in 2013 and usually exports 85% of its rice production to more than 60 countries around the world [8]. Irrigated rice in the world accounts for 79 million hectares (55% of the global harvested rice area) and contributes 75% of global rice production [9]. To keep pace with population growth, rice yields in the irrigated environments must increase by 25% over the next 20 years [9]. Irrigation is the main water source in the dry season and is used to supplement rainfall in the wet season. Inefficient use of irrigation water is one of the main agronomic problems encountered where intensive rice cultivation is practiced.
Most of the world\'s rice is grown in the tropics. The tropical region comprises the area between the Tropic of Cancer (23°27\'N latitude) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23°27\'S latitude). This region experiences tropical climate which is usually marked by hot and humid weather conditions. Vast amount of sunshine along with extremely heavy rainfall is the distinct feature of this climate. The season is marked with two wet and two dry seasons in areas close to equator. Further away from the equator, the climate becomes as monsoonal which has one wet season and one dry season. Wet seasons in the Northern Hemisphere occur during May to July and in the Southern Hemisphere during November to February [10].
The tropical regions of Australia are in the north of the country and include the equatorial and sub-tropical zones (Figure 1) which experience hot temperatures and very high relative humidity values. The wet season which is sometimes referred as the monsoon season starts in November and finishes in March next year. It is usually hot where the temperature varies between 30 and 50 degrees Celsius. Large amounts of water vapour in the atmosphere create high humidity during the wet season. Frequent flooding may occur due to heavy rain events during the wet season. The dry season starts in April and finishes in October. Low temperatures and clear skies are the main characteristics during the dry season. Average temperature in the dry season is about 20 degrees Celsius [11].
Tropical regions of Australia. Source: [12].
The tropical region in Australia covers 5 to 17 million hectares of arable soil. It is important to realise that the run-off from this region is roughly 152,000 GL and less than 6 per cent of this run-off is currently being used. In contrast, the total amount of water used for agriculture in the whole country is about 12,200 GL [13]. Therefore, it is predicted that by increasing the usage of available water resource in the tropical regions of northern Australia, it would be possible to double Australian agricultural output and make a significant contribution towards combating global hunger and supporting food security [13]. For example, suitable soil types, a warmer climate, and availability of irrigation water make the Ord River Irrigation Area in north-eastern Western Australia ideal for growing rice. Potential yields up to 14.3 t/ha have been demonstrated in this environment [14].
Rice belongs to the family Gramineae and genus Oryza. The genus Oryza comprises about twenty species distributed through tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, Central and South America and Australia. There are only two species of cultivated rice, O.sativa and O.glaberrima. O.sativa is a common rice widely grown in the tropical and temperate zones, and O.glaberrima is endemic to West Africa. Cultivars of O.sativa are divisible into three types or races: Indica, an elongated, thin and slightly flattened grain which stays separate in cooking; Japonica, a broad, thick, short, rounded grain which tends to soften if over-cooked; and Javanica, a long and sticky variety which possibly originated in Indonesia.
Rice is a remarkable semi-aquatic plant which has been cultivated for at least 8,000 years in widely different agro-climatic regions of the world. O.sativa grows at latitudes from 36° south in Australia to 49° north in Czechoslovakia at altitudes from sea-level to 2,400 metres in Kashmir. O.sativa is grown extensively in tropical and temperate regions, normally in water (lowland) but also as a dry-land (upland) crop. It is believed that rice cultivation must have begun at several different locations in Asia between 7,000 and 8,500 years before present time. O.sativa probably spread from India to Egypt, Europe, Africa, the Americas and Australia in that order.
First likely introduction of rice seed into southern Australian gold fields was by Chinese prospectors in the 1850s cultivating it in marshy areas or in ponds using effluent from mining. In the 1860s, a small rice industry using upland varieties and Chinese labour emerged in the northern Queensland to supply local demand in the North Queensland gold fields. In 1906, a Japanese ex-parliamentarian, Isaburo (Jo) Takasuka, began cultivating rice using Japanese (Japonica) varieties near Swan Hill in Victoria. In 1924, a commercial rice industry began around Leeton and Griffith in New South Wales.
Rice requires more water than most other crops. Most rice varieties achieve better growth and produce higher yields when they are grown under flooded conditions than under aerobic conditions. In addition, the ponded water helps to suppress the weeds, especially broadleaf types. The ponded water provides protection against low night time air temperatures at some locations where the problem of cold damage to crop exists [15,16]. Paddy rice is usually grown in level basins which are flooded with water throughout most of the growing season. In general, areas of irrigated agriculture are prone to rising groundwater, waterlogging and salinity under poor irrigation practices when excess groundwater recharge rates occur. Under extreme circumstances, these negative effects may lead to loss of arable land and/or create additional crop or land management practices for which the grower may need to cover the extra costs. It is believed that flooded rice systems may have contributed to excess groundwater recharge rates at some locations [17,18].
It has been estimated that up to 62% of the world population will be facing water scarcity by 2030 [19]. Currently, there are many countries experiencing water scarcity for food production, for example, China [20]. Hence water will be a major constraint for agriculture in coming decades. The actual water availability in Asia, for example, decreased from 9.6 ML/year.capita in 1950 to 3.37 ML/year.capita in 1990, due to the increase in population [21]. In Asia, about 90% of fresh water diverted from water resources is used for agricultural purposes and more than 50% of this water is used to irrigate rice [22]. World population increase will likely further reduce the availability of water per capita in many countries. Hence, an appropriate response to water scarcity is to focus on the improvement of the overall productivity of water (i.e. the output of goods and services in physical or monetary terms per unit of water applied or consumed) to feed an ever-increasing world population.
With increasing water scarcity for irrigation, productivity of current rice production systems has to be improved substantially. Attempts have already been made at the International Rice Research Institute in Philippines to improve the water productivity of irrigated rice-based systems in Asia [23,24]. Modern rice varieties and advanced water management techniques warrant new estimations of water losses from flooded rice crops. This study reports on a water balance approach taken to determine the evaporation, transpiration and deep percolation losses from flooded rice bays in a tropical environment using a set of lysimeters and lock-up bay tests. Deep percolation under ponded rice culture should be within acceptable leakage rates and should not unduly affect growers or environmental managers in terms of rising groundwater levels, waterlogging and salinity.
The term ‘water balance’ refers to the accounting of water going into and out of an area. The quantity of water added to, subtracted from, and stored within a set volume of soil during a given period of time is considered. It is assumed that in a given volume of soil, the difference between the amount of water added Win to the soil and the amount of water removed Wout from the soil during a certain period is equal to the change in soil water content ∆W during the same period of time [25]:
For this study, it is most appropriate to consider the water balance of the root zone per unit area of field. Thus the root zone water balance is expressed as [25]:
where
∆S is change in root zone soil moisture storage
∆V is increment of water incorporated in the plants
RF is rainfall
IR is irrigation water
UP is upward capillary flow into the root zone
RO is runoff
DP is downward drainage out of the root zone
E is direct evaporation from the soil/water surface
T is transpiration by plants
All quantities in Equation (2) are expressed in terms of volume of water per unit area of soil (that is equivalent depth units) during the period considered. Thus the components of the water balance equation are expressed in units of water depth (mm), assumed to be spread uniformly across the paddock:
The various items entering into the water balance of a hypothetical rooting zone for a flooded rice system are illustrated in Figure 2. The principal moisture losses from the rice paddy may be grouped into vapour losses and losses in liquid form. The vapour losses are loss by transpiration from the leaf surface and by evaporation at the water surface. The liquid losses are the downward movement or vertical percolation of free water and the runoff of excess water over the field levees. The combined losses of water resulting from plant transpiration and surface evaporation are called evapotranspiration (ET). It is also commonly referred to as consumptive water use. The ET rate is affected by solar energy, temperature, wind or air movement, relative humidity, plant characteristics and soil water regime [26].
Schematic representation of the water balance of a flooded rice field.
A direct method for measuring field water balance is using a set of lysimeters. A lysimeter is a container filled with soil and installed in the field so that it will represent the prevailing soil and climatic conditions. It allows accurate measurement of certain physical processes occurring in the field. In terms of the field water balance, these lysimeters allow continuous measurement of both evapotranspiration and percolation. The change in water level in square or circular tank lysimeters is measured to refer to evapotranspiration [27,28].
The study was conducted at a site (15.65ºS latitude, 128.72ºE longitude, 31 m altitude), located within the research facility of the Frank Wise Institute of Tropical Agriculture in Kununurra in Western Australia. The Frank Wise Institute of Tropical Agriculture is the regional office of the Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia (DAFWA) to provide service to the local growers in the Ord River Irrigation Area (ORIA) to improve their farming business. The study site is located within a region which has a tropical monsoonal climate and most of the mean annual rainfall (about 825 mm) occurs during the period from October to April (Table 1). The warm climate (average annual maximum temperature is 35ºC) of the region enables rice to be grown twice (during the wet and the dry seasons) in a year. In addition, it is possible that the monsoonal rains during the period from November to March can provide more than half of the water required for a wet season rice crop. Since cloud cover can reduce the sunshine hours during the wet season, this might be a hindrance to achieve high rice yields. In addition, high humidity experienced during the wet season might favour the occurrence of certain pests and diseases (for example, the devastating rice blast disease).
\n\t\t\t\t\tMonth\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAir temp \n\t\t\t\t\t min(°C)\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAir temp \n\t\t\t\t\t max(°C)\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tHumidity average\n\t\t\t\t\t (%)\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tRain\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t(mm)\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tTotal solar\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t(kJ/m2)\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tWind max\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t(km/h)\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
January | \n\t\t\t21.6 | \n\t\t\t41.0 | \n\t\t\t70.2 | \n\t\t\t91.2 | \n\t\t\t806586.6 | \n\t\t\t52.56 E | \n\t\t
February | \n\t\t\t22.8 | \n\t\t\t41.3 | \n\t\t\t75.2 | \n\t\t\t146.4 | \n\t\t\t666768.2 | \n\t\t\t35.64 WSW | \n\t\t
March | \n\t\t\t20.4 | \n\t\t\t39.1 | \n\t\t\t75.1 | \n\t\t\t67.4 | \n\t\t\t724862.3 | \n\t\t\t43.56 ENE | \n\t\t
April | \n\t\t\t12.8 | \n\t\t\t38.7 | \n\t\t\t67.4 | \n\t\t\t89.6 | \n\t\t\t685514.2 | \n\t\t\t25.56 NNE | \n\t\t
May | \n\t\t\t9.9 | \n\t\t\t37.8 | \n\t\t\t61.5 | \n\t\t\t5.0 | \n\t\t\t609878.9 | \n\t\t\t34.56 NNE | \n\t\t
June | \n\t\t\t8.9 | \n\t\t\t35.3 | \n\t\t\t54.9 | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t605294.8 | \n\t\t\t32.76 SSW | \n\t\t
July | \n\t\t\t3.9 | \n\t\t\t35.4 | \n\t\t\t47.1 | \n\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t708597.7 | \n\t\t\t25.20 SE | \n\t\t
August | \n\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t37.7 | \n\t\t\t50.2 | \n\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t813523.3 | \n\t\t\t29.16 ESE | \n\t\t
September | \n\t\t\t14.0 | \n\t\t\t40.5 | \n\t\t\t54.3 | \n\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t814916.5 | \n\t\t\t38.52 ESE | \n\t\t
October | \n\t\t\t14.6 | \n\t\t\t42.4 | \n\t\t\t52.2 | \n\t\t\t23.4 | \n\t\t\t829273.6 | \n\t\t\t47.88 NW | \n\t\t
November | \n\t\t\t18.1 | \n\t\t\t42.4 | \n\t\t\t61.2 | \n\t\t\t111.4 | \n\t\t\t792809.0 | \n\t\t\t48.60 NE | \n\t\t
December | \n\t\t\t22.8 | \n\t\t\t40.9 | \n\t\t\t72.8 | \n\t\t\t192.2 | \n\t\t\t712451.7 | \n\t\t\t48.60 NNE | \n\t\t
Local weather data from a meteorological station located near the study area during 2013 (source: [29]).
The study was conducted on Cununurra clay soil which is the major soil type in the region. This soil is classified as the great soil group of the Grey, Brown and Red Clays of Stace et al. [30]. It belongs to fine montmorillonitic typic chromo usterts in Soil Taxonomy (USDA) and Ug5 class of Northcote [31]. Typical Australian Soil Classification (ASC) for this soil type is self-mulching Vertosol [32]. The Cununurra clays could be referred as black soils, black earths or gilgai soils. These soils occur on the black soil plains. These soils were derived from parent materials formed by Riverine deposits. Typical soil profile description of Cununurra clay is given in Table 2 where relationship between approximate field texture and clay content is for loams 20%, clay loams 30%, light clays 40%, medium clays 50%, medium heavy clays 60%, and heavy clays 70% [33].
\n\t\t\t\t\tHorizon\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDepth\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tCharacteristics\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
A-11 | \n\t\t\t0-5 cm | \n\t\t\tVery dark greyish-brown (2.5Y 3/2); light to medium clay; dry and loose (self-mulching); granular structure; smooth-ped to rough-ped fabric; and pH 7.5. | \n\t\t
A-12 | \n\t\t\t5-25 cm | \n\t\t\tVery dark greyish-brown (2.5Y 3/2); medium to heavy clay; dry and extremely firm; medium blocky structure; smooth-ped fabric; pH 8.0; traces of carbonate nodules; some manganiferous concretions; some indistinct slickensides; shrinkage cracks very evident; and peds approximately 4 × 8 cm. | \n\t\t
A-13 | \n\t\t\t25-125 cm | \n\t\t\tVery dark greyish-brown (2.5Y 3/2); heavy clay; dry and extremely firm; coarse blocky structure evident in the drier parts with prismatic peds 15 × 30 cm; smooth-ped fabric; pH 8.5; traces of carbonate nodules; some manganiferous concentrations; some lenses of fine sand; and shrinkage cracks sometimes penetrate the top of this horizon. | \n\t\t
AC-1 | \n\t\t\t125-140 cm | \n\t\t\tDark brown (10YR 3/3, 7.5YR 3/2); medium to heavy clay; slightly moist and extremely firm; smooth-ped fabric; pH 8.6; 2-5% carbonate nodules; traces of manganese concretions; some weakly bound concretions of soil material and inclusions of AC-2 horizon material. | \n\t\t
AC-2 | \n\t\t\tMore than 140 cm | \n\t\t\tDark reddish brown (5YR 3/4); medium clay; slightly moist and very firm; pH 8.5; up to 5% large carbonate nodules; smooth-ped faces evident but fabric may be earthy; and increasing micaceous material. | \n\t\t
Soil profile description of Cununurra clay (source [34]; Copyright © Western Australian Agriculture Authority).
The most important characteristic common to all swelling clays including the Cununurra clay is the high content of clay size particles with expanding clay minerals such as montmorillonite. Cununurra clays are referred to as self-mulching due to formation of a thin surface layer consisting loose dry granules after repeated wetting and drying cycles [35]. Tillage is often very difficult on these heavy clays. The optimum moisture range for tillage is narrow. If the soil is too wet, moist soil will stick to implements. When the soil is too dry, it has considerable strength and will result in high implement draft, wheel slip and high fuel consumption. It will also accelerate wear on implement points and tractor tyres. These soils are normally cultivated dry to achieve a better tilth. Even a little moisture causes large clods to be turned up during ploughing. Generally, infiltration rates in swelling clay soils are low. The magnitude of subsoil conductivity is about 10-7 m/sec [34].
The trial was undertaken during the dry season under ponded rice culture (flooded system) covering the period from 12 June 2013 to 2 October 2013 (112 days). The crop was established by dry seeding (drill sown into cultivated seedbed) at a rate of 152 kg/ha to a depth of 2-3 cm and intermittently irrigated (flushing) twice, the first - immediately after sowing and the second - 14 days later. With intermittent flushing irrigation, the irrigation water was applied enough to cover the soil surface and quickly drained off after 2-3 hours. When the seedlings were 5-10 cm tall and at the 3-5 leaf stage, permanent water to a depth of 3-5 cm was applied, on 31 days after planting. A shallow water depth of 5-10 cm was maintained through the vegetative phase. As the crop approached the panicle initiation (PI) stage, water level was raised to 10-15 cm, and then further increased to achieve a depth of 20-25 cm at early pollen microspore (EPM) stage. Water level was raised to protect the developing panicle from cold temperatures. Once flowering commenced, the water level was allowed to drop to 5-10 cm. Water level of at least 5 cm depth was maintained through grain filling until lockup the bay for the remaining water to be used by the crop at physiological maturity.
In terms of water management of the experimental site, ‘Lockup bay tests’ as proposed in reference [36] were adopted. For a lockup bay test, the water flow between the bays is prevented and the change in water depth each day over a period of several days is recorded. In this trial, no inflow or outflow within the bay is maintained. This means applying water (top-up) to the paddock as required and then sealing the inlet to prevent further entry of water until the next irrigation event, usually in about 7 days. The outlet was kept sealed throughout the trial period. Since ponded rice culture was undertaken in adjacent bays in both sides, the lateral seepage from the test bay was considered minimum. Just before commencement of the experiment, the tail-end bank was sealed using a plastic barrier to prevent lateral seepage. With the application of permanent water to the crop on 10 June 2013, lockup bay tests were started and continued until the water in the bay disappeared on 2 October 2013 before harvest.
A modified lysimeter experiment [26-28] was conducted to estimate water losses due to evaporation, transpiration and deep percolation under ponded rice culture. Three steel lysimeter rings (two with open-end and one with closed-end) were used. Each lysimeter ring was 50 cm in diameter, 70 cm in height and 5 mm wall thickness. The open-end type lysimeters were installed by pushing the cylinder vertically into the soil up to 35 cm below ground level using heavy machinery. Moist soil from previous flush irrigations made this process easy with minimum disturbance to the soil located inside and outside of the lysimeters. A 50 cm diameter and 35 cm deep hole was dug in the ground and the closed-end type lysimeter was pushed vertically into the hole. This lysimeter was filled with the same soil up to 35 cm. All three lysimeters had 35 cm of the ring protruding above the ground surface. Each lysimeter had a 10 mm diameter hole at 2 cm above ground level to facilitate entry of water into the lysimeter during irrigation events. This allowed the water level inside the lysimeter and that of the surrounding field be same at the end of irrigation. Immediately after irrigation, these holes on the lysimeters were closed using rubber stoppers and industrial lubricant. The holes were kept closed until the start of the next irrigation event when this procedure was repeated. All three lysimeters were installed in the cropped area (Figure 3) but only one open-end type lysimeter had undisturbed rice plants representative of the plants in the surrounding field. Any rice plants found in the rest of the lysimeters were removed.
Field setup of lysimeters and Class A Evaporation Pan for two planting configurations.
It was possible to measure the evaporation (E), transpiration (T) and deep percolation (DP) components by comparing losses from each lysimeter (Figure 4). During each irrigation event (i.e. topping up the bay), the side valve on each lysimeter was opened to allow water inside. Automatic water level recorders were installed in each lysimeter to monitor the water level at 30 minute intervals. Water losses were calculated within each irrigation cycle. Evaporation was the water loss measured in Lysimeter A. For comparison purposes, a Class A Pan was also installed at this site to measure the actual evaporation. Evaporation data from Lysimeter A was primarily used to separate the evaporation component from Lysimeters B and C. Transpiration was the water loss measured in Lysimeter C minus water loss measured in Lysimeter B. Deep percolation was the water loss measured in Lysimeter B minus water loss measured in Lysimeter A. In a flooded system, generally 90% of roots are located in the top 10 cm of the soil [37] and the internal drainage beyond the root zone has been referred to as deep percolation [25]. For this trial, water moving downward from open-end of the lysimeters at 35 cm depth was considered as deep percolation. A 10 cm diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cylinder with a hole at ground level was also used to monitor the water level of the surrounding field. This PVC pipe allowed to remove the effect of ripples, that formed in the surrounding water in the field, on measurement of the water level by the recorder. The effect of different water levels within lysimeters compared with that of the surrounding field towards the end of the irrigation cycle, as shown in Figure 4, will be discussed later.
Diagram of lysimeters to measure evaporation (E), transpiration (T) and deep percolation (DP) losses in a paddy field, where the arrows indicate combined water losses.
A Class A Evaporation Pan (Figure 5) was installed at the experimental site to measure the actual evaporation losses under a paddy field situation and to compare with evaporation observed in Lysimeter A described above. The pan was constructed according to FAO recommendations [38]. The Class A Evaporation pan was circular, 120.7 cm in diameter and 25 cm deep. It was made of galvanized iron (22 gauge). The pan was mounted directly on the ground surface within a cropped area and ponded water. The pan was made level before it was filled with water from the surrounding field to 5 cm below the rim. The water level was not allowed to drop to more than 7.5 cm below the rim by filling the pan whenever required. Few granules of Copper Sulphate were added to the water in the pan to prevent slime build up. The site was located within a large cropped field (Figure 3). An automatic water level recorder was used to monitor the changes in water level within the pan at 30 minute intervals. Measurements were made in a stilling well that was situated in the pan near one edge (Figure 5). The stilling well is a metal cylinder of 10 cm in diameter and 20 cm deep with a small hole at the bottom which allowed the water levels within the stilling well and the pan to remain the same. Usage of a stilling well removed the effect of ripples on measurement of the water level by the recorder. Ripples occasionally formed within the pan when the wind velocity was high.
Class A Evaporation Pan with a stilling well located near one edge (also shown is a Baro-Diver to measure variations in atmospheric pressure).
Cera-Diver® and Baro-Diver® manufactured by Schlumberger Water Services in the Netherlands were used in this study to monitor water level fluctuations in lysimeters, evaporation pan and the surrounding field. The Divers consist of a pressure sensor designed to measure air/water pressure, a temperature sensor, memory for storing measurements and a battery. Both Cera-Diver and Baro-Diver measure the absolute pressure and temperature. Note that the absolute pressure is the pressure of the water column above the Diver plus the atmospheric pressure. Therefore measurement of atmospheric pressure is required to determine the water level. Cera-Divers establish the height of a water column by measuring the water pressure using the built-in pressure sensor. The height of the water column above the Diver\'s pressure sensor (Figure 6) is determined on the basis of the measured pressure. Baro-Diver measures atmospheric pressure and is used to compensate for the variations in atmospheric pressure measured by the Cera-Divers. To measure the variations in atmospheric pressure, a Baro-Diver was installed at the experimental site (Figure 5).
Installation of a Cera-Diver to measure the height of water.
The Baro-Diver measures the atmospheric pressure (pair) and the Cera-Diver measures the pressure exerted by the water column (pwater) and the atmospheric pressure (pair). Thus
and
When data from Baro-Diver are subtracted from corresponding data from Cera-Diver, it results in pressure exerted by the water column above the Cera-Diver at any point in time. The pressure exerted by the water column can be expressed as the height of water (h) above the pressure sensor [39]:
where
p is the pressure in cm of water
ρ is the density of the water (1,000 kg/m3)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2).
A water balance technique was used to measure the amount of added water and its loss components, as stated in Equation (2). Since the measurements were made on a weekly basis between irrigation events after the permanent water was applied to the field, the change in root zone soil moisture storage (∆S) and increment of water incorporated in the plants (∆V) were assumed to be negligible. No precipitation (RF) occurred during the experimental period. The ground water table was more than 15 m below ground level at this site, therefore upward capillary flow into the root zone (UP) was zero. The procedure of lockup was adopted within a measurement cycle, therefore the influence of runoff (RO) or drainage out of the field became negligible. Seepage losses were minimised by lining the bank with plastic barrier and filling the adjacent bays with water. By considering the above and rearranging the parameters, the water balance Equation (2) becomes as:
where
IR = amount of irrigation water
E = direct evaporation from the water surface
T = transpiration by plants
DP = downward drainage out of the root zone
No attempt was made to measure the amount of irrigation water applied, but it was estimated from the measurement of other components (evaporation, transpiration and deep percolation) using the lysimeters. It is vital that better estimates of evaporation, transpiration and deep percolation are necessary because they play an important role to accurately determine the crop water requirements. Thus crop water requirements which are directly related to crop evapotranspiration (ET) vary depending on crop grown and its different growth stages.
Evaporation is the moisture lost in vapour form from the free water surface where rice is grown. Shading of the water surface by rice plants reduces evaporation. Therefore daily evaporation losses are less for rice planted at close spacing. Similarly, evaporation losses also decrease as a crop approaches maturity. Trials elsewhere have shown that over the entire rice-cropping season, evaporation accounted for about 40 per cent of total losses to the atmosphere, with transpiration providing the remainder [40]. In this study, average evaporation losses from Lysimeter A and from evaporation pan are shown in Figure 7. Readings from the Lysimeter A were obtained within an irrigation cycle (that is, between topping-up the bay). Readings from the evaporation pan were obtained between two consecutive re-filling processes. These dates for both measurements were not common in most circumstances. Therefore direct comparison of losses from Lysimeter A with those of evaporation pan using individual data was not possible in this case.
In-situ measurements of evaporation from Lysimeter A and Class A Evaporation Pan.
The data from this study shows that evaporation losses were high at 4-7 mm/day at the beginning when the rice plants were small. But it decreased to 3-4 mm/day when the crop developed full canopy. The shading effect of the crop canopy reduced the evaporation losses. The evaporation was not affected when the air temperature increased in August and September (Table 1). It should be noted that the shading effect was much greater than the air temperature effect on evaporation. Also note that the evaporation losses measured by the Lysimeter A and Class A Pan were close. Total evaporation losses obtained from Lysimeter A over a period of 90.5 days were 375.7 mm. Readings from Class A Pan over a period of 91.2 days resulted in 377.9 mm. Therefore, it can be concluded that for the purpose of reporting evaporation losses from a flooded rice bay, data from either Lysimeter A or Class A Pan could be used.
Transpiration is a process by which plants release water vapour to the atmosphere. It occurs through stomatal openings in the plant foliage in response to the atmospheric demand. The amount of water lost as transpiration usually reaches a maximum value during the day and the minimum value during the night. Crop transpiration losses were measured in this experiment as the difference in water lost between Lysimeter C and Lysimeter B and the results are shown in Figure 8.
Transpiration losses as measured by the lysimeters.
Transpiration losses at the beginning were lower due to small size of the rice plants at that time. The crop was first irrigated on 12 May 2013. Permanent water was applied on 12 June 2013. Therefore the plants were 31 days old when the experiments started. Slightly negative value for transpiration during the first irrigation cycle was unexpected. The negative value indicated that the average losses from Lysimeter B were slightly higher than that of Lysimeter C. The only difference between these two lysimeters was that Lysimeter C contained rice plants at an early stage whereas no plants were left in Lysimeter B. Because the losses recorded at this stage were very small, this deviation in results (negative value) was ignored.
Transpiration losses increased rapidly as the plants reached full canopy and then started to decline when the plants approached full maturity. The increase in transpiration was mainly due to more leaf surface area contributing to more stomata openings for water loss. At full canopy, transpiration losses (8.6 mm/day) were almost double of evaporation losses (4.4 mm/day). Over the period of 90.5 days, the total transpiration losses were 523 mm. Over the period of measurement, evaporation accounted for about 41.8 per cent of total losses to the atmosphere, with transpiration providing the remainder of 58.2 per cent, similar to the results reported in [40]. The transpiration losses reported in this study are for rice variety IR 72 at plant population of 200-300 plants/m2. Note that the transpiration losses might be different for another rice variety and for different plant densities.
Percolation in a flooded rice field is considered as the downward movement of free water through saturated soil due to gravity and hydrostatic pressure exerted by the ponded water. Percolation losses are a function of the local soil conditions and the depth of water over the soil surface. When the texture of the soil is heavy (about 70% clay), percolation losses are low (<1 mm/day). Field studies in the Philippines in the dry season have shown mean percolation rates of 1.3 mm/day on alluvial and elastic soils with shallow water tables (< 2m), and 2.6 mm/day when the water table was deeper (> 2m) [41]. The seasonal-average percolation rate as measured in percolation rings was 1.7 mm/day in the dry season and 0.7 mm/day in the wet season at Los Baños in the Philippines [42]. The deep percolation losses as measured in this experiment using Lysimeter B and Lysimeter A are shown in Figure 9.
Deep percolation losses as measured by the lysimeters.
Over the period of measurement, the deep percolation losses varied between approximately 0 and 2 mm/day. This variability in measurement might be due to the nature of measurements carried out in Lysimeters A and B. A total of 87.9 mm deep percolation losses occurred over a period of 90.5 days. This indicates that the average deep percolation loss over the period was 0.97 mm/day. These findings are supported by studies conducted by [43] who found that surface water infiltrated no deeper than 1.07 m into Cununurra clay after surface ponding for 54 hours. Similar results were reported by [44] who found no evidence of upward or downward movement of soil water below a depth of around 1.65 m in Cununurra clay. Much more recently, [45] concluded there was negligible deep drainage below furrow-irrigated sugar cane grown on Cununurra clay. However, higher infiltration rates reported by others [44,46,47] may be attributed to the presence of well-developed slickensides and shrinkage cracks (Table 2) that penetrated the transition zone between Cununurra clay and the underlying lighter textured soil at some locations [48]. Previous flooded rice systems in Cununurra clay in areas where a shallow clay layer overlying a more porous sandy profile were attributed to have contributed to excess groundwater recharge rates [49].
The average deep percolation of 0.97 mm/day as determined in this study was less than previously reported in Cununurra clay, perhaps reflecting improved crop and water management practices used with modern rice varieties. With ponding, the clay swells and the cracks are resealed. Thus irrigation water is unable to infiltrate further than a few metres into Cununurra clay soil under extended period of ponding. However, under furrow-irrigation, soil tends to crack between irrigation events and this phenomenon may have contributed to high infiltration rates. Leakage rates under furrow irrigation were estimated to be 160 to 250 mm/irrigation season for cotton in Queensland [50], 11 to 101 mm/season for maize and between 190 and 340 mm/crop-cycle for sugarcane, both in the Ord River Irrigation Area [51]. Thus the leakage under ponded rice culture compares well with irrigated cotton or sugarcane in the Ord River Irrigation Area.
Climatic conditions can impact on processes such as evaporation and transpiration, but have no effect on deep percolation. If this low level of deep percolation can be replicated at the paddock and farm scale, it is predicted that recharge of groundwater under extensive rice cultivation using the traditional flooded system in Cununurra clay soil should be within manageable limits. If these experimental results can be translated to paddock and whole farm scales, the deep percolation rates under flooded rice system would not be a problem for the growers or environmental managers, regarding rising groundwater levels, waterlogging and salinity.
In the early stages of the rice crop, immediately after ponding, most water lost from rice field was evaporation. Once the crop developed a full canopy cover, transpiration accounted for most of the water used. The combined losses of water from evaporation and transpiration (referred as evapotranspiration) averaged 9.93 mm/day over the period of measurement of 90.5 days. In most of the tropics, the average evapotranspiration during the dry season was found to be 6-7 mm/day [23]. The higher value for evapotranspiration reported in this study might be due to not including the data during the first 31 days of the crop. Data during the first 31 days were not collected in this study. The maximum value of evapotranspiration (13.04 mm/day) was reached at heading time and it was found to be 2.96 times of the evaporation at this site during 2013.
Evaporation pans provide measurements that integrate the effect of climatic factors such as solar radiation, wind, temperature and humidity on evaporation from open water surfaces. Thus, in several countries, data from Class A Evaporation Pan (installed in the rice field) have been correlated with measured actual evapotranspiration. In this experiment, over a period of 90.5 days, the average evapotranspiration was found to be nearly 2.4 times higher than the average evaporation from Class A pan. Trials elsewhere have found that over the whole rice crop growth period, the evapotranspiration from rice field was 1.2 times more than open pan evaporation [52]. In the present study, evaporation losses during the initial period of 31 days were not measured. Even assuming a highest value of 7 mm/day of evaporation during this initial period and negligible transpiration, the adjusted average evapotranspiration could still be 1.9 times more than the average evaporation.
The sum of evaporation, transpiration and deep percolation losses as measured by the lysimeters is considered as total water losses. This is compared with the total field losses as measured outside the lysimeters (i.e. field water level) in Table 3. The total water loss reached a maximum value of 14.3 mm/day for the lysimeter measurements. However the field losses reached a maximum of 10.1 mm/day. This difference in measurement was mainly due to the fact that the lysimeter had 100% cropped area and the surrounding field had only 33.1% cropped area. The trial was established to compare the yield performance of five different rice varieties replicated three times. Hence one metre of bare land was allowed between the plantings in order to separate the treatments. Buffer area around the trial area also followed the same planting configuration. In addition, the head-end and tail-end of the bay had some bare land without any crop planted. Note that the difference in cropped area between lysimeters and surrounding field had a direct effect only on the amount of transpiration losses. Based on the cropped area, this translates into the total transpiration losses from the surrounding field were only a third of that measured in the lysimeters. The initial two readings obtained from water level fluctuation of the surrounding field (that is 9.40 and 10.08 mm/day in Table 3) were possibly due to seepage losses to the neighbouring bay which had its permanent water only on 26 June 2013.
\n\t\t\t\t\tDate\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tTotal water loss in lysimeters\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t(mm/day)\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tTotal water loss in field\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t(mm/day)\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
15/06/2013 | \n\t\t\t8.88 | \n\t\t\t9.40 | \n\t\t
21/06/2013 | \n\t\t\t6.33 | \n\t\t\t10.08 | \n\t\t
28/06/2013 | \n\t\t\t10.96 | \n\t\t\t6.49 | \n\t\t
05/07/2013 | \n\t\t\t8.16 | \n\t\t\t3.90 | \n\t\t
12/07/2013 | \n\t\t\t9.64 | \n\t\t\t5.75 | \n\t\t
19/07/2013 | \n\t\t\t12.25 | \n\t\t\t3.28 | \n\t\t
26/07/2013 | \n\t\t\t10.60 | \n\t\t\t4.98 | \n\t\t
02/08/2013 | \n\t\t\t13.63 | \n\t\t\t6.34 | \n\t\t
09/08/2013 | \n\t\t\t10.59 | \n\t\t\t5.18 | \n\t\t
16/08/2013 | \n\t\t\t11.05 | \n\t\t\t4.60 | \n\t\t
23/08/2013 | \n\t\t\t14.31 | \n\t\t\t9.95 | \n\t\t
30/08/2013 | \n\t\t\t11.26 | \n\t\t\t5.46 | \n\t\t
06/09/2013 | \n\t\t\t13.36 | \n\t\t\t9.77 | \n\t\t
14/09/2013 | \n\t\t\t12.35 | \n\t\t\t9.60 | \n\t\t
25/09/2013 | \n\t\t\t9.97 | \n\t\t\t9.05 | \n\t\t
Total water losses from flooded rice system within lysimeters and outside in the field
The difference in water level within lysimeters and outside as shown in Figure 4 may have created a hydraulic difference (applicable to open-end type Lysimeters B and C only). At the end of irrigation (topping-up), water levels in and out of lysimeters remained at the same level. However, towards the end of the irrigation cycle, water levels inside the Lysimeters A and B remained higher than outside water level. But water level inside Lysimeter C remained lower than outside. Lysimeter A had closed bottom and therefore the difference in water level had no influence on measured values. In Lysimeter B, some water might have moved out due to the hydraulic difference created by different water levels in and out of the lysimeter. The implication of this effect was over estimation of deep percolation losses in this experiment and the actual value of deep percolation might be less than the reported value of 0.97 mm/day. On the other hand, water level inside Lysimeter C was lower than outside towards the end of the irrigation cycle. Therefore some water might have moved into the lysimeter due to the hydraulic difference and contributed to under estimation of transpiration losses in these experiments. In other words, the actual transpiration losses might be higher than the measured values.
The error in the measurement of transpiration and deep percolation due to the difference in water levels was calculated according to the procedure outlined by [53]. For Cununurra Clay soil, the value of hydraulic conductivity as 10-7 m/sec [34,47] and infiltration rate as 0.02 cm/min [43,47] were assumed in the calculation of error. For the lysimeter conditions that prevailed in this experiment, the error in the measurements of deep percolation and transpiration was found to be about ±2 per cent which was assumed to be negligible. Conditions such as larger diameter (50 cm) of the lysimeters, their deeper penetration (35 cm) into the soil, and smaller difference (<4 cm) in water levels have contributed to the negligible error in measurements in this experiment compared with the results reported by [53].
The water productivity values depend on the type of cereal crop under consideration and whether the crop evapotranspiration or the irrigation water is used in the calculation. In this study, water productivity was calculated with respect to the amount of water evaporated and transpired (WPET) and with respect to total water input (WPIR) [54-56].
where
Y is the grain yield expressed in g m-2
E is the evaporation expressed in kg water m-2
T is the transpiration expressed in kg water m-2
IR is the irrigation expressed in kg water m-2
RF is the rainfall expressed in kg water m-2
Note that no rainfall (RF) occurred during the trial period and the amount of irrigation (IR) is represented by Equation (7) that includes deep percolation losses as well. Water productivity expressed in different units can be compared using Equation (10) as:
The total water losses as measured by the lysimeters over the period of 90.5 days were 986.6 mm where 38% accounted for evaporation, 53% for transpiration and 9% for deep percolation. Ponded water was maintained for the rice crop in this trial for 112 days. Hence the above reported results were extrapolated to cover the entire duration of ponding of 112 days. This resulted in 1220.5 mm. According to conversion presented in Equation (3), 100 mm of water depth equals to 1 ML/ha, and therefore the total water loss would be approximately 12.21 ML/ha. No drainage occurred before harvest as the last application of irrigation water was allowed to be used by the crop during grain ripening stage. It can be assumed that the two flushings carried out before the permanent water must have used a further 1 ML/ha in total. Therefore the 2013 rice crop total water usage amounts to 13.21 ML/ha. This compares well with the rice crop water use of 18.4 ML/ha for conventional ponded rice grown on a flat layout at Coleambally in New South Wales in Australia [57]. Compared with other crops such as sugar cane in the Ord River Irrigation Area which requires approximately 18 ML/ha of water, i.e. 12 ML/ha during dry seasons and 6 ML/ha during wet seasons [58], rice appears to require less water.
Mean grain yields of five varieties tested at this site during the trial (Figure 10) varied from 5.76 t/ha (for the variety, Doongara) to 12.66 t/ha (for the variety, Viet 1). The average yield of all five varieties was found to be 9.74 t/ha. These five varieties and the buffer shared equal proportions in area for the bay used in this study. No attempt was made to determine the grain yield of buffer (IR 72) where lysimeters were located. However, visual assessment of the buffer area indicated a yield similar to 9-10 t/ha was possible for this variety, IR 72. Hence, the overall average yield of 9.74 t/ha was used to calculate the water productivity values for this experiment.
Mean yield of varieties tested at the trial site (error bars indicate standard error).
A value from 0.42 to 0.60 kg/m3 has been cited for rice water productivity in Australia [59]. In contrast, a trial in south-eastern Australia found that the water use efficiency of conventional ponded rice was 0.68 t/ML [57]. In the Philippines, under flooded conditions, water productivity with respect to total water input (WPIR) ranged from 0.22 to 0.34 g grain kg-1 water and WPET ranged from 1.50 to 2.12 g grain kg-1 water [42]. A trial in India indicated that water productivity in continuous flooded rice was typically 0.2–0.4 g grain per kg water [55]. The average water productivity of rice for conventional method (transplanted puddled rice) in Punjab in Pakistan varied from 0.27 kg/m3 [60] to 0.34 kg/m3 [61]. In the present study, water productivity as calculated with respect to the amount of water evaporated and transpired (WPET) was 0.73 t/ML and with respect to total water input (WPIR) was 0.74 t/ML. The value for WPET reported in this study was lower than that reported by [42]. However, the value for WPIR in this study was significantly higher than those reported in references [42,55,57,59-61]. Hence the conventional ponded rice culture similar to that adopted in this trial was highly efficient for rice production on Cununurra clay in the tropical environment, specifically for the variety IR 72 and for the environmental conditions experienced during the dry season of 2013.
Water will be a major constraint for agriculture in coming decades, particularly in Asia and Africa. In densely populated arid areas, such as Central and West Asia, and North Africa, water is scarce and availability of water is projected to be less than 1 ML per capita per year. This scarcity of water relates to irrigation water for food production [19]. To increase crop yield per unit of scarce water requires both better cultivars and better agronomy. Under field conditions, the upper limit of water productivity of cereal crops is estimated to be around 20 kg.ha-1.mm-1 (grain yield per water used, equivalent to 2 t/ML) [62]. If the water productivity value is less than this, it can be due to major crop stresses other than water, such as weeds, pests, diseases, poor nutrition, or other soil limitations. Under these circumstances, the greatest improvement can be achieved from alleviating these issues first.
In response to water scarcity and environmental concerns, the amount of water input per unit irrigated area will have to be reduced. Water productivity of rice is projected to increase in many countries through gains in crop yield and/or reductions in irrigation water. Selecting locally adapted modern varieties have potential to lift the yield level in many rice growing areas. For example, a rice variety from Vietnam tested in the tropical climate of the Ord River Irrigation Area achieved a highest yield of 14.3 t/ha in this environment [14]. Saving water is possible by reducing seepage, percolation and runoff losses from fields. This requires that the components of the water balance need to be quantified (similar to the study reported here).
A review of literature which reported on rice water productivity values for the tropical regions shows an average of 0.295 t/ML compared to 0.74 t/ML as found in this study. This difference in water productivity translates into about 2 ML of water saving for every tonne of rice produced in most tropical regions. If the world rice production is about 700 million tonnes and over 90 per cent of the world’s rice is produced in the Asian Region, the improved water productivity could save huge amount of irrigation water in the Asian region. With increasing water scarcity for irrigation, productivity of current rice production systems has to be improved substantially to feed an ever-increasing world population. It is vital to use locally adapted high yielding varieties together with appropriate water management techniques to achieve higher water productivity. Although seepage and runoff losses can be minimised, deep percolation losses are difficult to control. Puddling is a technique used to minimise deep percolation losses. However, direct dry seeding techniques are widely used to save labour costs. In this case, more attention must be paid towards choosing appropriate soil types for flooded rice production systems.
Many technologies appear to save substantial amounts of water through reducing irrigation water requirements. For example, a shallow intermittent irrigation saved 32% of irrigation water compared to traditional deep water irrigation without any effect on yield in Korea [63]. Another study in Panjab in Pakistan found that the direct seeding of rice saved 25% water compared to conventional method of transplanted rice and water productivity increased from 0.27 kg/m3 for conventional method to 0.32 kg/m3 for direct seeding [60]. Similar improvement of water productivity was reported by [61] for direct seeding method for rice (0.41 kg/m3) compared with conventional method (0.34 kg/m3). Note that the present trial reported here used the direct seeding technique to save irrigation water requirement.
It is questionable whether moving away from ponded rice culture to more aerobic rice culture results in improved water productivity. A trial conducted at Coleambally in New South Wales in Australia found that the water use efficiency of the raised bed system (0.55 t/ML) was lower than the conventional ponded rice (0.68 t/ML) [57]. Yield was reduced from 12.7 t/ha in the conventional method to 9.4 t/ha in the furrow irrigated bed treatment in this trial. In terms of irrigation water use, furrow treatment used 17.2 ML/ha while the ponded treatment used 18.4 ML/ha. The increase in length of growing season for the bed treatment also increased the period of irrigation, thus reducing the potential for water savings.
Rice grows well and produces best under flooded conditions but large amount of water is needed for this system. However, reducing water use through an aerobic system of rice production that eliminates maintenance of ponded water is necessary to mitigate a looming water crisis. There is no doubt that increased demand for food will be met by the products of irrigated agriculture. To evaluate the potential of aerobic rice system in the tropics, a field trial on aerobic rice was conducted at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) [64]. This study found that aerobic rice saved 73% of irrigation water for land preparation and 56% during the crop growth stage. However, aerobic rice yields were lower by an average of 28% in the dry season and 20% lower in wet season. Yunlu 29 (a tropical variety from Yunnan Province in China which is adapted to aerobic conditions) has shown potential for high yield (10-12 t/ha) in the Ord River Irrigation Area under optimum moisture conditions [15,65]. Further experiments and breeding of varieties better suited to aerobic conditions are needed.
Financial support from Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) in Australia and Rice Research Australia Pty Ltd (RRAPL) for this study is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks also to Richard George, Mark Warmington, Craig Palmer and Don Bennett for their assistance with the project.
Modern automobiles have made a significant contribution to the growth of society and humankind. Automobile vehicles and power train technology refined over the century of focused hard work by automobile engineering and scientist. Modern internal combustion engine propelled automobiles have satisfied multiple needs humankind in everyday life. It is difficult to imagine a world without automobiles in the present time [1]. The contribution of bearing to enhance the performance of automobiles is also immense. Bearings play’s a critical role in the enhancement of any rotating systems performance by bearing loads and facilitating the load transfer with minimum friction in addition to other functions. All rotating components of automobile systems require bearings to do its functions appropriately. Bearings improve the performance of the automobiles by supporting heavy loads and reducing friction. Major automobile sub-systems where bearings are implemented are internal combustion engines, transmissions, wheels, steering, pumps, and other electrical systems.
\nHowever, the popularity of automobiles, population density in the urban areas as well as rapidly growing urbanization has negatively impacted the environment. It raised health-related concerns to humans as well as other habitats. Internal combustion engines played the critical role of being prime mover for automobiles however, it is also a major source of pollution in urban areas due to the burning of fossil fuels and its by-products like CO2, NOx, etc. In recent times focus on emission control from regularity bodies, country specific laws are increasing which is pushing researchers to look for solutions beyond internal combustion engines. In recent times electric powertrains, hybrid powertrains have already proven to be the strong alternatives to conventional engines.
\nPresent time, the global automobile industry is focusing on clean transportation solutions including hybrid and battery electric drives. Automobiles are typically considered person-driven, personal transportation internal combustion engine (fossil fuel) propelled and independently operated transportation medium. In present times automobiles (passenger vehicles) are majorly part of personal transportation, however, incoming times the way automobiles are being utilized in practice is transforming toward shared mobility, autonomous vehicles.
\nThe automobile industry is experiencing a major technology shift. Connected, Autonomous, Shared, and Electrified (CASE) are major technology trends in the automobile utilization and technology development (Figure 1).
\nMega trends in automobile industry.
Shared mobility is more of productive utilization of vehicle and related technology which connects vehicle or operator via internet-based communication for sharing the vehicle. Basically, vehicle ownership and utilization are extended for more productive utilization vehicle. Modern information technology, internet, and availability of electronic hardware making it feasible to ensure vehicle to vehicle, vehicle to device communication, and improve vehicle utilization to improve the uptime of vehicles. Modern automobiles are expected to utilize to its maximum potential, so it is becoming imperative to monitor the health of the system in real-time.
\nThe electrification of the powertrain is another megatrend in the automobile industry. The electric vehicle powertrain is a major shift from fossil fuel-based prime mover (engine) to battery operated electric motors as a prime mover. Electrified vehicles are more efficient, less polluting making it a more transportation friendly solution. Electrification of powertrains is a major technology shift in which the propulsion of vehicles needs a lesser number of rotating parts as well as it simplifies the complete powertrain. Electric powertrains operate at lower cost as well.
\nIn the present time, commuting to work in dense traffic is putting additional stress on vehicle operators and waste of precious productive time. Autonomous operation is the solution to these new challenges. Automobiles are using more electronics hardware than ever before due to these added functionalities. Driver assisted operation as well as complete autonomous drive powertrains are implemented in practice in modern automobiles. Real-time health monitoring of vehicle is important for the trouble-free operation as well as the safety of passengers in modern era vehicles.
\nAs the automobile powertrain technologies are changing it is also percolating to critical components/subsystems like bearing. Modern vehicle bearings are far refined and technologically superior compare to traditional automobiles bearings. They are having multiple additional functionalities over the primary bearing functions. This chapter is about understanding the role of bearings in modern automobiles vehicles to achieve the mega technology shift in the automobile industry. The subsequent text introduces bearing technology research focus areas like reliability improvement, power-dense solutions, integrated functions, friction optimization, sealing/lubrication solutions [2], adoption of sensors, and also special application-specific eMotors bearings.
\nModern automobile powertrains are working on the same engineering principles however, they are having far superior performance compare former powertrains. Modern powertrains are an integrated mechanical, electrical and electronics system to achieve the objective of lesser emission, better fuel efficiency, and higher overall efficiency. The modern powertrain can be classified into two major categories: Hybrid powertrain and battery electric powertrain.
\nHybrid powertrains are having dual power sources like internal combustion engine and motor + battery arranged in multiple layouts like parallel, series, balanced, etc.
\n\nFigure 2 is a typical layout of a hybrid powertrain. It can be observed in the figure that the complete powertrain is having all the systems of a conventional powertrain including an internal combustion engine, transmissions and additionally it is also having a battery and motor to support the vehicle propulsion.
\nTypical hybrid powertrain layout [3].
In a hybrid powertrain number of bearings are more compare to the conventional powertrain. The bearings are used in the engine, transmission, motors, and transfer case. The hybrid powertrains are having more rotating parts however, this powertrain runs efficiently as all special events in operations like peak power requirements are fulfilled by the battery powered electric motor.
\nFull battery-electric vehicle powertrains are simpler in construction and having lesser rotating components. Battery electric vehicle powertrains are also having multiple configurations like traction motor + transmission, independent in-wheel motors for each wheel, etc.
\n\nFigure 3 is a typical layout of a battery-electric powertrain, in which it is having a floor-mounted battery pack and traction motor drive for driving the wheels. Compare to conventional ICE vehicles this layout is simple and efficient. A lesser number of rotating parts means there are lesser possibilities of parts damage due to wear and tear and hence the system life is higher. This is one of the reasons Battery Electric vehicles are claimed to have higher life as well as OEMs offers longer warranty period. However, electric vehicles are having other challenges like higher speed, higher operating temperatures of parts, and risk of fire due electric system. It is important to mention here that batteries used in electric vehicles need proper cooling to operate at prescribed temperature limit to have extending time for battery discharge as well as minimizing other risks.
\nTypical full battery electric powertrain layout [4].
Refer Figure 4, which is indicating the battery packs construction in battery electric vehicles and its stacking, connection to electric motors.
\nTypical battery pack in battery-electric powertrain [5].
In the previous section, two main types of the modern powertrain are discussed i.e. hybrid power train and full battery-electric powertrains.
\nIn this section, a comparison of different types of powertrains is presented (refer Figures 5–7).
\nBattery electric vehicle powertrain.
Multiple parameters influence the selection of the powertrains types to implement in the vehicle such as vehicle operating range, power requirements, charging time, cost, availability of access to charging infrastructure, etc.
\nBattery electric vehicles powertrains (refer Figure 5) are comparatively simples in the structure. These vehicles operate very efficiently. However, they need significant time for the recharging so the vehicle will be down until it recharges. It is expensive to increase vehicle travel distance range mainly due to battery prices.
\nA hybrid power train (refer Figure 6) utilizes the current powertrain configuration and adds the battery/emotors to enhance the performance of the powertrain as well as extend the operating range by improving the fuel efficiency of the internal combustions’ engine. It does not require an exclusive charging infrastructure as it primarily runs on fossil fuels. However, this powertrain does have emission-related concerns and having more number of rotating parts makes the powertrain complex due to effective management of dual power sources is essential optimum performance.
\nHybrid electric powertrains (HEV).
Practically, environmental impact due to fuel should be considered from well to tailpipe or from the source of raw material to conversion into power for vehicle propulsion. Considering this criterion battery vehicles are not completely emission-free vehicles. In a true sense, fuel cell vehicles (refer Figure 7) are practically green vehicles as they are not emitting any emission to the environment. Fuel cell powertrain uses hydrogen as prime energy source and utilizes chemical reactions process to charge the battery. Post electric energy conversion hydrogen atoms react with oxygen and forms water (H2O) which gets emitted from the tailpipe. Battery electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles are having similar configurations except in addition to battery storage the fuel cell vehicles also require hydrogen fuel storage.
\nFuel cell vehicle powertrain.
Conventional ICE automatic transmission [6].
All the modern powertrains are available commercially, however, its penetration is driven by multiple commercial factors including acquisition cost, operation cost, and ease of re-charging (refueling). All these modern powertrain configurations uses multiple types of bearings in the powertrain including deep groove ball bearings, needle roller bearings, special ceramic rolling element bearings with many other features to provide intended functions in the vehicles which are discussed in the following sections.
\nIn modern powertrain, bearings are utilized not only for primary functions i.e. supporting the load and reducing the friction but also bearings are used with multiple other integrated functions like signal transmitting device on the motor, rotor positioning sensing bearings, etc.
\nIn conventional powertrain bearings, functions are limited to its primary functions to support operating load on the shaft and facilitate the torque transfer smoothly.
\nAdditional functions like lower the noise, the vibration of the system, and providing stiffness to the shaft system are few of the expected functions of bearing in the powertrain.
\nHowever, modern powertrains are having different requirements from the bearing considering constrains like lower weight, space as well as demanding operating conditions includes higher temperatures, speeds, inability to lubrication as well as longer service intervals, or no service for the design life of the system. The role of bearing is changing in modern automobiles. This demanding operating requirements putting immense pressure on bearing performance and achieving the desired specifications of the bearings. The role of bearing is moving from shaft support component to system solution to achieve multiple performance parameters in the intended aggregates. Bearing plays the role of catapult for the system health monitoring utilizing the vibration signature on bearing for identifying, predicting, and proactively preventing the potential breakdown of the system. The modern electronics hardware and miniaturization of the sensors facilitate integration pf the same with bearing to achieve many other intended functionalities.
\nBattery electric powertrains run at higher rotational speed and having a higher operating temperature. Being an electric system ensuring the lubrication to rotating parts is one of the major challenges. Hence, maintenance-free silent operation is one of the critical technical requirements for the bearings. The bearing design must fulfill the criteria of high-speed operation, lower NVH characteristics, high-performance lubrication, and robust sealing to retain the lubrication inside the bearing as well as protecting the bearing raceways from foreign contaminations.
\nModern powertrains, particularly motors operates at a higher rate of acceleration as well as decelerations and to facilitate the same bearing design should be capable to handle the acceleration requirements. Inappropriately design of bearings can experience the functional as well as reliability issues in the system which may leads to system breakdown or reduced life the powertrain or also invite unwanted services of the system.
\nBearing load carrying capacity is required to be higher considering the higher power of the prime movers and availability of less space due to lower weight expected from the system. The design of bearing from geometry, material selection, and manufacturing process plays a critical role to achieve higher load carrying capacities in smaller envelope dimensions. The reduced the size of bearings facilitate lower overall system weight.
\nBearings are playing a mission-critical functions in modern automotive powertrains. A deeper understanding of applications and expected functionalities play a crucial role to design of appropriate bearing for the modern automobile systems.
\n\nFigure 8 illustrates the internal combustion engine vehicles’ conventional transmission. It can be observed that bearings in this transmission are having comparatively different technical requirements. The bearings are well lubricated, having comparatively lower speeds of operation.
\n\nFigure 9 is one of the EV power train configuration of modern electric vehicle transmission. Compare to conventional IC Engine vehicles the transmission layout is simpler in modern electric automotive vehicles. However, technical specifications and performance requirements of bearings are demanding.
\nTraction motor EV powertrain.
Application and intended function in the aggregate is having an influence on the selection of bearings as well as on the performance of bearing. It is important to understand the bearing working environment, technical requirements, and application details for optimizing the performance [7]. Different aggregate applications are having different technical requirements that need to be fulfilled by bearing for optimum performance of the system. In this section, different aggregate and technical requirements of bearing in these aggregates are discussed,
\nAutomobile transmission facilitates speed and torque variation as per vehicle requirements and support engine to run in optimum performance range. The transmission system is having gears, shafts, shift system, and bearings arranged in the housing which perform speed and torque variation function together in coordination with the control system.
\nTransmission bearings are having multiple requirements to achieve the desired functions, some of them are mentioned below,
\nTransmission bearings experience combined axial and radial loads during the operation based on types of gears as well as shaft arrangement. The magnitude of the load depending upon the bearing position, gear arrangement, and torque transmission. The transmission bearings must be capable of handling these varying speeds and loads.
\nVehicle powertrains are becoming compact due to the availability of space and emphasize on the reduction of the overall weight of vehicles. Power dense bearings that are capable to carry higher loads in a smaller size are the key selection criteria of bearings for modern transmission. Power density for the bearing is achieved with the usage of better material cleanliness from commonly used bearing materials like 100Cr6, 52100 with stringent specification of nonmetallic inclusions, oxygen content etc., optimized geometry, and precise manufacturing of bearings. It is worth mentioning here that each bearing manufacturer are having its own material specifications customized based on common bearing material chemistry. Most common bearing materials are SAE 52100, DIN 100Cr6, SUJ1, SUJ2 and many more.
\nSystem efficiency is largely influenced by friction. Bearing contributes to the transmission system largely. Generally, Sealed bearings are having more friction compared to open bearings. Transmission bearings selection must have consideration of the friction.
\nModern automobiles particularly battery electric vehicles operate quietly. In the case of ICE, the engine noise suppresses some of the bearing noise, however, in modern automobiles bearings, noise is one of the major concerns. It is expected bearings with lower noise are implemented in the transmission system. In addition to noise, vibration and harshness are also to be given due consideration for the transmission bearings.
\nAutomobile manufacturers specify the system level NVH requirements and typically bearing noise requirements are derived from system level requirements. However, very few manufacturers are having clearly defined NVH specifications for bearing. It is common practice in bearing industry to specify the bearing vibration level and measure at the end of the bearing assembly line. Each bearing manufacturer is having its specification for noise quality level of bearing. Low dB, Gen C, Q44 and other bearing manufacturer internal nomenclature of bearings quality classes have been developed and specified accordingly [8]. Low-frequency noise is barely audible while high-frequency vibration does not audible to human ear. Hence noise problems at low frequency are categorized as “vibration problems” and at high frequency vibration are as “noise problems”. As a rule of thumb, the arbitrary border separating vibration problems from noise problems is 1000 Hz. In other words, below 1000 Hz is vibration and above 1000 Hz is considered as sound or noise [8].
\nModern automobile transmissions are expected to be assembly and disassembly friendly considering the automation of the manufacturing process. Complex adjustment during bearing assemblies also calls for a complex assembly process, higher assembly time which increases the overall manufacturing process complexity as well as capacities.
\nIt is expected the bearings implemented in the transmission systems are assembly as well as disassembly friendly. Most suitable bearings need to have a minimum or no adjustment during the assembly.
\nLower viscosity lubricants with multiple other additives and chemicals are used as lubricants of the transmission for the reasons like reducing the churning losses in the system etc. However, lubricants in the system having influence on the bearing selection and bearing must be suitable to operate and compatible with lubricants in the transmission. Additionally, the sealed bearing application is also common in modern transmissions, so compatible seal material should be selected to avoid damage or performance issues.
\nBearing field issues analysis over the years suggests that external contamination, poor lubrication, and abusive operating conditions are major reasons for premature bearing failure. However, in modern powertrains, it is expected that bearing manufacturers should consider these conditions and develop bearing suitable to operate or having better capabilities to handle these operating conditions.
\nA hybrid powertrain utilizes dual power sources and one of the prominent power sources is the internal combustion engine. The importance of engine is prominent even though electric battery-powered vehicles are penetrating its presence. Engine is one of the great innovations of our time and will be around for many reasons. It is expected that more than half of the vehicles will be transformed into electric, but still majority will be hybrid vehicles. Engine bearings are having some typical requirements and some of them are mentioned below,
\nThe engine converts chemical energy into thermal/mechanical energy via the fuel-burning process. The engine operates at elevated temperatures due to fuel burning. Engine bearings must have dimensional stability at elevated temperature in addition to other performance parameters. Bearing mounting and operating clearances are largely affected due to different materials and their expansion rates.
\nEngine loads and speeds are varying during the operation. Bearing kinetic should be considered for varying speeds and loads. Rolling bearings use on crankshaft and camshaft is increased in recent time. However, at the connecting rod end, needle bearings or journal bearing are commonly used in an engine for multiple reasons including varying load and speeds.
\nCrankshaft bearings are positioned bottom of the crankcase in the engine. The engine piston is reciprocating (sliding motion), so the wear of the engine part is not uncommon. However, wear particles are mixed in the oil contaminate the oil. Engine oil is the primary source of lubrication to bearings. The contaminated oil is having a negative influence on bearing operation and due consideration should be given to have good performance of bearing in this condition. Special heat treatment can be considered on the bearings rolling elements and raceways in such demanding operating conditions. Optimum ball pass frequencies selection is also important to ensure the hunting of rolling elements is not affecting the raceways or rolling element.
\nEngine bearing mounting and dismounting is one of the important considerations, not only from a service, assembly perspective but also from the operational performance perspective. Appropriate fits must be applied to the bearing to ensure bearing is loaded and operates in favorable clearance zone. Wrong selection of fits can lead to catastrophic damages to bearing with prolonged use.
\nBattery electric vehicles are using motors as prime mover of the vehicle. Hybrid powertrain vehicles are also uses motors to propel the vehicle. Traction motors used in vehicles are having many special technical requirements that are different from conventional motors.
\nSome typical requirements are discussed in the following session,
\nTraction motors bearing arrangement plays an important role in bearing selection. In most of the traction motors application two bearing arrangement (drive and non-drive end) is preferred. However, integration of transmission and motors is also common practice in electric powertrain due to which three inline bearings arrangement is also implemented.
\nThe bearing arrangement adds complexity to the overall bearing system and the need for the appropriate distribution of bearing loads. Comparatively, two bearing arrangement is simple compare to three bearings arrangements.
\nThe traction motors that drive vehicles are required to run at very high speeds – up to 30,000 rpm, or almost three times the speed of the typical industrial motor. This high-speed operation places enormous strain on the bearings in the system. High-speed operation of bearing calls for special raceway geometry as well as separator designs to handle the additional centrifugal forces.
\nIn the conventional system, lubrication oil dissipates the heat from the system and ensure the specific operating temperature. However, in electric motors heat dissipation is done via a cooling fan. Additionally, bearings are running at high speed, so the heat generation rate is higher hence the operating temperature. Motor bearing with seals and grease must have the ability to retain the lubricant inside the bearing at elevated temperature.
\nMotor bearings are expected to operate at lower noise and lower vibrations. This is one of the key requirements for the motor bearings considering the high speed of operation, varying loads, and acceleration.
\nMotor bearings are expected to be maintenance free so the grease selection, seal selection plays a major role in bearings performance and life.
\nElectric motors are very responsive to vehicle operating conditions. Motors accelerate as well as decelerate faster compare to ICE. The bearings must be designed to handling this rapid acceleration as well as deceleration. Rolling element separators, raceways geometry should be designed appropriately. Rapid acceleration and deceleration generate sliding motion in the bearing which can lead to damage to bearing raceways or other surfaces. In extreme acceleration and deceleration conditions, may result in catastrophic bearing damage or malfunction of bearing.
\nPresent bearings are made up of bearing steel material which is good conductor of electric current. In electric motor current passed though the bearing for any reason is detrimental to bearing function. However, motor feature that can affect conventional steel bearings is the high-frequency voltage switching of the inverter that produces current leakage, particularly at high motor speeds. This current leakage can pass through the bearing and causes, surface damage like surface pitting also called fluting. The initial stage of surface damage generates bearing noise, but the advance stage of surface damage can be catastrophic.
\nFront End Accessories Drive (FEAD) system is a combination of multiple subsystem drives in the vehicle for the purpose like air condition compressor drive or alternator drive etc. The system requires basic requirements like axial and radial loads, static load carrying capacity, dynamic load-carrying capacity, speed, or rpm. However, the FEAD system requirement range beyond basic load-carrying capacities. Modern automobiles are expected to provide more comfort, steering pumps and air conditioner compressors have been added to the FEAD system in addition to alternator or BSG system. Modern automobiles are using comparatively more electronics parts/system operates using electricity which are rising the battery charging capacity. The charging capacity of alternators has increased its size, accordingly, leading to a rise in the amount of torque to be transferred to alternators. The increased torque transfer demands from higher load capacities for the FEAD system bearings.
\nBelow are few technical requirements of FEAD system bearings,
\nFEAD systems are running at higher speeds like alternators are running in excess of 20000 rpm, the bearing must-have capability to handle the system increased speed. Additionally, the tendency of the engine running at a slower idle speed is also implying bearing selection due to extended time slower speed operations.
\nAcceleration and deceleration handling requirements coming from higher system speed, variation in loads.
\nLower friction is a common requirement for all the modern automobile system bearings that are also applicable for FEAD system bearings.
\nHigher emphasis on the compact and lower weight of the system demands for lower size of the bearing with a higher load-carrying capacity.
\nHigher operating temperature due to proximity to the engine as well as higher operating speed requires bearings seals, lubrication as well as dimensional stability at the higher operating temperature. The alternator bearings are expected to work at 180 to 200 Deg C temperature.
\nMaintenance-free operation is predominantly driven from no lubrication to bearing for life and sealing performance. The seals should be capable of running for the life of the vehicle and retain the lubricant inside the bearing.
\nThe wheel bearings enable low-resistance rotations of the wheels by transferring axial and radial forces and support for wheel hub, wheel, and brake disc or brake drum. In modern automobiles, the wheel bearings are equipped with sensors that send rotational speed signals to driver assistance systems like ABS, ESP, etc. [9]. The wheel bearings perform multiple functions, some of them are listed below,
\nWheel bearing provides support to wheels, so rotation accuracy of bearing facilitates the guidance to the wheel. It is an important function for vehicle stability and control during operation.
\nWheel bearings are expected to have a lower weight. However, higher stiffness or rigidity requirement is an important consideration for wheel guidance and vehicle stability. As modern automobiles are having higher road speeds achieving safety of vehicle wheel bearings plays an important role.
\nUnbalanced wheel bearing adds the unsprung mass to the system which affects the vehicle driving dynamics. As the speed of the vehicle increases the unsprung mass becomes more detrimental from the driving dynamics perspectives.
\nWheel bearings are subjected to many unknown forces due to constant changing road conditions and speeds, corners, and other conditions. The wheel bearings must be capable of absorbing the external loads without affecting the performance.
\nIn operation, the wheel bearing is subjected to many unusual conditions like contact with mud, dirt, undulations, etc. However, in modern automobiles wheel bearing is expected to sustain all the working conditions without or with minimal need for maintenance. In addition to bearing design, lubricant and seal performance is an important parameter for long service life.
\nBearing should be stable in all aspects with all operating temperature ranges and perform as per the intended level. Temperatures can affect the preload of the bearing which can be detrimental for bearing performance.
\nAs mentioned in the transmission system section, modern manufacturing considerations like automatic assembly, less complex mounting to reduce the complexity in the assembly process as well as at service time (Figures 10 and 11).
\nThe steering system controls the direction of the vehicle, so the steering system bearings are having typical requirements to receive the feedback as well as facilitate the execution the operators’ intended command to operate the vehicle with minimum lag in the system.
\nSteering system bearing must have lower frictional torque for the system to be responsive.
\nHigher frictional torque adds operator fatigue as well as a slow response from the steering system which can influence the effective functioning of the vehicle control system.
\nSteering system bearing must have higher rigidity to enhance the system integrity as well as to achieve the system responsiveness and removing any sluggishness in the system.
\nAll the bearings should have a lower wear rate, however, the steering system bearing it is critical requirements. The higher wear rate of bearings calls for frequent system adjustments or malfunctioning of the system operation.
\nSuspension system bearing relates to comfort and vehicle stability. Suspension system bearing have some unique requirements are mentioned below considering other requirements are common with other bearings as well.
\nSuspension system bearings are connecting vehicle chassis with suspension/shock absorbers, so movement in response to road conditions should smooth.
\nSuspension bearing requires a self-aligning function considering the movement. It is expected that bearing should self-align without requirements of any additional external force for smooth operation.
\nSuspension bearings support and locate to shock absorbers so it should function to provide the full deflection of the shock absorber.
\nSuspension bearing connects the suspension system with the vehicle body so any noise or undulation coming from the system results in noise. The bearing should be capable to isolate such noise from the vehicle body. A non-metallic bearing body is one of the ways to achieve this function.
\nIn general, bearings play a significant role in vital aggregates to achieve the intended objective of modern automobiles. A deeper understanding of technical requirements and intended functions help bearing engineering to provide the most appropriate solutions which optimizes vehicle performance.
\n\nFigure 12 summarizes the requirements of bearings in modern automobiles and available options to achieve the same.
\nElectric vehicle transmission.
Refer to the discussions of the last section it can be observed that bearings requirements are driving trouble-free operations, longer service life, the lower total cost of ownership, compact construction, lower friction, noise, better sealing performance as well as integrated functions.
\nBearing engineers achieve these requirements in the right proportionately blending and integrating engineering know-how of different bearing materials, manufacturing processes like heat treatment, surface finishes, and geometries. Long service life functions are achieved with lubricants, better sealing in addition to optimized geometries and design parameters. Integrated functions and application-specific solutions make bearing versatile with few additional features to be used for multiple applications.
\nModern automobiles are improved by challenging the status quo as well as by adopting the technology changes to current level of performance. The modern automobiles are also empowering and enforcing bearings innovations and technological limits to further enhance the performance of the vehicles.
\nPatent filing data provide great insights about the innovation areas in the industry. In order to understand the bearing technology development focus areas patent analysis is performed on last 10 years of global patents filing in bearing area, modern automobiles. Figure 13 is a word cloud plot of 11,300 patents titles in bearing, modern automobiles areas filed in different global patent offices. The word cloud analysis provides quick insights into the analysis areas based on the frequency of keywords in the analysis data. It does not provide in-depth analysis; however, it is a good way of understanding the focus areas in technology development and the direction industry’s research is leading.
\nElectric vehicle transmission.
Rolling bearing and bearing assembly is an obvious appearing word in the patent title hence not considered for further analysis discussion (Figure 13).
\nBearing requirements and means to achieve in bearings.
Word cloud analysis pointing more research is being focused on electric motor bearings, bearing cage, sealing, anti-friction, fluid dynamics, lubrication (areas generally connected with the higher speed of operation), bearing steel, sintered bearing (areas indicating the material related research), motor control, sensors, active hub, load detection, level adjustment, abnormality detection (areas indicates the focus on bearing plus integrated functions like sensorization), camshaft, crankshaft, magnetic bearing, sealing devices, axial bearings (indicates areas of special bearing development, application-specific solutions development), special bearings in the current family of bearings also is the areas of technological research. Patent filing analysis is good indicator of the technology areas and direction.
\nInteractions with the automobile industry players are also summarized for connecting the technology focus areas with customer mandate or request for solutions. These areas can also be considered customer challenges, pain areas, or directions for the modern automobile development.
\nModern automobile powertrain and system customer’s voice is captured in two fundamental buckets i.e. must-have requirements (highly desirable) and good to have (differentiating) requirements.
\nHigh-speed bearings, high operating temperature, current insulations or conduction, lower friction bearings, power-dense solutions, and lower noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) solutions are highly desired by automotive customers. However, long life, maintenance-free, better reliability, integrated functions, condition monitoring, sensor bearings, lower weight bearings are considered as differentiating features.
\nPatent analysis and modern automobile customer’s voices are having a high level of similitude to interpret that bearing technology development customer requirements are indicating future development trends for the bearing. The above analysis also indicates that bearings are playing a vital role in automobiles and will also play a vital role in modern automobiles in the future.
\nIn the previous section, it is mentioned that haptic requirements from bearings are fulfilled with blending the bearing constituents in different proportions. In this section, some of the key influencers are discussed which facilitate the bearing technology development as well as achieving the modern automobiles bearing requirements.
\n\nFigure 15 is a summary of different constituents of bearings is its influence on bearing requirement achievement.
\nBearing technology focus word cloud plot of patent analysis.
Typically, bearing materials are the backbones to achieve the bearings’ fundamental functions. Different grades of materials can be implemented based on the intended requirements of the application. Bearing materials also facilitate next processes like heat treatment, machining, and many other parameters.
\nHeat treatment of bearing is very important to achieve the next level requirements of bearing. Standard heat treatment also called through hardening is commonly used to all-purpose bearings. However, if the bearings are required to operate in the demanding operating conditions, appropriate special heat treatment can be considered to enhance the bearing utility to application.
\nBearing geometry plays a role in bearing friction, NVH, and different load handing areas. Bearings geometries need to be applied based on expected application requirements. Accuracy and functional requirement need to be well balanced to achieve economics.
\nLarge number lubricants are available based on application requirements. The right selection of lubricants and seals increases the bearing utility in the application. Many times, multiple application requirements can be achieved by applying suitable sealing/lubricant on the fundamentally same bearings (Figures 14 and 15).
\nModern automobile “Voice of Customers” for bearings requirements.
Means of achieving intended bearing functions for modern automobiles.
The left side of Figure 15, summarizes the special or application-specific functional requirement fulfilling means of bearings. Customization of bearings is addressing the exact application needs however, customized solutions make bearing special and expensive.
\nReliability improvement of bearing relates to bearing performance and service life in the actual application. Reliability improvement of bearing means increasing the mean time between failure of bearing.
\nBearing reliability can be improved by implementing special consideration to demanding operating conditions with special heat treatment, better materials, lesser intervention from the operator by unitized bearings, increasing wear resistance, implementing the better lubricants, tighter manufacturing tolerances.
\nBearing life can be increased by multifold by right selection of heat treatment like compare to through hardening heat treatment, case hardening heat treatment (CN) can give 2 to 5 times more life to bearing in contaminated working environment. In addition to base material bearings can be coated to increase resistance of bearing in specific working condition. Carbide based coatings are popular in some application, alumina material coatings are used for electrical insulations.
\nPower dense solutions related to more load carrying capacity per unit bearing size. As mentioned in the last sections, the bearings are catalysts to achieve a lower weight of the aggregate. Weight is the enemy for vehicle performance particularly in electric vehicles as it directly influences range as well as battery capacity. Lower size of bearings accumulates lesser space as well is makes the aggregate system compact. An additional advantage of power-dense bearing it utilizes lesser material, so it is also another means of achieving environmentally friendly solutions.
\nCurrent bearing material development and steel cleanliness is increase material mechanical properties. Additionally, manufacturing technologies increased control over the tolerances are enabling the power dense solution. Typically, 20 to 30% higher load carrying capacity can be improved within same envelope of bearings with right selection of material, geometries and manufacturing process including heat treatment.
\nIn recent times, frugal engineering is typically connected with terms like “more for less”. In this text, integrated functions can relate to frugal engineering and can be termed as “more functions per bearing”. Bearings can be attached with sensors and utilize for the position, speed as well as direction signals. Bearings are integrated with multiple functions like in new generation wheel bearings brake and wheel mountings are combined with bearings. Integrated bearing functions support compactness, reliability improvement, however, in some cases also adds complexity.
\nFriction optimization solutions are intended to achieve better efficiency, lower losses in the bearing. Type of bearing and depending upon the application requirements bearing friction level can be achieved with the manufacturing process and tighter specification controls. Generally, bearing friction is a function of multiple factors like internal geometry, type of seals, material, lubricant, and the rolling element grade. Kinetics of bearing also plays a role in achieving the optimum friction of bearing. Adjustment in assembly, preload requirements, and assembly process influence final friction behavior of bearing in the application.
\nLower friction of bearings directly contributes to wear performance as well as the efficiency of the system.
\n\nFigure 16 depicts the typical wheel bearing friction rate. Conventionally, vehicle manufacturers were assembling different parts together including bearings into wheel hubs. However, this arrangement is not effective considering the performance parameters. Hub 1 bearing is integration of two bearing into one, so it provides 10 to 15% better friction rate, Hub 2 is further improvement having integration of out race of bearing into housing and it provided 10 to 15% friction reduction compare Hub 1. Currently most of the modern automobiles are using Hub3 which are complete integration of bearing and wheel mounting.
\nTypical wheel bearing friction rate.
This arrangement provides 50 to 60% friction reduction compare to conventional arrangements and additional 10 to 12% improvement compare to hub 2 arrangement.
\nModern automobiles are targeting maintenance-free or maintenance less and fit for life reliable systems. Bearing sealing and lubrication solutions play a vital role in the achieving maintenance and reliability target of the system. Type of sealing (seal material, geometry, type of contacts, etc.) and lubrication selection for the bearing directly affect the bearing performance in operating conditions like temperature, speed, and friction. Good sealing on the bearings also increases bearing resistance to operating condition likes keeping the contaminations out of bearing raceways. Sealed bearings are not only maintenance-friendly but also environmentally friendly too.
\n\nFigure 17 depict the importance of capping (sealing) type in the bearing. Non-contact type of capping is good when bearing need to contain the lubricant like grease into the bearing with fair protection against exclusions, however, contact types of seals gives excellent protection against exclusions as well as retention of lubricants. Low contact capping compromise based on application requirements. However, all these capping is having impact on power loss or additional friction in the system. Non-contact type of capping gives lowest power lost among the all the capping types. Contact type capping is having highest power loss compare to both the non-contact and contact type capping. Typically, low contact type seals are having 30 to 40% higher power lost compare to non-contact type. Contact type capping is having 35 to 45% higher power lost compare to low contact type capping and about 70 to 80% higher power loss compare to non-contact type capping.
\nComparison of different type of capping and power loss.
Modern automotive uses of electronics are increasing for vehicle control as well as operator comfort purposes. Vehicle control systems primarily need feedback from various systems which required sensor. Sensors are typically mounted on or around the critical rotating parts, hence sensors integrated bearings are a natural good choice for reliable signals. It is already proven that in rotating system’s generate unique vibration signatures on the support bearing. These unique vibration signals can be processed electronically for multiple vehicle systems health monitoring via sensors. Sensor bearings provides better location as well as the accuracy of the signal for different feedbacks like speed, load, temperatures, etc. for effective vehicle monitoring. The miniaturization of sensor technology is an opportunity for the integration of bearings and sensors for modern automobile sensing needs.
\nAbove bearing technology focus areas are covering major areas of eMotor bearings as well. However, some special requirements like current leakage and performance of bearing need special mention in this section (Figure 18).
\nModern automotive eMotor challenges.
High-frequency current passing through the bearing is detrimental for the bearing performance and there is a high probability of current leakage in eMotor bearings. If the current passed through the bearing generally results in “fluting” or micro pitting on the bearing races and start generating noise. The continued running of the bearing in this condition may encounter catastrophic damage. Bearing with special electric insulation coating, special materials for the rolling element (e.g. Ceramic) are developed and also under development for mass vehicle adoption by lowering cost. In addition to electric current insulations, technology development is also focused on electrical conduction solutions so the leakage current can be bypassed from the rolling area.
\nModern Automobiles technology is transforming to enable “connected, autmonomous, shared and electric (CASE). Modern automobile powertrain development is focused on higher efficiency, maintenance free (higher reliability), compactness, light weight and autonomous control using mechatronics capabilities. New generation powertrains utilize lighter materials, lesser number of components and integrated fuctions to achieve these objectives. Battery electric powertrains, hybrid power trains and hydrogen fueled fuel cell technologies are becoming popular in modern automobiles. Bearings are one of critical component (sub-system) to achieve modern powertrain’s demanding technical requirements. It is imperative to bearing engineers to understand critical technical requirements of modern automobiles aggregates functions and bearing performance expection. Understanding aggregate performance and expected bearing technical requirements facilitate optimized solution development. Bearing plays crucial role in enhancing efficiency, integrating the functions, facilitate the compactness to achieve the lightweight powertrain. Bearing technology development focus area concentrating to addressing the modern powertrain’s requirements. Bearing technology research and development areas focused on reliability improvement, power dense solutions, integrated functions, friction optimization, sealing/lubrication solutions, adoption of sensors and special application specific eMotors bearings. In addition to primary functions of bearing with the help of modern electronic technologies bearings are performing critical role of overall system health monitoring in the vehicle.
\nBearing research is typically aligned to applications requirements and trends of the machine’s technology. Modern automobiles are focusing more of passenger comfort with focus on autonomous driving, connected vehicles and electrification of vehicle. These technological requirements pushing bearing research more on sensorization, lower noise, vibration and harshness in addition to reliability improvement, maintenance free operation and application specific solutions. Bearing noise is one of the key concerns in modern powertrain specifically in electric drive trains. Bearing technologist are focusing on this aspect more than ever before. The bearing noise is directly connected to passenger comfort as well as overall system health. Bearing noise is also indication of system health as the issues with any part in the chain directly reflect to bearing vibrations. Leading bearing manufacturers are focusing on the sensor bearing technology as this feedback from vehicle critical parts is key to autonomation of modern automobile vehicles. Chronologically bearing research focus is more on application specific solutions, sensorization, maintenance operations. At system level bearings research is also focused on the “connected vehicle technologies” using on-board diagnostic using vibration signature identification capabilities at the bearing.
\nHowever, bearings are having furthermore potential to contribute and enhance role in modern automobiles in future. Future bearing technologies will focus more on the “bearing as a service” than typical product. Bearing as a service includes ability to collect the data, process the data and transfer the data for better understanding of vehicle dynamic behaviors. In modern automobiles bearing role will be second to electronics. The miniaturization of electronics complements to bearings utility exploitations and expansion to bearing space for additional functionalities. In modern automobiles the role bearings are as important and vital as the electronics considering potentials bearings provide for further integration and research.
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\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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