\r\n\tIn particular, this book presents topics related to Audio Signal Processing based on the different perspectives of the following: pattern recognition on audio, audio processing, forensic audio, digital filtering, and frequency analysis, and digital signal processing chip for audio, although other topics can be included, too. The most innovative advances on Audio Signal Processing will be included in this book, in order to show the reader, the new researched and developed approaches.
\r\n
\r\n\tSpecific cases of voice applications are welcome, where the Voice over IP (VoIP), internet of things (IoT), deep learning (DL) approaches, etc., are very useful including the recent technologies applied on voice and audio.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"95a662956526e566e5885e68c1d500ed",bookSignature:"Prof. Carlos M. Travieso-Gonzalez",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8213.jpg",keywords:"Pattern Recognition, Audio Identification, Audio Processing Algorithm, Audio Enhancer, Human Voice Patterns, Text to Speech, Forensic Audio Enhancement, Audio Evidence, Filtering Audio, Wavelet Analysis, Microprocessor for Audio, DSP for Audio",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 24th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 2nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 1st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 20th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 18th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his M.Sc. degree in 1997 in Telecommunication Engineering at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain; and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a Full Professor in Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition and Head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC; teaching from 2001 in subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification systems, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has taken part in 51 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 24 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals and up to 24 book chapters. He has had over 440 papers published in international journals and conferences (74 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published 7 patents with the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been supervisor on 8 PhD theses (12 more are under supervision), and 130 Master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI Conference series (and President of its steering committee), The InnoEducaTIC conference series, and The APPIS conference series. He is evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC – UK), Spanish Government (ANECA - Spain), Research National Agency (ANR - France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and Colombian Institutions. He has been reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<220) since 2001. He is a member of IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and member of IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. He will be ACM-APPIS 2021 General Chair and IEEE-IWOBI 2020 and 2020, and was ACM-APPIS 2020 General Chair, IEEE-IWOBI 2019, General Chair APPIS 2019 General Chair, IEEE-IWOBI 2018 General Chair, APPIS 2018 General Chair, InnoEducaTIC 2017 General Chair, IEEE-IWOBI 2017 General Chair, IEEE-IWOBI 2015 General Chair, InnoEducaTIC 2014 General Chair, IEEE-IWOBI 2014 General Chair, IEEE-INES 2013 General Chair, NoLISP 2011 General Chair, JRBP 2012 General Chair and IEEE-ICCST 2005 Co-Chair. He is Associate Editor for the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was Vice-Dean from 2004 to 2010 at the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers in ULPGC; and Vice-Dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, in the editions 2017, 2018 and 2019.",institutionString:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"24",title:"Technology",slug:"technology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6126",title:"Colorimetry and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f74525de04361957bd947a45b0e64378",slug:"colorimetry-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Carlos M. Travieso-Gonzalez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6126.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5783",title:"Motion Tracking and Gesture Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ca234174d55ac5bb4bd994cdf1541aa",slug:"motion-tracking-and-gesture-recognition",bookSignature:"Carlos M. Travieso-Gonzalez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5783.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6826",title:"The Use of Technology in Sport",subtitle:"Emerging Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f17a3f9401ebfd1c9957c1b8f21c245b",slug:"the-use-of-technology-in-sport-emerging-challenges",bookSignature:"Daniel Almeida Marinho and Henrique Pereira Neiva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6826.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177359",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel Almeida",surname:"Marinho",slug:"daniel-almeida-marinho",fullName:"Daniel Almeida Marinho"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6516",title:"Metrology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"09e6966a3d9fadcc90b1b723e30d81ca",slug:"metrology",bookSignature:"Anil",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6516.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190673",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",surname:"Akdogan",slug:"anil-akdogan",fullName:"Anil Akdogan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8878",title:"Advances in Microfluidic Technologies for Energy and Environmental Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7026c645fea790b8d1ad5b555ded994d",slug:"advances-in-microfluidic-technologies-for-energy-and-environmental-applications",bookSignature:"Yong Ren",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177059",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong",surname:"Ren",slug:"yong-ren",fullName:"Yong Ren"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8494",title:"Gyroscopes",subtitle:"Principles and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc0e172784cf5e7851b9722f3ecfbd8d",slug:"gyroscopes-principles-and-applications",bookSignature:"Xuye Zhuang and Lianqun Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8494.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69742",title:"Dr.",name:"Xuye",surname:"Zhuang",slug:"xuye-zhuang",fullName:"Xuye Zhuang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7714",title:"Emerging Micro",subtitle:"and Nanotechnologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c6ea07211f78aafb0b53a184224d655",slug:"emerging-micro-and-nanotechnologies",bookSignature:"Ruby Srivastava",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7714.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185788",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruby",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"ruby-srivastava",fullName:"Ruby Srivastava"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10151",title:"Technology, Science and Culture",subtitle:"A Global Vision, Volume II",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a9e7327c929421c873317ccfad2b799",slug:"technology-science-and-culture-a-global-vision-volume-ii",bookSignature:"Sergio Picazo-Vela and Luis Ricardo Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10151.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"293960",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Picazo-Vela",slug:"sergio-picazo-vela",fullName:"Sergio Picazo-Vela"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9336",title:"Technology, Science and Culture",subtitle:"A Global Vision",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1895103eeec238cda200b75d6e143c8",slug:"technology-science-and-culture-a-global-vision",bookSignature:"Sergio Picazo-Vela and Luis Ricardo Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9336.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"293960",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Picazo-Vela",slug:"sergio-picazo-vela",fullName:"Sergio Picazo-Vela"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65423",title:"Hepatitis B and C Viruses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82772",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c-viruses",body:'\n
\n
1. Hepatitis B virus
\n
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) belongs to Orthohepadnavirus genus a member of the Hepadnaviridae family which includes other identified but less popular viruses such as Pekin duck, woodchuck, Woolly monkey hepatitis B, and ground squirrel viruses. There are some viral similarities in structure, size, nature, genetic replication, and ability to cause infection among these viruses, but HBV remains a major cause of chronic liver disease [1].
\n
\n
1.1 Properties
\n
\n
1.1.1 Structure
\n
The HBV is a partially double stranded enveloped deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) virus with an icosahedral symmetry that can be seen in three different forms and sizes [2]. The predominant form is a small, spherical particle (22 nm diameter), the other form has a diameter of 42 nm. Generally, the HBV virion is spherical, with a diameter of about 40–48 nm, and a length of about 3.2 kb [3]. Approximately 1014 HBV particles per millilitre can be present in the blood of an infected individual [4].
\n
\n
\n
1.1.2 HBV genome organisation
\n
The HBV genome is made up of a circular DNA which is partly single stranded and partly double stranded. The DNA is not fully double stranded; one strand is incomplete (short strand) whereas the other forms a full length strand (complete long strand). There are small molecules that are covalently linked to the 5′ end of each HBV DNA strand. The short strand is capped with a ribonucleic acid (RNA), whereas the complete long strand is linked to a viral DNA polymerase [5]. The HBV DNA forms a circular conformation, and the full length strand together with the double stands form a short sequence of triple-stranded at the 5′ ends. The HBV envelope comprises three proteins namely; small (S), medium (M), and large (L) that are expressed on the surface of the viral particle. The S protein is the most abundant of the three. The gene S encodes for the HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) [6].
\n
\n
\n
1.1.3 Genetic variation
\n
The HBV unique life cycle requires an error-prone reverse transcriptase for replication which results in genetic variation in the form of genotypes, sub-genotypes, and mutations. The relationship between HBV genetic variation and HBV-related pathogenesis has been described which determines the outcome of HBV exposure. The HBV genome has approximately 3200 bases with four overlapping open reading frames (ORFs) namely: pre-S/S (surface proteins), pre-C/C (pre-core/core), X (transcriptional co-activator) and P (DNA polymerase) [6, 7]. The pre-S/S ORF which encodes different structural envelope proteins (large, medium and small) is contained within the P ORF, the C ORF overlaps the P ORF by a quarter of its sequence length; whereas the X ORF overlap the P ORF by a third of its sequence length. From the above mentioned four ORFs, seven different proteins are translated [6].
\n
\n
\n
1.1.4 Replication cycle
\n
The HBV replication is initiated by the attachment of the viral particles to the target cells, in this instance, hepatocytes. A number of cellular receptors such as heparin sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG), and sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide (NTCP) have been reported [8]. Following attachment to the hepatocytes, the viral particles fuse with the host cell’s membrane and enter the cell through endocytosis. Following penetration into the cell, the virus uncoats releasing the genetic material (HBV DNA) into the cytoplasm, which is transferred into the nucleus through nuclear pores. In the nucleus, the genetic material is converted to a complete circular double stranded DNA (dsDNA) by the action of the host DNA polymerase. The dsDNA is then transformed into a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) ring (an episomal viral genome) that serves as a template for transcription of five viral RNAs [6, 9, 10]. The dsDNA is very stable and can survive in the host nucleus for a long time. The cellular RNA polymerase transcribes the negative sense single stranded DNA (−ssDNA) to form a positive sense single stranded RNA (+ssRNA). The newly transcribed positive RNA strand leaves the nucleus and migrates to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis (translation). The reverse transcriptase enzyme converts the +ssRNA to form a −ssDNA (reverse transcription). The +ssRNA is flanked by a small fragment of DNA polymerase at the 5′ end which primes the reverse transcription of ¾ of the +ssRNA but unable to complete the transcription of the remaining third. This results in the formation of dsDNA viral particles containing one partially complete strand. The mature viral particles exit the cell through budding and invade other hepatocytes and repeat the replication cycle [11, 12, 13].
\n
\n
\n
\n
1.2 Epidemiology
\n
The HBV prevalence varies worldwide, with high rates reported in low income countries. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that 6.1% of the African population, and 6.2% of the Western Pacific region are infected with HBV [1]. The HBV endemicity is heterogeneous due to variable multiple factors such as child vaccination, injection drug use, poor sensitisation campaigns among others [14].
\n
Approximately over 250 million people are infected with HBV globally [15]. The risks of infection vary widely due to different behaviours that determine the rate of exposure. Uninfected laboratory personnel and other health-care workers are at risk of HBV exposure from infected patients, but the degree of risk depends on several factors such as the strength of their immunity, and nature of work performed [16]. Likewise, patients are also at risk from hospital staff when there are conducting their duties such as surgery, haemodialysis, and dentistry procedures.
\n
\n
\n
1.3 HBV genotypes and their geographical distribution
\n
HBV genotype plays a significant role in the clinical outcome following viral-host interaction. There are 10 different genotypes of HBV (from A to J), that determine the liver disease clinical progression, prognosis, and the response to antiviral therapy. Genotypes A, B, C, D, and F are associated with rapid progression to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The HBV genotypes A and B are commonly isolated in acute HBV infected individuals [17].
\n
The HBV genotypes geographical distribution varies from one genotype and subtype to the other. The variations in the HBV genotype distributions are related to mode and route of transmission, where vertical transmissions are associated with genotypes B and C [17]. The HBV genotype A is prevalent in Africa, and North Europe; genotypes B and C are widespread in Asia; genotype D is also common in Africa, some parts of Europe, and Asia; genotype E is predominantly in West and Central Africa; genotype F is common in America; genotype G is common in Western countries; genotype H is found in Central and South America; genotype I was reported in Vietnam and Laos; while genotype J was reported in Japan [7, 18].
\n
\n
\n
1.4 Transmission
\n
The HBV cases usually occur in parenteral drug injection use through sharing of infected needles and other paraphernalia. Other risk factors include: sexual contact, transfusion of blood and/or its products, occupational exposure (e.g. laboratory, and other health-care workers, surgery, dental surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology procedures), and use of unsterile procedure when in contact with blood or body fluids. The HBV transmission routes are similar to most blood-borne viruses such as Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [7]. Transmission from mother-to-child is possible; therefore, early intervention at birth is important to protect the HBV infection. Efforts are on-going to achieve a 90% reduction in new chronic HBV infections [19].
\n
\n
\n
1.5 Natural history
\n
The natural history of chronic HBV infection (CHBV) varies and is dependent of the viral virulence factors and the host’s immune response. Following exposure to HBV, some individuals (0.5–1% per year) clear the HBsAg spontaneously but remain anti-HBV positive, with undetectable HBV DNA in serum, whereas the majority progress to CHBV infection. The development of CHBV infection is determined by a complex set of interactions between the host (e.g. age, sex, immune status, and other underlying infections) and the virus (e.g. infective dose, co-infection with other viruses, and viral genotype) [20].
\n
The CHBV infection is characterised by elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), serum HBV DNA, and/or hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg), HBsAg which determines the phase of infection and predicts the risk of disease progression to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) [21]. Five CHBV phases (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) have been described based on HBeAg, ALT, and HBV viral load [22]. Phases 1 and 2 would be HBeAg-positive, whereas phases 3 and 4 would be considered to be HBeAg-negative. The chronic HBV phase 1 is also known as immune tolerance phase (HBeAg-positive chronic HBV infection), phase 2 (immune clearance phase or HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B), phase 3 (inactive carrier phase or HBeAg-negative chronic HBV infection), phase 4 (reactivation phase or HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B), and phase 5 (occult HBV infection or HBsAg-negative phase). During the early stages of CHBV infection, the serum ALT levels are normal or slightly elevated whereas the HBV DNA, and hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) levels are elevated in serum. This first stage is followed by a second phase where the HBeAg, HBsAg, and ALTs are elevated. After varying intervals, the ALT levels return to normal, and the HBV DNA reach undetectable levels or suppressed to low levels, resulting in an inactive HBV carrier state. The fourth phase is characterised by fluctuation of HBV diagnostic markers that include HBV DNA, ALTs and HBV antibody concentrations [21, 22]. The fifth phase is characterised by the presence of anti-HBc antibodies, absence of HBsAg, detectable or undetectable anti-HBs antibodies. Of note, not all HBV patients fit into these phases of disease progression. Chronic HBV infection does not always represent development of chronic hepatitis B disease. Thus, not all patients with HBV infection have hepatitis disease [22].
\n
\n
\n
1.6 Clinical features
\n
The possible outcome following HBV exposure depend on series of complex mechanisms that could lead to spontaneous clearance with detectable HBV antibodies, or establishment of chronic HBV infection (described in four phases). The HBV incubation period varies greatly often about 2–6 months, but shorter incubation periods have been observed related to high infective doses. Symptoms of HBV infection may include fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, anorexia, myalgia, and jaundice (is the hallmark of severe liver disease). In some cases, arthralgia may occur, hepatocellular damage may be detected [7, 21].
\n
\n
\n
1.7 Pathogenesis
\n
\n
1.7.1 Acute infection
\n
It is estimated that approximately 90% of HBV infections are acute, where about 10% progress to chronic HBV infection among adult patients, whereas 30–50% for infection among under-5 children. The HBV replicates in hepatocytes following successful entry into the cell by binding the host cellular receptors. In acute infection before seroconversion, the HBV viral load is high before the host immune response kicks in. The viral markers such HBeAg, and HBeAg are expressed on the host cellular cytoplasmic membrane that trigger an adaptive immune response (both B and T cells) [6, 23].
\n
Within hours following HBV exposure, the host innate immune response by releasing the interferon-α which modulate the immune system, and has a direct antiviral effect [24]. This is followed by a transient release of interleukin (IL)-6 to control the viral spread and virus-induced cellular apoptosis. The production of interferons and other cytokines enhances the expression of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) that recognises the viral antigens which leads to lysis of infected hepatocytes. The subsequent activation of natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic killer cells may reduce the HBV viral load through secretion of different cytokines, which may lead to hepatocellular damage. An anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 suppresses the activation of NK T cells. The liver damage is less severe in the HBV acute infection [25, 26, 27].
\n
\n
\n
1.7.2 Chronic infection
\n
HBV persistence and development of chronic HBV infection is a result of neonatal tolerance to HBV if acquired vertically. The HBV precore antigen, HBeAg which crosses the placenta is able to induce neonatal tolerance to HBV ex vivo. The HBV adult infections have a low rate (<5%) of developing chronic HBV infection as compared to neonates. However, the mechanism that contributes to inadequate immune response a key feature of onset of chronic HBV in adults is unclear.
\n
Of note, nearly 15–40% of HBV infected individuals are at risk of developing cirrhosis during their life time, and nearly 5% risk of HCC with cirrhosis. During the immune clearance phase (phase 2), the viral load is reduced due to the action of the cytotoxic T cells that destroy the infected hepatocytes. Since the action of NK and cytotoxic T cells in chronic HBV infection is inefficient, the destruction of hepatocytes happens for years which increases the possibility of reinfection [11, 15, 25, 26, 28].
\n
The production of different HBV specific antibodies such as those against HBeAg, HBcAg, and HBsAg prevent the spreading of viral particles between hepatocytes. Ineffective viral suppression could lead to cirrhosis which is a prime factor for carcinogenesis. The integration of viral and host genome, and the formation of cccDNA during viral replication are essential steps towards development of hepatic carcinogenesis. Both B and T cell responses to HBcAg could be suppressed by secretion of some HBV antigens such as HBeAg, which results in inhibition of HBcAg-specific T cells to eliminate HBV infected hepatocytes. Likewise, increased levels of HBsAg also suppress the immune elimination of infected cells [9, 10, 11].
\n
Increased risks of cirrhosis and HCC are associated with male gender, race, HIV, hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection, persistence of increased HBV viral load (high HBV DNA levels), HBeAg negative status, elevated ALTs, and the general impairment of host immune responses.
\n
The HBV clinical outcomes are classified into: immune-tolerant, immune clearance, inactive and recovery phase. Occult HBV infection is a phenomenon that occurs in patients who receive HBV vaccine and/or hepatitis B immunoglobulin injection who may develop chronic HBV infection with PreS and/or S gene mutations. In these four clinical stages of HBV infection, the HBV DNA levels are high in immune tolerance and immune clearance stages, and become undetectable in inactive phase. HBV isolated from chemotherapy of immunocompromised patients show mutations in the PreS, S, basal core promoter (BCP) or Pre-C regions (Figure 1) (Adapted from [6]).
\n
Figure 1.
HBV pathogenesis and clinical outcomes.
\n
\n
\n
\n
1.8 Laboratory diagnosis
\n
\n
1.8.1 Acute HBV infection
\n
Nearly 90% of acute HBV infections in adults are self-limiting, with only a small proportion (<1%) progress to severe acute infection. Acute HBV infection presents with non-specific signs and symptoms. The HBV incubation period may be 6 weeks or more following exposure. Some of the signs and symptoms of acute HBV infection may include: malaise, fever, nausea, dark urine and anorexia. The majority of acute HBV infected individual are usually asymptomatic with elevated levels of ALT, total bilirubin, and total protein. The HBsAg positive test suggest an HBV infection, however it is advisable to repeat the test after 6 months to determine HBV spontaneous resolution or establishment of chronic infection [29].
\n
\n
\n
1.8.2 Chronic HBV infection
\n
The majority of acute HBV infected individuals clear the infection spontaneously, whereas 5–10% progress to develop chronic HBV infection. The majority of chronic HBV infected individuals are at risk of developing chronic active disease (HBV hepatitis) which may progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The development of chronic HBV infection does not follow clinical phases (1–5) in sequential order as described above. The HBV diagnostic markers vary from one clinical phase to another.
\n
\n
1.8.2.1 Immune-tolerance phase
\n
During the immune-tolerance phase of chronic HBV infection, the virus is actively replicating, but there is a reduced inflammation response. The individuals who get HBV infection at birth stay in this phase for decades before progressing to the next phases of liver disease. The laboratory diagnosis markers that characterise the immune-tolerance phase include: increased HBV viral load (>million copies IU/ml), normal ALT, HBsAg positive test [22, 30].
\n
\n
\n
1.8.2.2 Immune clearance phase
\n
During the immune-active phase, the virus continues to replicate and cause noticeable liver damage. The host immune response activates the signalling cascade that leads to inflammatory response, leading to liver fibrosis. The individuals who were HBV susceptible during childhood stay in this phase for decades but clinical feature manifest in mid-thirties. During this stage, the laboratory diagnostic features fluctuate from HBeAg positive to negative, with detectable anti-HBe antibodies. Classic HBV immune-active phase is characterised by the HBeAg seroconversion and detection of different anti-HBV immunoglobulins. The HBeAg seroconversion is associated with reduced disease progression rate to development of cirrhosis and end stage liver disease. The laboratory detection markers include: increased ALT levels, four-fold increase in HBV viral load, positive HBeAg, and liver fibrosis [22].
\n
\n
\n
1.8.2.3 Inactive carrier phase
\n
In this phase, the anti-HBe antibodies are detectable, whereas the ALT levels return to normal, and HBV viral load is suppressed and may be undetectable. The extent of liver damage depends on an inflammatory immune response, but liver fibrosis is noticeable if it was observed in the previous stage of liver disease. The majority (nearly 80%) of chronic HBV infected patients remain in this stage whereas nearly 20% may revert to the immune-tolerance phase. Some of the laboratory diagnostic markers of this stage include: Normal ALT, negative HBeAg, reduced or undetectable HBV viral load (<2000 copies IU/ml), and variable liver fibrosis [22].
\n
\n
\n
1.8.2.4 Reactivation phase
\n
This phase is also known as the immune reactivation phase where the chronic HBV is very active with detectable anti-HBe antibodies. Some of the diagnostic markers include: increased HBV viral load, elevated ALT, negative HBeAg, moderate-to-severe liver fibrosis, sometimes cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. In this phase, people have seroconverted to anti-HBe positive, but their chronic HBV is very active. The ALT levels and HBV viral load are elevated. The liver inflammation and fibrosis levels are moderate to severe [22].
\n
\n
\n
1.8.2.5 Occult HBV infection
\n
This phase is also known as HBsAg-negative phase. During this phase the viral detection markers such as HBsAg, anti-HBs, and HBV DNA are usually negative. The anti-HBc antibodies are positive, and in rare cases, the anti-HBs could be positive. The serum ALT levels are usually normal, with detectable cccDNA copies [22].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
1.9 Treatment, prevention, and control
\n
The treatment and management efforts of HBV infection are aimed at reducing the incidence rates, prevent development of chronic HBV disease, progression to HCC, and obviously death from HBV-related liver disease. The decision to treat is based on clinical assessment of phases of HBV infection based primarily on the biochemical, virological, serological investigations, and the stage of liver disease [22].
\n
Historically, the interferon-based therapy has been the principal treatment option for HBV infection. The current HBV treatment guidelines recommend treating patients with increased viral load, decompensated liver cirrhosis, and HCC. Treatment is less favourable in HBV infected individuals classified as belonging to first phase chronic HBV infection. The recommended standard treatment for HBV infection is the nucleoside analogues (NAs) and/or IFN-based therapy. The response to IFN-based therapy is robust which results in loss of HBeAg and HBsAg as opposed to NA monotherapy. However, IFN is less efficient at suppressing viral replication and is reported to be associated with adverse effects compared to the NAs. The IFN-α has a direct antiviral effect through inhibition of viral assembly [8, 31].
\n
The pegylated IFN-α administered parenterally, and the NAs (Entecavir and Tenofovir) are the first line antiviral drugs recommended for chronic HBV treatment. These drugs are hardly available in low income countries due to high costs. The most widely antiviral drug for HBV treatment is lamivudine which is a nucleoside analogue that inhibits the synthesis of HBV DNA ex vivo. The lamivudine course has resulted in a marked reduction in viral DNA, normal ALT levels, HBeAg-positive cases seroconverting to become anti-HBe positive. Other antiviral drugs that have been used to treat HBV infection include adefovir, emtricitabine, telbivudine, and clevudine. For end stage liver disease such as HCC, liver transplantation is recommended. There is an urgent need to develop alternative HBV therapeutic agents that can successfully suppress HBV replication and decrease the risk of disease progression to fibrosis and HCC [8, 31].
\n
Several approaches can be employed for the prevention and control of HCV infection. Screening of blood donations has significantly reduced the risks of HBV transmission through transfusion of blood and/or its products [32]. Modification of risk behaviours proves to be an effective measure to prevent HBV transmission. Some essential approaches include voiding contact with blood and body fluids, practicing safe sexual contact, avoiding drug use (either injecting or snorting), and use of sterile needles when body piercing and acupunctures. The implementation of health and safety policies that include wearing personal protective equipment when performing risky procedures in the hospital or during accidents and emergencies [22].
\n
Herd immunity can be provided through incorporation of HBV vaccine in the child immunisation schedule. Other important approaches to prevent HBV infection include: antenatal screening for identification of carrier mothers, and universal infant and adolescent vaccination. If universal vaccination is not implemented yet, HBV vaccine should be given to other groups at special risk of HBV exposure.
\n
\n
\n
1.10 Vaccination
\n
Hepatitis B is a vaccine preventable disease. In 1965, Dr. Baruch Blumberg and his team discovered the HBV vaccine which prevents the establishment of HBV infection and liver cancer [33].
\n
\n
1.10.1 Active immunisation
\n
The current HBV vaccine is given in three doses as follows: first dose given within 24 hours, second dose given 1 month later, and a third booster dose given at 6 months of age. The HBV vaccine elicits humoral immune response that is mediated by secreted anti-HBs antibodies. Such an antibody-mediated response is influenced by several factors including age, sex, immune status, and underlined pathological conditions. High seroconversion rates of >90% are seen in young female adults as opposed to their male counterparts or older men, whereas lower rates are observed in immunosuppressed individuals [34].
\n
The HBV vaccine was made available since 1982. In 1991, the WHO recommended that each country adopt and implement universal HBV vaccination programme. HBV vaccine is included in the new-born immunisation schedule where first dose is given shortly after birth, second dose at 1–2 months of age, and third dose at 6–18 months of age. A child born to a HBV-positive mother should receive the HBV vaccine and HBIG combination as early as within 12 hours after birth to protect baby from HBV infection. The vaccine may cause swelling, soreness and redness on the site of injection, and a mild fever [35, 36].
\n
\n
\n
1.10.2 Passive immunisation
\n
The plasma-derived hepatitis B vaccine was licenced for human use in 1981. Hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) is an anti-HBs prepared from plasma of donors with high titres of antibodies of the HBsAg. The administration of anti-HBV immunoglobulins induces an adaptive immune response. Since the HBIG contains anti-HBV immunoglobulins, it offers an immediate short-term protection in risk population who have not yet received HBV vaccine. The HBIG half-life is estimated at 3 weeks, but long-term protection can be achieved by a combination of HBIG and HBV vaccine at the time of HBIG initial administration. Therefore, an HBIG booster dose is not necessary when a HBV vaccine is administered concurrently with HBIG [37, 38]. The HBIG dose of 300–500 IU in 3 ml is administered either intramuscularly (IM) or intravenously as a post-exposure prophylaxis, given to babies born to infected mothers, or prevention of the establishment of chronic HBV infection in liver transplants. HBIG should be administered 24–48 hours after a potential exposure to HBV, and a second dose 4 weeks later. An absolute protection against HBV is unlikely to be achieved but a vaccine efficacy of 76% has been reported, and the protection could last for at least 22 years [38]. In babies, a 6 month course of HBIG is initiated that offers nearly 70% efficacy. High rates (nearly 90%) are achieved when combining HBIG and HBV vaccine.
\n
The HBIG side effects include allergic reactions, back pain, muscle pain, nausea, and general body pain.
\n
\n
\n
1.10.3 Who should get vaccinated?
\n
HBV vaccination is aimed at preventing HBV transmission to uninfected individuals, and ultimately eradicating the virus from the population. A small subset of HBV exposed individuals exist who have persistent HBV infection, could have undetectable or carry low levels of the HBV DNA; and are termed ‘inactive HBV carriers.’ The HBV carrier state is a potential reservoir for HBV transmission through contact with the infected body fluids.
\n
The HBV vaccination is recommended in the following [16]:
Newly born babies who could become long-term HBV carriers if not protected immediately after birth
Commercial sex workers
Intravenous drug users
Occupational exposures (health care workers, laboratory personnel, Medical personnel, dental therapists, first aid providers)
Anyone who comes in contact with infected blood
Victims of sexual assault
\n\n
The passive and active HBV immunisation is 95% effective in preventing establishment of chronic infection, but HBV reinfection is possible following continuous exposure to the virus.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
2. Hepatitis C virus
\n
\nHepatitis C virus (HCV) belongs to the Flaviviridae family and the genus Hepacivirus [39]; and has evolved over hundreds and thousands of years with human as the only host. When HCV was first identified in 1989 [40] as the aetiological agent of non-A/non-B hepatitis the extent of the global health problem from HCV related cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma was underestimated. Today HCV remains a global public health problem with a prevalence at 2.8%, with relatively low prevalence in Europe (0.6–5.6%), with pockets of high prevalence in Africa (Egypt has the highest prevalence rate estimated at 14% based on anti-HCV antibody testing) [41].
\n
\n
2.1 Discovery
\n
HCV was discovered in 1989 [40]. It was thought to be the primary cause of transfusion-associated non-A/non-B hepatitis (NANBH). Following intensive search through development of different immunological and serological assays, an experimental chimpanzee model was utilised to identify the presence of an NANBH transmissible agent. Immunoscreening of bacterial complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA) obtained from chimpanzee blood samples that were infected with NANBH enabled the isolation of a single cDNA clone, and the translation of viral proteins was possible. On 21st April 1989, Michael Houghton and his colleagues in collaboration with Daniel Bradley announced the discovery of NANBH aetiological agent and named it ‘Hepatitis C virus’ [40].
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Properties
\n
\n
2.2.1 Structure
\n
HCV is a small, enveloped virus that contains two viral glycoproteins expressed on the surface of the virus particle namely, E1 and E2 [42, 43]. The HCV is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) virus that has approximately 10,000 bases in length. Visualised viral particles are estimated to be between 40 and 60 nm [44]. The HCV gene sequence contains a single long open reading frame (ORF) that produces large polyprotein precursor of more than 3000 amino acids. The HCV ORF is flanked by 5′ and 3′ non-translated regions (NTRs). During and after translation, the polyprotein precursor is cleaved by the proteases for synthesis of mature structural and non-structural (NS) proteins [45].
\n
\n
\n
2.2.2 Lipoviral particle
\n
The hepatic portal vein and hepatic arteries circulate blood through the liver. The HCV particles circulating in the blood stream are reported to bind directly to low density lipoprotein (LDL), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), chylomicrons, different types of apolipoproteins (apo) [46, 47]. The lipoviral particles (LVPs) are highly infectious viral particles that form a complex with VLDL composed of triglyceride-rich, and cholesterol-rich lipoproteins that are believed to contain apoA1, apoB, apoC1, and apoE [48, 49]. During the LVPs formation they also form a complex with viral envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2; and nucleocapsids [50, 51, 52]. It is believed that the LVPs facilitate the viral attachment and entry into the target host cell [53].
\n
\nFigure 2 shows an HCV viral particle in association with lipoproteins in a structure termed ‘lipoviral particle.’ The viral envelope glycoproteins E1, and E2 help to attach the virus to the host cell receptors. The apolipoprotein components of the LVPs are also facilitate viral binding via cellular lipoprotein receptors. (Adapted from https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk/handle/10026.1/10386).
\n
Figure 2.
Hepatitis C virus lipoviral structure.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.3 Replication
\n
The primary in vivo target of HCV replication are hepatocytes, however, lack of small animal model to propagate HCV hampers efforts to fully describe the HCV replication.
\n
Following the formation of LVPs in vascular compartment, they travel to the liver for attachment to the hepatocytes utilising the viral envelope glycoproteins, and the lipoprotein plasma lipoproteins component of the LVPs. The HCV LVP levels determine viral persistence [54]. The viral particles utilise the virally encoded envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2, and different classes of apolipoproteins (apoA-1, apoB, apoC-1 and apoE) to bind to host cellular receptors, co-receptors, and entry factors to facilitate viral entry into the cell cytoplasm [53]. Some of the reported host cellular receptors and entry factors include: tetraspanin CD81, highly sulphated glycosaminoglycans (HS-GAGs) [55], low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), and Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) [56]. The viral entry involves clathrin-mediated endocytosis, and membrane fusion.
\n
After entry, the viral RNA genome is translated for production of different viral proteins in endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Translation is of the polyprotein from HCV RNA is an essential first step after releasing the viral genetic material into the host cytoplasm. Since the HCV RNA is a positive-sense single strand, it directly serves as a template for translation. The 5′ NTR serves as the primary site where HCV RNA translation into polypeptides is initiated which results in expression of structural and NS viral proteins (NS1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) required for genome replication [52].
\n
Several HCV NS proteins such as NS3/4A, NS4B, NS5A, and NS5B form part of a complex replication machinery which replicate a positive-sense RNA genome through a negative-sense RNA intermediate which takes place in lipid droplets (LDs) [57]. The HCV replication process occurs in specialised membranous web on the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Initiation of assembly of viral proteins requires release of viral genomes from the membranous web to the cytosolic site of the ER. Therefore, progeny viral assembly initiates in the cytosol followed by maturation and release of the viral particles on the lumenal side of the ER membrane. During this process, the virions become lipidated through further interaction with the host lipid components, transported through the Golgi apparatus. After budding, the viral particles are transported to the extracellular environment through the lipid secretory channels [58].
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.3 HCV epidemiology, genotypes, and global distribution
\n
HCV is one of the major causes of liver disease globally. Over the years HCV prevalence rates have increased to 2.8% worldwide, where an estimated 71 million people are reported to have chronic hepatitis C infection [59]. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that nearly 399,000 people die annually due to HCV related liver disease. The HCV global distribution varies with high prevalence rates reported among people who inject drugs (PWIDs) [60]. Egypt has the highest burden of HCV infection due to use of non-sterile injecting needles during the mass treatment of schistosomiasis. In the 80s, the tartar emeric treatment was replaced by an oral drug, praziquantel for treatment of schistosomiasis [41].
\n
Seven major HCV genotypes (1–7) were reported that comprise different sub-species [61]. Determination of HCV genotypes is essential and predicts the disease outcome, and treatment options. Globally, HCV genotype 1 is the most prevalence, followed by genotypes 3, 2, and 4. Genotypes 1, 2, and 3 have a worldwide distribution but predominantly highly prevalent in western countries [62, 63]. Genotype 4 is prevalent in Egypt and the middle-east, genotype 5 is prevalent in South Africa, and genotype is high in Hongkong. Genotype 6 is endemic in Southeast Asia [64, 65], whereas genotype 7 is was reported in central Africa [66].
\n
The HCV nucleotide sequences show some genetic differences from one genotype to another. Genotypes show nearly 30% sequence diversity from each other [30, 67].
\n
\n
\n
2.4 Transmission
\n
HCV is primarily transmitted via parenteral exposure to the virus, though sometimes it can be transmitted sexually. Injection drug use (IDU) remains the highest risk factor for HCV infection in western countries. Some of the risk factors for HCV transmission include: blood transfusion before initiation of universal donor screening programme in 1991 [68], occupational exposure, tattooing, organ transplant from an infected donor, acupunctures, haemodialysis, and use of unsterilized razor blades and other paraphernalia for cultural rituals. Some studies have reported vertical transmission, as well as cell-to-cell transmission. The frequency of mother-to-child transmission is estimated at between 3 and 10% in some studies. The following factors have not been described to transmit HCV; hugging, kissing, hand shake, and/or sharing drinking bottles with an infected person [69].
\n
\n
\n
2.5 HCV natural history
\n
Exposure to HCV usually results in an asymptomatic acute HCV infection which is followed by three possible outcomes: clearance of the virus spontaneously (15–25%), progression to chronic HCV infection (>80%), or remain uninfected without detectable HCV RNA and anti-HCV antibodies [70, 71, 72].
\n
\n
2.5.1 Acute HCV infection
\n
Diagnosis of acute HCV infection is problematic because the majority of infected individuals are asymptomatic with only 20–30% go on to develop clinical signs and symptoms. An acute infection occurs during the first 6 months following exposure, and during this period few infected individuals complain of fever, fatigue, nausea, anorexia, vomiting, and sometimes mild jaundice appears [73].
\n
The HCV incubation period ranges from 3 to 12 weeks. The development of clinical manifestations depends on multiple viral and host factors that may include: infective dose (viral load), viral genotype, route of transmission, gender, age, and host immune response among others. HCV seroconversion window period ranges between 8 and 12 weeks after viremia. Of note, acute HCV infection does not always lead to the development of chronic infection. Nearly 20% of acute HCV infected individuals resolve the infection spontaneously with detectable anti-HCV antibodies, but without HCV RNA [73].
\n
\n
\n
2.5.2 Chronic HCV infection
\n
Following the establishment of acute HCV infection, nearly 80% of infected individuals progress to develop chronic HCV infection. Persistent HCV infection is usually associated with progressive hepatitis disease, with detectable HCV RNA and anti-HCV antibodies. Despite detection of HCV markers in the blood, there is no correlation between viremia and disease severity. The majority of chronically infected individuals develop fibrosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (usually after 20 or more years followed infection) if no antiviral treatment is initiated. Once cirrhosis develops, the situation is usually irreversible but further liver damage can be prevented with early diagnosis and treatment. The development of cirrhosis and HCC is accelerated by immunosuppression [74]. Chronic HCV infection causes several histological changes in the liver and classifies the disease into persistent HCV infection, and active HCV infection with or without cirrhosis.
\n
HCV infected individuals do not realise that they are infected, until the following signs and symptoms appear: anorexia, vomiting, fever, dark urine, jaundice, weight loss, and myalgia.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.6 Laboratory diagnosis
\n
Since seroconversion takes 8–12 weeks after viremia, serological diagnosis of acute HCV infection is tricky. During the acute stage, molecular diagnostic methods are reliable where HCV RNA can be detected within 1–3 weeks after exposure. Anti-HCV antibodies can be detected at the onset of clinical signs and symptoms. The HCV laboratory diagnostic methods include detection of specific anti-HCV antibodies, quantification of HCV RNA, and characterisation of HCV biomarkers. Enzyme immunoassay (EIA), rapid diagnostic kits, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques are commonly used for HCV diagnosis. It is prudent that each facility should establish a testing algorithm that includes screening, supplementary, and confirmatory testing methods. Detection of HCV RNA confirms active infection, whereas detection of anti-HCV antibodies suggests clearance of HCV infection spontaneously or establishment of chronic infection. It is advisable to confirm all anti-HCV positive test results with a nucleic acid test to rule-out spontaneous viral clearance [75]. Once chronic infection has been noted, further liver damage has to be assessed by performing liver function tests, liver biopsy, or other non-invasive procedures. In chronic HCV infection, the following markers are elevated: alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total protein (TP), gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), prothrombin time (PT), total bilirubin, and sometimes a fasting serum acid [76].
\n
\n
\n
2.7 Treatment, prevention, and control
\n
For the past few decades, the standard HCV treatment has been interferon based therapy but there were increased cases of adverse effects, and reduced sustained viral response rate (50%). It is not all HCV cases that require treatment, since some individuals are asymptomatic. When treatment is desirable, the primary goal is cure [77]. The arrival of direct acting antivirals (DAAs) since 2014 with a high rate of responses to this treatment has brought a great expectancy of the possible cure and eradication of HCV infection in the next future. The WHO recommends sofosbuvir, daclatasvir, and the sofosbuvir/ledipasvir combination that has a 95% reported cure rate. Detection of the HCV genotypes and subtypes is relevant to response to the DAAs. The DAAs disrupt viral replication which subsequent establishment of HCV infection [78]. The following classes of DAAs have been suggested: NS3/4A protease inhibitors, NS5A inhibitors, NS5B nucleoside polymerase (NS5B RNA-dependent RNA polymerase) inhibitors, and NS5B non-nucleoside polymerase inhibitors. The DAAs have reduced the treatment duration (12 weeks to achieve cure), changed the drug administration route, reduced adverse effects, improved efficacy, viral sustained response, and tolerability [30]. Access to DAAs is still limited in low income countries, but the introduction of generic versions of DAAs has reduced the production and consumption cost in low income countries. It is estimated that HCV viremic burden will decline by approximately 60% [79].
\n
\n
\n\n',keywords:"viral hepatitis, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, epidemiology, pathogenesis, natural history, diagnosis, genotype, treatment, natural history",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65423.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65423.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65423",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65423",totalDownloads:607,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"September 13th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 28th 2018",datePrePublished:"March 1st 2019",datePublished:"April 8th 2020",dateFinished:"January 30th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV/HCV) are among the leading causes of liver disease. HBV is a partially double-stranded circular DNA virus whose genome is approximately 3200 bases with four overlapping open reading frames (ORFs) and belongs to Hepadnaviridae family. HBV prevalence varies worldwide, with high rates reported in low-income countries. Approximately 90% of HBV infections are acute, 10% progress to chronic infection among adult patients. Although HBV can be prevented by immunisation, there is no licenced HCV vaccine. HCV is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) virus belonging to Flaviviridae family. The HCV global epidemiology varies, with high prevalence rates reported in low-income countries. Approximately 80% of acutely HCV-infected individuals develop chronic hepatitis disease, while 20% resolve spontaneously. Both HBV and HCV infections can result in both acute and chronic hepatitis, ranging in severity from asymptomatic to a life-threatening disease. The HBV and HCV are transmitted through contact with contaminated blood or its products. As compared with mono-infection, HBV/HCV co-infection has higher risk of liver damage. Thus, individuals who have active HBV and HCV infections are likely to be HCV-dominant with a high HCV viral load and low or undetectable HBV DNA levels.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65423",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65423",book:{slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c"},signatures:"Isaac Thom Shawa",authors:[{id:"274732",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaac",middleName:"Thom",surname:"Shawa",fullName:"Isaac Shawa",slug:"isaac-shawa",email:"ishawa@medcol.mw",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Hepatitis B virus",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_1_3",title:"1.1.1 Structure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.1.2 HBV genome organisation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.1.3 Genetic variation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.1.4 Replication cycle",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"1.2 Epidemiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"1.3 HBV genotypes and their geographical distribution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"1.4 Transmission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"1.5 Natural history",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"1.6 Clinical features",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"1.7 Pathogenesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"1.7.1 Acute infection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"1.7.2 Chronic infection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"1.8 Laboratory diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"1.8.1 Acute HBV infection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"1.8.2 Chronic HBV infection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"1.8.2.1 Immune-tolerance phase",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"1.8.2.2 Immune clearance phase",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"1.8.2.3 Inactive carrier phase",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_4",title:"1.8.2.4 Reactivation phase",level:"4"},{id:"sec_19_4",title:"1.8.2.5 Occult HBV infection",level:"4"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"1.9 Treatment, prevention, and control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"1.10 Vaccination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"1.10.1 Active immunisation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"1.10.2 Passive immunisation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"1.10.3 Who should get vaccinated?",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28",title:"2. Hepatitis C virus",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"2.1 Discovery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"2.2 Properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"2.2.1 Structure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"2.2.2 Lipoviral particle",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"2.2.3 Replication",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"2.3 HCV epidemiology, genotypes, and global distribution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"2.4 Transmission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"2.5 HCV natural history",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_3",title:"2.5.1 Acute HCV infection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_36_3",title:"2.5.2 Chronic HCV infection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_38_2",title:"2.6 Laboratory diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_39_2",title:"2.7 Treatment, prevention, and control",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nChisari FV, Isogawa M, Wieland SF. Pathogenesis of Hepatitis B virus infection. Pathologie et Biologie. 2010;58:258-266. DOI: 10.1016/j.patbio.2009.11.001.Pathogenesis\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nGilbert RJC, Beales L, Blond D, Simon MN, Lin BY, Chisari FV, et al. Hepatitis B small surface antigen particles are octahedral. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2005. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0505062102\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nHu J, Liu K. Complete and incomplete hepatitis B virus particles: Formation, function, and application. Viruses. 2017. DOI: 10.3390/v9030056\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nShih C, Yang CC, Choijilsuren G, Chang CH, Liou AT. Hepatitis B virus. Trends in Microbiology. 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2018.01.009\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nZhang ZH, Wu CC, Chen XW, Li X, Li J, Lu MJ. Genetic variation of hepatitis B virus and its significance for pathogenesis. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2016;22:126-144. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i1.126\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nLin CL, Kao JH. Natural history of acute and chronic hepatitis B: The role of HBV genotypes and mutants. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Gastroenterology. 2017;31:249-255. DOI: 10.1016/j.bpg.2017.04.010\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nLok AS, Zoulim F, Dusheiko G, Ghany MG. Hepatitis B cure: From discovery to regulatory approval. Hepatology. 2017;66:1296-1313. DOI: 10.1002/hep.29323\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nLocarnini S, Zoulim F. Molecular genetics of HBV infection. Antiviral Therapy. 2010. DOI: 10.3851/IMP1619\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nTestoni B, Durantel D, Zoulim F. Novel targets for hepatitis B virus therapy. Liver International. 2017. DOI: 10.1111/liv.13307\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nSeeger C, Mason WS. Molecular biology of hepatitis B virus infection. Virology. 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.02.031\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nFrentzen A, Anggakusuma GE, Hueging K, Knocke S, Ginkel C, et al. Cell entry, efficient RNA replication, and production of infectious hepatitis C virus progeny in mouse liver-derived cells. Hepatology. 2014. DOI: 10.1002/hep.26626\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nBlondot ML, Bruss V, Kann M. Intracellular transport and egress of hepatitis B virus. Journal of Hepatology. 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.02.008\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nWorld Health Organization. Hepatitis B. WHO. 2018. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b [Accessed: 02 January 2019]\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nZampino R, Boemio A, Sagnelli C, Alessio L, Adinolfi LE, Sagnelli E, et al. Hepatitis B virus burden in developing countries. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2015;21:11941-11953. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v21.i42.11941\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nTsai KN, Kuo CF, Ou JHJ. Mechanisms of Hepatitis B virus persistence. Trends in Microbiology. 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.07.006\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nNelson NP, Easterbrook PJ, McMahon BJ. Epidemiology of Hepatitis B virus infection and impact of vaccination on disease. Clinics in Liver Disease. 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.cld.2016.06.006\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nSunbul M. Hepatitis B virus genotypes: Global distribution and clinical importance. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2014. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i18.5427\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nOtt JJ, Stevens GA, Groeger J, Wiersma ST. Global epidemiology of Hepatitis B virus infection: New estimates of age-specific HBsAg seroprevalence and endemicity. Vaccine. 2012;30:2212-2219. DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.116\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nNayagam S, Thursz M, Sicuri E, Conteh L, Wiktor S, Low-Beer D, et al. Requirements for global elimination of hepatitis B: A modelling study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2016;16:1399-1408. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30204-3\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nChang MH. Hepatitis B virus infection. In: Suchy FJ, Sokol RJ, Balistreri WF, editors. Liver Disease in Children. 4th ed. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2014. pp. 176-294. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139012102.019\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nLiaw YF. Natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. In: Thomas HC, ASF L, editors. Viral Hepatitis. 4th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: Wiley; 2013. pp. 143-153. DOI: 10.1002/9781118637272.ch10\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nLampertico P, Agarwal K, Berg T, Buti M, Janssen HLA, Papatheodoridis G, et al. EASL 2017 Clinical Practice Guidelines on the management of hepatitis B virus infection. Journal of Hepatology. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2017.03.021\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nBowden S. Hepatitis B virus. In: Carter IW, Schuller M, James GS, Sloots TP, Halliday CL, editors. PCR for Clinical Microbiology: An Australian and International Perspective Illustrate. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media; 2010. DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9039-3_36\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nWang FS, Shi JJ. Immunopathogenesis of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. In: Kao J-H, Chen D-S, editors. Hepatitis B Virus and Liver Disease. Singapore: Springer; 2018. pp. 45-62. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-4843-2_3\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nBaumert TF, Thimme R, von Weizsäcker F. Pathogenesis of hepatitis B virus infection. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2007. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v13.i1.82\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nFerrari C. HBV and the immune response. Liver International. 2015. DOI: 10.1111/liv.12749\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nBusca A, Kumar A. Innate immune responses in hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. Virology Journal. 2014. DOI: 10.1186/1743-422X-11-22\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nTawar RG, Colpitts CC, Timm J, Fehm T, Roggendorf M, Meisel H, et al. Acute hepatitis C virus infection induces anti-host cell receptor antibodies with virus-neutralizing properties. Hepatology. 2015;62:726-736. DOI: 10.1002/hep.27906\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nCornberg M, Wong VWS, Locarnini S, Brunetto M, Janssen HLA, Chan HLY. The role of quantitative hepatitis B surface antigen revisited. Journal of Hepatology. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.08.009\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nRazavi H, Robbins S, Zeuzem S, Negro F, Buti M, Duberg AS, et al. Hepatitis C virus prevalence and level of intervention required to achieve the WHO targets for elimination in the European Union by 2030: A modelling study. The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2017;2:325-336. DOI: 10.1016/S2468-1253(17)30045-6\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nKwon HK, Lok ASF. Treatment of hepatitis B. In: Thomas HC, Lok ASF, Locarnini SA, Zuckerman AJ, editors. Viral Hepatitis. 4th ed., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: Wiley; 2013. pp. 188-202. DOI: 10.1002/9781118637272.ch14\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nDwyre DM, Holland PV. Hepatitis viruses. In: Barbara JAJ, Regan FAM, Contreras M, editors. Transfusion Microbiology. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2008. pp. 9-24. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511545245.005\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nGerlich WH. Medical virology of hepatitis B: How it began and where we are now. Virology Journal. 2013;10:239. DOI: 10.1186/1743-422X-10-239\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nBonanni P, Pesavento G, Bechini A, Tiscione E, Mannelli F, Benucci C, et al. Impact of universal vaccination programmes on the epidemiology of hepatitis B: 10 years of experience in Italy. Vaccine. 2003. DOI: 10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00580-7\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nMangen MJJ, Stibbe H, Urbanus A, Siedenburg EC, Waldhober Q, de Wit GA, et al. Targeted outreach hepatitis B vaccination program in high-risk adults: The fundamental challenge of the last mile. Vaccine. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.04.068\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis B vaccination—United States, 1982-2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2002\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nPileggi C, Papadopoli R, Bianco A, Pavia M. Hepatitis B vaccine and the need for a booster dose after primary vaccination. Vaccine. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.09.076\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nBruce MG, Bruden D, Hurlburt D, Zanis C, Thompson G, Rea L, et al. Antibody levels and protection after Hepatitis B vaccine: Results of a 30-year follow-up study and response to a booster dose. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2016. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv748\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nPybus OG, Barnes E, Taggart R, Lemey P, Markov PV, Rasachak B, et al. Genetic history of hepatitis C virus in East Asia. Journal of Virology. 2009;83:1071-1082. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01501-08\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nChoo QL, Kuo G, Weiner a J, Overby LR, Bradley DW, Houghton M. Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome. Science. 1989;244:359-362\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nLehman EM, Wilson ML. Epidemiology of hepatitis viruses among hepatocellular carcinoma cases and healthy people in Egypt: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Cancer. 2009;124:690-697. DOI: 10.1002/ijc.23937\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nBeaumont E, Roch E, Chopin L, Roingeard P. Hepatitis C virus E1 and E2 proteins used as separate immunogens induce neutralizing antibodies with additive properties. PLoS One. 2016. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151626\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nChevaliez S, Pawlotsky J-M. HCV genome and life cycle. In: Tan S-L, editor. Hepatitis C Viruses: Genomes and Molecular Biology. Norfolk, UK: Horizon Bioscience; 2006. pp. 5-48. PMID: 21250393\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nBaumert TF, Ito S, Wong DT, Liang TJ. Hepatitis C virus structural proteins assemble into viruslike particles in insect cells. Journal of Virology. 1998;72:3827-3836\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nKhan AG, Whidby J, Miller MT, Scarborough H, Zatorski AV, Cygan A, et al. Structure of the core ectodomain of the hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein 2. Nature. 2014. DOI: 10.1038/nature13117\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nFukuhara T, Ono C, Puig-Basagoiti F, Matsuura Y. Roles of lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in particle formation of Hepatitis C virus. Trends in Microbiology. 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2015.07.007\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nYamamoto S, Fukuhara T, Ono C, Uemura K, Kawachi Y, Shiokawa M, et al. Lipoprotein receptors redundantly participate in entry of Hepatitis C virus. PLoS Pathogens. 2016. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005610\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nDiaz O, Delers F, Maynard M, Demignot S, Zoulim F, Chambaz J, et al. Preferential association of Hepatitis C virus with apolipoprotein B48-containing lipoproteins. The Journal of General Virology. 2006;87:2983-2991. DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82033-0\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nFelmlee DJ, Sheridan DA, Bridge SH, Nielsen SU, Milne RW, Packard CJ, et al. Intravascular transfer contributes to postprandial increase in numbers of very-low-density hepatitis C virus particles. Gastroenterology. 2010;139:1774-1783, 1783.e1-6. DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2010.07.047\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nKong L, Giang E, Nieusma T, Kadam RU, Cogburn KE, Hua Y, et al. Hepatitis C virus E2 envelope glycoprotein core structure. Science. 2013. DOI: 10.1126/science.1243876\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nDao Thi VL, Dreux M, Cosset F-L. Scavenger receptor class B type I and the hypervariable region-1 of hepatitis C virus in cell entry and neutralisation. Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine. 2011;13:e13. DOI: 10.1017/S1462399411001785\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nBoyer A, Dumans A, Beaumont E, Etienne L, Roingeard P, Meunier J-C. The association of hepatitis C virus glycoproteins with apolipoproteins E and B early in assembly is conserved in lipoviral particles. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2014;289:18904-18913. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M113.538256\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nShawa IT, Sheridan DA, Felmlee DJ, Cramp ME. Lipid interactions influence hepatitis C virus susceptibility and resistance to infection. Clinics in Liver Disease. 2017;10:17-20. DOI: 10.1002/cld.643\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nSheridan DA, Hajarizadeh B, Fenwick FI, Matthews GV, Applegate T, Douglas M, et al. Maximum levels of hepatitis C virus lipoviral particles are associated with early and persistent infection. Liver International. 2016;23. DOI: 10.1111/liv.13176\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nBarth H, Schafer C, Adah MI, Zhang F, Linhardt RJ, Toyoda H, et al. Cellular binding of hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein E2 requires cell surface heparan sulfate. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2003;278:41003-41012. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M302267200\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nRamasamy I. Recent advances in physiological lipoprotein metabolism. Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. 2014;52:1695-1727. DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2013-0358\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nFilipe A, McLauchlan J. Hepatitis C virus and lipid droplets: Finding a niche. Trends in Molecular Medicine. 2015;21:34-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2014.11.003\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nBassendine MF, Sheridan DA, Bridge SH, Felmlee DJ, Neely RDG. Lipids and HCV. Seminars in Immunopathology. 2013;35:87-100. DOI: 10.1007/s00281-012-0356-2\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nMysore KR, Leung DH. Hepatitis B and C. Clinics in Liver Disease. 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j.cld.2018.06.002\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nNelson PK, Mathers BM, Cowie B, Hagan H, Des Jarlais D, Horyniak D, et al. Global epidemiology of hepatitis B and hepatitis C in people who inject drugs: Results of systematic reviews. Lancet. 2011;378:571-583. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61097-0\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nBukh J. The history of hepatitis C virus (HCV): Basic research reveals unique features in phylogeny, evolution and the viral life cycle with new perspectives for epidemic control. Journal of Hepatology. 2016;65:S2-S21. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.07.035\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nMessina JP, Humphreys I, Flaxman A, Brown A, Cooke GS, Pybus OG, et al. Global distribution and prevalence of hepatitis C virus genotypes. Hepatology. 2015;61:77-87. DOI: 10.1002/hep.27259\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nEsteban JI, Sauleda S, Quer J. The changing epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection in Europe. Journal of Hepatology. 2008;48:148-162. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2007.07.033\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nBunchorntavakul C, Chavalitdhamrong D, Tanwandee T. Hepatitis c genotype 6: A concise review and response-guided therapy proposal. World Journal of Hepatology. 2013;5:496-504. DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v5.i9.496\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nThong VD, Akkarathamrongsin S, Poovorawan K, Tangkijvanich P, Poovorawan Y. Hepatitis C virus genotype 6: Virology, epidemiology, genetic variation and clinical implication. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2014;20:2927-2940. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i11.2927\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nMurphy DG, Sablon E, Chamberland J, Fournier E, Dandavino R, Tremblay CL. Hepatitis C virus genotype 7, a new genotype originating from Central Africa. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2015;53:967-972. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02831-14\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nPetruzziello A, Marigliano S, Loquercio G, Cozzolino A, Cacciapuoti C. Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection: An up-date of the distribution and circulation of hepatitis C virus genotypes. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2016;22:7824-7840. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i34.7824\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nWilliams JL, Cagle HH, Christensen CJ, Fox-Leyva LK, McMahon BJ. Results of a hepatitis C general transfusion lookback program for patients who received blood products before July 1992. Transfusion. 2005;45:1020-1026. DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2005.04280.x\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nGibb DM, Goodall RL, Dunn DT, Healy M, Neave P, Cafferkey M, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus: Evidence for preventable peripartum transmission. Lancet. 2000;356:904-907. DOI: 10.1097/00006454-200106000-00025\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nShawa IT, Felmlee DJ, Hegazy D, Sheridan DA, Cramp ME. Exploration of potential mechanisms of HCV resistance in exposed uninfected intravenous drug users. Journal of Viral Hepatitis. 2017;24(12):1082-1088. DOI: 10.1111/jvh.12720\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nThurairajah PH, Hegazy D, Chokshi S, Shaw S, Demaine A, Kaminski ER, et al. Hepatitis C virus (HCV)—Specific T cell responses in injection drug users with apparent resistance to HCV infection. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2008;198:1749-1755. DOI: 10.1086/593337\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nMizukoshi E, Eisenbach C, Edlin BR, Newton KP, Raghuraman S, Weiler-Normann C, et al. Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-specific immune responses of long-term injection drug users frequently exposed to HCV. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2008;198:203-212. DOI: 10.1086/589510\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nGhany MG, Jake Liang T. Natural history of chronic hepatitis C. In: Miyamura T, Lemon S, Walker C, Wakita T, editors. Hepatitis C Virus II: Infection and Disease. Tokyo, Japan: Springer; 2016. DOI: 10.1007/978-4-431-56101-9_1\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nHoshida Y, Fuchs BC, Bardeesy N, Baumert TF, Chung RT. Pathogenesis and prevention of hepatitis C virus-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. Journal of Hepatology. 2014;61:S79-S90. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.07.010\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nEsteban-Riesco L, Depaulis F, Moreau A, Bacq Y, Dubois F, Goudeau A, et al. Rapid and sustained autologous neutralizing response leading to early spontaneous recovery after HCV infection. Virology. 2013;444:90-99. DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.05.037\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nBunchorntavakul C, Jones LM, Kikuchi M, Reddy KR, Chang K. Distinct features in natural history and outcomes of acute Hepatitis C. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 2015;49(4):e31-e40\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nLi HC, Lo SY. Hepatitis C virus: Virology, diagnosis and treatment. World Journal of Hepatology. 2015;7:1377-1389. DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v7.i10.1377\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nDe Monte A, Courjon J, Anty R, Cua E, Naqvi A, Mondain V, et al. Direct-acting antiviral treatment in adults infected with hepatitis C virus: Reactivation of hepatitis B virus coinfection as a further challenge. Journal of Clinical Virology. 2016;78:27-30. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2016.02.026\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nKondili LA, Robbins S, Blach S, Gamkrelidze I, Zignego AL, Brunetto MR, et al. Forecasting Hepatitis C liver disease burden on real-life data. Does the hidden iceberg matter to reach the elimination goals? Liver International. 2018;38:2190-2198. DOI: 10.1111/liv.13901\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Isaac Thom Shawa",address:"ishawa@medcol.mw",affiliation:'
Faculty of Biomedical Science and Health Professions, University of Malawi College of Medicine, Blantyre, Malawi
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7887",title:"Hepatitis B and C",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Hepatitis B and C",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7887.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"67104",title:"Molecular Variants for HBsAg: Surface and Subtype",slug:"molecular-variants-for-hbsag-surface-and-subtype",totalDownloads:277,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Johra Khan",authors:[{id:"276079",title:"Dr.",name:"Johra",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Johra Khan",slug:"johra-khan"}]},{id:"65469",title:"Hepatitis B Genotyping and Clinical Implication",slug:"hepatitis-b-genotyping-and-clinical-implication",totalDownloads:531,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Damodar Paudel and Sushma Suvedi",authors:[{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel"},{id:"284282",title:"MSc.",name:"Sushma",middleName:null,surname:"Suvedi",fullName:"Sushma Suvedi",slug:"sushma-suvedi"}]},{id:"71235",title:"Coinfection of Hepatitis B and C in HIV Patients: A Review of the State of the Art",slug:"coinfection-of-hepatitis-b-and-c-in-hiv-patients-a-review-of-the-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:254,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Alexandra Porras-Ramírez and Alejandro Rico-Mendoza",authors:[{id:"272621",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Porras-Ramírez",fullName:"Alexandra Porras-Ramírez",slug:"alexandra-porras-ramirez"},{id:"272623",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Rico-Mendoza",fullName:"Alejandro Rico-Mendoza",slug:"alejandro-rico-mendoza"}]},{id:"65423",title:"Hepatitis B and C Viruses",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c-viruses",totalDownloads:607,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Isaac Thom Shawa",authors:[{id:"274732",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaac",middleName:"Thom",surname:"Shawa",fullName:"Isaac Shawa",slug:"isaac-shawa"}]},{id:"65114",title:"Challenges and Strategies for Access to Treatment of Hepatitis C in Latin America",slug:"challenges-and-strategies-for-access-to-treatment-of-hepatitis-c-in-latin-america",totalDownloads:381,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"David Kershenobich and Nayelli Flores",authors:[{id:"274546",title:"Prof.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Kershenobich",fullName:"David Kershenobich",slug:"david-kershenobich"},{id:"278124",title:"Dr.",name:"Nayelli",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Nayelli Flores",slug:"nayelli-flores"}]},{id:"65111",title:"Direct-Acting Antivirals in Chronic Hepatitis C Infection with Liver Cirrhosis",slug:"direct-acting-antivirals-in-chronic-hepatitis-c-infection-with-liver-cirrhosis",totalDownloads:515,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Vijay Gayam, Arshpal Gill, Pavani Garlapati and Smruti Mohanty",authors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam"},{id:"274034",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshpal",middleName:null,surname:"Gill",fullName:"Arshpal Gill",slug:"arshpal-gill"},{id:"286810",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavani",middleName:null,surname:"Garlapati",fullName:"Pavani Garlapati",slug:"pavani-garlapati"},{id:"286811",title:"Dr.",name:"Smruti",middleName:null,surname:"Mohanty",fullName:"Smruti Mohanty",slug:"smruti-mohanty"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"932",title:"Acute Pancreatitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9e4aebaf0e8a2dd617fe38a5d3b2bff",slug:"acute-pancreatitis",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/932.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"26182",title:"Acute Biliary Pancreatitis",slug:"acute-biliary-pancreatitis",signatures:"Mehmet Ilhan and Halil Alıs",authors:[{id:"66078",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"İlhan",fullName:"Mehmet İlhan",slug:"mehmet-ilhan"}]},{id:"26183",title:"Acute Pancreatitis Induced by Drugs",slug:"acute-pancreatitis-induced-by-drugs",signatures:"Karel Urbánek, Ilona Vinklerová, Ondřej Krystyník and Vlastimil Procházka",authors:[{id:"64832",title:"Dr.",name:"Karel",middleName:null,surname:"Urbánek",fullName:"Karel Urbánek",slug:"karel-urbanek"}]},{id:"26184",title:"Obesity and Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"obesity-and-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Davor Štimac and Neven Franjić",authors:[{id:"67987",title:"Prof.",name:"Davor",middleName:null,surname:"Štimac",fullName:"Davor Štimac",slug:"davor-stimac"},{id:"69869",title:"Dr.",name:"Neven",middleName:null,surname:"Franjić",fullName:"Neven Franjić",slug:"neven-franjic"}]},{id:"26185",title:"Acute Pancreatitis During Pregnancy",slug:"acute-pancreatitis-during-pregnancy",signatures:"Tea Štimac and Davor Štimac",authors:[{id:"69839",title:"Prof.",name:"Davor",middleName:null,surname:"Štimac",fullName:"Davor Štimac",slug:"davor-stimac"},{id:"69845",title:"MSc",name:"Tea",middleName:null,surname:"Štimac",fullName:"Tea Štimac",slug:"tea-stimac"}]},{id:"26186",title:"Pancreatitis in Children",slug:"pancreatitis-in-children",signatures:"Alfredo Larrosa-Haro, Carmen A. Sánchez-Ramírez and Mariana Gómez-Nájera",authors:[{id:"71209",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Larrosa-Haro",fullName:"Alfredo Larrosa-Haro",slug:"alfredo-larrosa-haro"},{id:"71216",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen A",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Ramírez",fullName:"Carmen A Sánchez-Ramírez",slug:"carmen-a-sanchez-ramirez"},{id:"71550",title:"Dr",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Najera",fullName:"Mariana Gomez-Najera",slug:"mariana-gomez-najera"}]},{id:"26187",title:"Pancreatitis in Cystic Fibrosis and CFTR-Related Disorder",slug:"pancreatitis-in-cystic-fibrosis-and-cftr-related-disorder",signatures:"Michael J. Coffey and Chee Y. Ooi",authors:[{id:"71852",title:"Dr.",name:"Keith C. Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Ooi",fullName:"Keith C. Y. Ooi",slug:"keith-c.-y.-ooi"}]},{id:"26188",title:"Diabetes or Diabetes Drugs: A Cause for Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"diabetes-or-diabetes-drugs-a-cause-for-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Leann Olansky",authors:[{id:"63358",title:"Dr.",name:"Leann",middleName:null,surname:"Olansky",fullName:"Leann Olansky",slug:"leann-olansky"}]},{id:"26189",title:"Role of Peritoneal Macrophages on Local and Systemic Inflammatory Response in Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"role-of-peritoneal-macrophages-on-local-and-systemic-inflammatory-response-in-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Marcel Cerqueira Cesar Machado and Ana Maria Mendonça Coelho",authors:[{id:"63975",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Maria M",middleName:"Cerqueira Cesar",surname:"Coelho",fullName:"Ana Maria M Coelho",slug:"ana-maria-m-coelho"},{id:"115040",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Machado",fullName:"Marcel Machado",slug:"marcel-machado"}]},{id:"26190",title:"Molecular Biology of Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"molecular-biology-of-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Francisco Soriano and Ester C.S. Rios",authors:[{id:"69471",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:"Garcia",surname:"Soriano",fullName:"Francisco Soriano",slug:"francisco-soriano"},{id:"117418",title:"Dr.",name:"Ester",middleName:"Correia Sarmento",surname:"Rios",fullName:"Ester Rios",slug:"ester-rios"}]},{id:"26191",title:"Oxidative Stress and Antioxidative Status in the Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-antioxidative-status-in-the-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Andrzej Lewandowski, Krystyna Markocka-Mączka, Maciej Garbień, Dorota Diakowska and Renata Taboła",authors:[{id:"65620",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Lewandowski",fullName:"Andrzej Lewandowski",slug:"andrzej-lewandowski"},{id:"66576",title:"Prof.",name:"Krystyna",middleName:null,surname:"Markocka-Maczka",fullName:"Krystyna Markocka-Maczka",slug:"krystyna-markocka-maczka"},{id:"66577",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Diakowska",fullName:"Dorota Diakowska",slug:"dorota-diakowska"},{id:"66578",title:"Dr.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Garbie?",fullName:"Maciej Garbie?",slug:"maciej-garbie"},{id:"71698",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Taboła",fullName:"Renata Taboła",slug:"renata-tabola"}]},{id:"26192",title:"Microcirculatory Disturbances in the Pathogenesis of Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"microcirculatory-disturbances-in-the-pathogenesis-of-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Dirk Uhlmann",authors:[{id:"63169",title:"Prof.",name:"Dirk",middleName:null,surname:"Uhlmann",fullName:"Dirk Uhlmann",slug:"dirk-uhlmann"}]},{id:"26193",title:"Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography-Related Acute Pancreatitis – Identification, Prophylaxis and Treatment",slug:"endoscopic-retrograde-cholangiopancreatography-related-acute-pancreatitis-identification-prophylaxis",signatures:"Alejandro González-Ojeda, Carlos Dávalos-Cobian, Elizabeth Andalón-Dueñas, Mariana Chávez-Tostado, Arturo Espinosa-Partida and Clotilde Fuentes-Orozco",authors:[{id:"65817",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-Ojeda",fullName:"Alejandro Gonzalez-Ojeda",slug:"alejandro-gonzalez-ojeda"}]},{id:"26194",title:"Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) Related Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"endoscopic-retrograde-cholangiopancreatography-ercp-related-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Zoltán Döbrönte",authors:[{id:"65652",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoltan",middleName:null,surname:"Dobronte",fullName:"Zoltan Dobronte",slug:"zoltan-dobronte"}]},{id:"26195",title:"Nutrition Assessment and Therapy in Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"nutrition-assessment-and-therapy-in-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Vanessa Fuchs-Tarlovsky and Krishnan Sriram",authors:[{id:"67143",title:"Dr.",name:"Vanessa",middleName:null,surname:"Fuchs-Tarlovsky",fullName:"Vanessa Fuchs-Tarlovsky",slug:"vanessa-fuchs-tarlovsky"},{id:"118763",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishnan",middleName:null,surname:"Sriram",fullName:"Krishnan Sriram",slug:"krishnan-sriram"}]},{id:"26196",title:"Changes in the Management of Treatment in Acute Pancreatitis Patients",slug:"changes-in-the-management-of-treatment-in-acute-pancreatitis-patients",signatures:"Juraj Bober, Jana Kaťuchová and Jozef Radoňak",authors:[{id:"69676",title:"Prof.",name:"Juraj",middleName:null,surname:"Bober",fullName:"Juraj Bober",slug:"juraj-bober"},{id:"69682",title:"Prof.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Katuchova",fullName:"Jana Katuchova",slug:"jana-katuchova"},{id:"69689",title:"Prof.",name:"Jozef",middleName:null,surname:"Radonak",fullName:"Jozef Radonak",slug:"jozef-radonak"}]},{id:"26197",title:"Hypertriglyceride Induced Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"hypertriglyceride-induced-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Joshua Lebenson and Thomas Oliver",authors:[{id:"63815",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Oliver",fullName:"Thomas Oliver",slug:"thomas-oliver"},{id:"64128",title:"Dr",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Lebenson",fullName:"Joshua Lebenson",slug:"joshua-lebenson"}]},{id:"26198",title:"The Role of Percutaneous Drainage in the Treatment of Severe Acute Pancreatitis on the Basis of the Modified Atlanta Classification",slug:"the-role-of-percutaneous-drainage-in-the-treatment-of-severe-acute-pancreatitis-on-the-basis-of-the-",signatures:"Zsolt Szentkereszty, Róbert Kotán and Péter Sápy",authors:[{id:"72116",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Szentkereszty",fullName:"Zsolt Szentkereszty",slug:"zsolt-szentkereszty"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74185",title:"Knotworking as an Analytical Tool for Designing e-Learning While Targeting Industry Competence Needs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94998",slug:"knotworking-as-an-analytical-tool-for-designing-e-learning-while-targeting-industry-competence-needs",body:'
1. Introduction
University teachers’ efforts and activities of developing blended e-learning courses for professional competence development in manufacturing industry pose potentials but causes also challenges for the university, the teaching practice, and the practitioners. In this chapter these transformative efforts have been defined as design work. The complexity of planning and designing of e-learning courses has been discussed from the university teacher’s perspective for meeting experienced industry practitioners need of work-integrated learning.
The potential of blended e-learning is claimed to support learning that is more active, participatory, personalized, flexible, and inclusive towards today’s diverse learning needs [1, 2, 3]. Blended e-learning courses offer a formal system for arranging and constructing new collaborations and learning between teachers and practitioners in which they can integrate organizational, social and individual perspectives for mutual knowledge development [4]. However, designing for new modes of e-learning targeting industry knowledge needs are forcing teachers’ work into a changed pedagogical and didactical practice that pushes them into unfolding new learning strategies and to find an applicable course blend of digitized learning material and new communicative strategies outside the class room [5, 6, 7, 8]. Arranging for such learning events includes challenges to define a qualitative mix of on-line time combined with spaces of physical effective meetings and defining knowledge content that matches the workplace demands. Altogether these challenges impact the university traditional routines and teacher’s knowledge mediation and hence design work and implementation, hence their design practice [2, 9].
The manufacturing industry is constantly challenged by the digital transformation of the engineering work [10] with an increased need of industrial automation and robotics [11, 12], interconnected machines and big data analytics [13], and new production systems [14] put future professionals under continuous reconstruction [15, 16]. Industry professionals need to be competitive and keep up to industry companies efficiency paradigm, and pressured to strengthen and update their knowledge and skills to meet a globalized production [12]. Consequently, learning to become and stay as a competent expert for an entire working life tends to be harder for professionals [16, 17, 18].
Given this situation, engineering professionals continuously seek for new knowledge and learning as an integrated part of work, here described as work-integrated e-learning labelled e-WIL [19]. This means knowledge that will further strengthening their industry experiences combined with new theoretical knowledge. Given these potentials and challenges of long-term transformations call for universities to plan, implement and evaluate competence efforts that meet the industry practice in a whole new way. Earlier studies have emphasized the need to further investigate e-learning across professional boundaries in manufacturing organizational domains and communities [20]. Furthermore, it has been shown that designing for learning across such boundaries is hard, therefore it is here argued for a more close and detailed analysis of how to design to actually plan and implement courses for work-integrated e-learning. Professionals are continuously balancing between individual and mutual goals pressured of their obligations to achieve organizational purposeful objectives and results.
To shed light on the professionals (teachers and practitioners) design work, the theoretical concept knotworking [21] was used as an analytical tool to rethink the design work towards more collaborative activities of professionals temporal teamwork. Knotworking refers to tying, untying, and retying together seemingly separate threads of activity. Hence, the purpose of knotworking is to address professionals innovative and creative ideas and to grasp their inner thoughts and actions in a process of e-learning design. This chapter aims to explore professionals’ knowledge discussions in forms of knotworking through the cultural historical activity theory, CHAT [22, 23].
To grasp professionals’ involvement and interaction in the design work of e-learning courses, an effort has been made to analyze professionals’ specific experiences, their identification, and coordination activities towards transformative efforts. Two studies were carried out within the ProdEx, a longitudinal competence development project, with duration between the year 2013 until 2020 [20]. The project was focusing on competence development within production technology knowledge targeting practitioners in manufacturing industry. In this chapter, a re-analysis of the teachers’ and practitioners’ experiences has been done by applying the knotworking concept following these two research questions:
RQ1: How can knotworking expand a new e-learning design practice for work-integrated learning?
RQ2: What can be learnt on a systemic level from e-learning design work when applying knotworking as an analytical concept?
2. The context of the research
2.1 The ProdEx project
The ProdEx project (Expert in Production Technology) was initiated as a collaboration between one university in West Sweden together with regional manufacturing industry companies in 2013. It has been ongoing for seven years and will formally end in December 2020. ProdEx will however continue as a regular competence program at the university with courses designed targeting industry knowledge needs. The overall project aim is co-production of competence activities for university-industry stakeholders to strengthen industry practitioner’s expert competences. Today the project comprises a network of about 40 different industry companies within the automotive and aerospace sector. ProdEx runs by a project group that is situated at a Production Technology Centre (PTC), which is a well-equipped research laboratory with an automation laboratory, multi-task CNC machines, a material laboratory, etc. PTC is affiliated to the university engineering department.
The university project group consists of action researchers, information and communication pedagogues, IT technicians, administrators, and program managers. Representatives from the project group continuously participate in meetings and co-production activities with the industry stakeholders, around competence mapping of knowledge needs and definition of learning content. Cross-boundary activities topics also concern the design practice of evaluating e-learning design technologies and learning forms towards developing professional skills for a future digitalized industrial work practice.
The teachers are also conducting research projects together with many of the industry companies that takes part within the project. The initial courses in 2014, were designed in action design research cycles on an academic master’s degree level [24]. Besides, these teachers are regularly teaching campus courses of 7.5 European Credits (ECTS) within the engineering areas such as robotics and automation, cutting processes, sheet metal forming, welding, additive manufacturing, and smart manufacturing etc. With the support of the project they are responsible for the design work of modifying and slicing courses into shorter modules of 2.5 ECTS targeting the industrial instant knowledge needs. Today, in 2020 within the mentioned subject areas, a total of 30 different five-week flexible e-learning courses, each offering 2.5 European Credits (ECTS), have been designed. At the end of the project in 2020, 82 occasions of the courses will have been completed.
2.2 University and industry perspectives on e-learning
Designing courses for competence development on an academic level encompass a dual situation with the industry effectiveness pressure on the one hand, and the blended competence development opportunities offered by the university, on the other [25]. There may be different motives from the two stakeholders’ perspectives of the cross-organizational collaboration that presume a productive development. The university aims to strengthening the individual student to learn more, meanwhile the industry aims to increase the efficiency and competitiveness [11]. Colliding interests and conflicts on different systemic levels may occur, rather than foster energetic changes for learning [26]. Hence, cross-organizational collaborations may not per se cause benefits and learning [27] rather needs to be analyzed through its inner activities as power for change [22]. Learning activities with various inner contradictions are however systemic, embedded in history, developing over time, and cannot be studied directly. They rather need to be understood over time and through close collaborations with the actors [28]. How teachers are using learning technologies has been researched in recent years, however essential questions such as teachers’ approaches to use learning technologies in course design that integrate practitioners’ experiences and the workplace knowledge needs into the design work is relatively scarce [9]. Studies of teachers’ professional identities and coordination activities are affecting their e-learning design plans and pedagogical approaches when including practitioners’ experience-based and workplace knowledge needs [29]. Industry practitioners need to learn and develop their competences in a constantly changed work practice. For such needs, blended e-learning courses in higher education (HE) offer a flexible way of learning which is adjusted to and integrated in work practice.
Hence, teachers are shifting identities in their professional role when they approach a new target group [30]. Their perceived design challenges, how they identify and frame earlier experiences of e-learning and/or distance education, or maybe lack of experiences affect how their future pedagogical and technological design will be accomplished. Teachers individual’s beliefs and ideas have implications on the professional teaching role and in the design work of e-learning courses that aim to involve active participation from the learners (here the practitioners).
Also, practitioners can feel resistance of meeting the academic culture. Teachers are subject matter experts through an academic degree, but now they need to situate and mediate engineering knowledge, targeting a new group of skilled practitioners with workplace experiences. However, if these differences are used wisely, both actors can, despite their differences, can contribute with valuable knowledge in a learning situation. Industry practitioners and engineers traditionally have long experience-based knowledge of handling machines, tools, and systems, rather than theorizing on practical knowledge. They are knowledgeable and often problem-solving oriented. Therefore, it is argued that constructing knowledge together between teachers and researchers, early in the design process [31] will create valuable insights, higher relevance and flexibility in the design of e-WIL courses [24].
2.3 Work-integrated e-learning and engineering knowledge
In the learning literature, there is limited research on learning that includes engineering workplace knowledge built on participant’s experiences as knowledge resources, which can be used in blended e-learning courses [32, 33]. Teachers’ need to find a learning approach that is more integrative and relational between themselves and the practitioners, which also can be viewed as ‘sideways learning’ [34]. Other researchers highlight work-integrated learning (WIL) [19, 35], meaning that work and learning is integrated in everyday practices. WIL can be defined as “an umbrella term for a range of approaches and strategies that integrate theory with the practice of work within a purposefully designed curriculum” ([19] p. 4). Designing curricula built on ‘ways of experiencing’ [36] calls for an approach that incorporates expertise from the practitioners’ and their workplaces.
However, what is an engineering practice? [37]. In the engineering work environment, products and processes are constantly changing due to increased digitalization, automation, and robotization. There is a continuous need to improve the capabilities in the working process in manufacturing plants [38]. Operators and engineers therefore must both have operational experience and to be up to date on advanced manufacturing knowledge [14, 39]. The continuous reformation of the manufacturing processes requires employees to regularly assess new engineering knowledge and adapt to changes that imply short-term flexibility, instead of long-term perspectives [18]. Besides short-term perspectives, it is hard to find time for education due to time limits (work vs. time to study), and personnel sometimes have limited experiences of e-learning technologies and low management tolerance for taking time off work for studies, etc. [40, 41].
As argued before, teachers need to establish a close collaboration with practitioners in their design work and to incorporate engineering workplace know-how built on practitioners’ experiences. However, such activities presume multiple roles of both theoretical depth and practice-based engineering work. They move from a campus situation into a whole new situation of on-line flexible modes with design of for instance practical cases. Practitioners expertise bonds to diverse tasks such as problem solving and everyday hands-on operations of manufacturing systems. Such know-how relates to procedural knowledge and is different from declarative knowledge [42].
Accordingly, teachers’ will have to rethink the learning conditions in advance in their design work of e-WIL courses competence development [43]. Hence, to recognize and comprehend the company organization’s knowledge base including their culture, traditions, and practical know-how in such design initiatives [44].
3. Knotworking for tying and untying learning activities
Recent year’s research on knotworking have emerged as a response to traditional teamwork [21, 45, 46, 47]. According to Engeström [21] teams’ traditionally means several people gathered to approach a mutual goal and to accomplish a certain work task, however such teams usually lack both context and history. Today, teams are best understood and replaced by forms of fluctuating work in knots, and through knotworking, as a part of a certain context or activities. The notion of knot refers to distributed activities and partially improvised arrangements of collaboration with otherwise loosely connected actors across organizational boundaries.
“It is horizontal and dialogical learning that creates knowledge and transforms the activity by crossing boundaries and tying knots between activity systems operating in divided multi-organizational terrains”. ([48], p. 385).
A movement of tying, untying, and retying together seemingly separate threads of activity characterize knotworking ([21], p. 194). Collaborative knotworking shapes and reshapes to local settings and the center is not fixed and coordinated, rather the unstable knot itself needs to be made the focus of analysis [21]. The knot of collaborative work is not reducible to any specific individual or organizational entity as the center of control because the locus of initiative changes from moment to moment within a knotworking sequence.
Knotworking, and specifically negotiated knotworking, can be used to understand the social processes in inter-organizational collaboration of the learning activities [21, 47]. However, knotworking differs from traditional teamwork in the sense that continuity is connected to the object, not to the professionals, because the teachers, the practitioners and the initiators of knots can change. Hence, knots can be considered teams because of their changing memberships and the limited time of their existence.
Engeström [23] has defined the first principal of knotworking, meaning the object orientation of an activity. Through knotworking new object orientation might evolve into a new directionality of purposeful meaning ([23] p. 66). The second principle of knotworking concerns the tool-mediation of human action and activity. For instance, how e-learning technologies tools (video, LMS-systems etc.) are re-meditating information and knowledge between humans. The third principle concerns the mutual constitution of actions and activity. This applies to collective activities, group actions and to the level of co-constructed mutual activities. The fourth principle of knotworking directs to study changes through contradictions. Contradictions are historically accumulated tensions between opposing forces in an activity [34]. Through revisiting historical layered routines in for instance past e-learning design failures and its contradictions, it was possible to re-construct new ways of designing with new technological tools on a systemic level. Applying the knotworking model requires a long-term effort to study and establish new practices across organizational boundaries. It is through temporary groups that tasks are completing in a longitudinal process where the deadline is not fixed, in which mutual co-construction of future solutions are developing into new practices and further challenges.
4. Methodology
During the years 2014–2016 data collection of two research studies took place within the ProdEx project. Study I was conducted from a teacher perspective [30], and the other Study II, was conducted from a practitioner perspective. The data collection of respondents and specific focus from these two studies are outlined in Section 4.1. Section 4.2 is a re-analysis of excerpts from those two studies through the lens of knotworking.
4.1 Studies and data collection
Of the six included research studies conducted within the ProdEx project [20, 49], two studies were selected that in particular take the perspective of the teachers, Study I, and the practitioners, Study II. The original data collection of the two studies are described below. Study I was conducted through teacher interviews during spring 2014 and targeting the five teachers assigned to develop the first e-WIL courses [30]. Table 1 describes the teachers positions, course subject area and expertise.
Position
Subject area (courses)
Associate professor, PhD Industrial Automation
Industrial automation, robotics, programming (PLC, C++), and flexible and virtual manufacturing.
Senior lecturer, PhD Industrial Automation
Industrial automation, electronics, control systems, robotics, and flexible and virtual manufacturing.
Professor Machining, PhD Mechanical Engineering
Manufacturing technology, machining, metal cutting and forming, simulation, and operations management.
Senior lecturer, PhD Mechanical Engineering
Logistics, quality and design, operations management, negotiation skills, robot systems.
Senior lecturer, PhD Mechanical Engineering
Manufacturing technology, electrical engineering, machining, and cutting.
Table 1.
Overview of the five respondents’ positions and expertise.
The interviews were performed through a thematic interview guide and lasted about one to one and a half hours in duration. They were audio recorded and afterwards transcribed verbatim. Two interviewers were discussing with the respondents (the teachers) in an open dialogue in which alternative knowledge claims were debated throughout the session [50]. There was also a conversational tone and an open-minded approach guided our interest to understand the teachers’ interpretations on alignment and representations of an engineering learning practice. The teachers explored how they perceive design challenges, and how they identified and framed earlier experiences of e-learning and/or distance education, or maybe a lack of experiences. They defined their conceptions on design plans for blended e-learning courses targeting industry practitioner’s knowledge needs. Also, a focus was on their perceived ideas on work-integrated learning, meaning how to include practitioners’ everyday practice into the course situation and how such inclusion could affect the design of real cases, tasks, examinations and blended forms. A content analysis with open coding was conducted and grounded in the data material of the teachers’ narratives about their teaching practice. Individual transcripts were compared to find patterns between statements and thereafter categorized (p. 243 [30]).
The practitioner Study II was conducted during 2014–2016 through continuous focus group interview sessions, which were conducted at the end of each course unit. Data from focus group sessions were collected, audio recorded, and participants were taking part in informed consent. Each session took from one hour to one hour and 15 minutes’ to perform [20]. The focus group sessions were performed to capture practitioners’ course experiences through their ongoing negotiations, methodologically considered as formative interventions [51]. Each session gathered a unique ensemble of practitioners and teachers with the overarching object of strengthening industry knowledge within specific engineering areas. In total 119 participants (practitioners) and 12 focus group sessions were included, see Table 2.
Knowledge subjects
Courses
Nr of sessions
Nr of partici-pants
Automation and Robotics
Industrial automation (4) and Machine security in Robotics (1)
5
44
HR and Businesses
Negotiations Skills (3)
3
34
Mechanical Engineering
Machining (3) and Machining with Tribology (1)
4
41
Summary
12
119
Table 2.
Overview of the focus group sessions, related courses, and number of respondents’.
The data collection of the study was ongoing for three years and explored the practitioners’ perspectives on knowledge construction through the learning activities within the courses. Mainly their reflections, knowledge views and learning trajectory were studied in order to delineate forms and content of mutual knowledge construction on both knowledge content and e-learning design forms. The data analysis focused individuals’ expression of their knowledge experiences and the ongoing social interaction between the participants collectively. For this matter, a content analysis was conducted with concepts, unit of analysis, codes, categories, and themes [52]. During the analysis, codes such as learning technologies, pedagogical strategies, web conferencing use, with corresponding sub-codes such as login problems, communication, and interaction, and so on, developed. Furthermore, the analysis captured patterns and traces of new ideas around practitioners’ various negotiations that not only concerned e-learning design and technology use, i.e., the cultural tools, but also motives for knowledge development and new learning related to their own workplace. In sum, practitioners’ different motives for competence development, the overall university support and the company support became an overall categorization.
4.2 Analysis through knotworking
This chapter first asks how knotworking can expand an e-learning design practice for work-integrated learning. Thereafter, it is asked what can be learnt on a systemic level of e-learning design work when applying the knotworking concept on such design practice. Given this, the re-analyzed excerpts from Study I and Study II through the analytical tool knotworking [21] is applied to earlier learning activities to make open problematic solutions, and more readily grasp fluid forms of knowledge exchange and learning between teachers and practitioners.
In particular, these re-interpretations are presented and organized in relation to the knotworking concept to capture the complexity of the identified issues from a teacher perspective (Study I) and a practitioner perspective (Study II), see Table 3. First, excerpts from the previous coding processes was re-coded as examples of untying and tying processes. The coding scheme was further developed to categorize interpretations of oral manifestations of untying and tying processes linked to specific demanding situations. Thus, the analysis was both driven by theory-based categories and new categories that emerged from re-interpretations of the transcribed interview materials following the process of systematic combining [53]. The developed coding scheme is presented in Table 3.
Actors
Untying
Tying
Teacher perspective
Campus mode versus on-line mode Issues of new e-learning technologies
Designing together with practitioners Designing digitized cases and labs Digitizing learning content Work-integrated learning
Practitioner perspective
Time and routines for e-learning studies as part of work is affecting the work situation Negotiating obstacles to achieve an academic degree
Time and place for qualitative e-learning towards new practices Incorporating business issues for becoming a competent professional in forms of work-integrated learning
Table 3.
Teacher and practitioner perspectives of untying and tying learning activities.
The analysis in Table 3, will further be explored in the result Section 5, in accordance with the coding scheme that developed during the iterative re-analysis.
5. Knotworking as analytical concept in a collaborative design practice
From a learning perspective, knotworking represents an ongoing process that involves the participation of different groups and stakeholders (university and industry). The mix of contributors bring about gaps and de-stabilization of knowledge, practices, and relationships to normal instruction of cross-boundary collaboration to understand and develop both practices [26]. The professional actors must struggle to make sense of identities, coordination activities and creative ideas in unfamiliar situations in colliding activities, as well as in each other expectations. With an activity theory perspective, learning takes place when subjects encounter dilemmas, tensions, and context-bound contradictions in their activity, in this case, the e-learning design work between teachers and practitioners.
The challenges previously presented in the Introduction (Section 1) and in the Research context and background (Section 2), are issues that teachers and practitioners are confronting, summarized as:
targeting relevant engineering knowledge through continuous mapping of industry competence needs
developing a case-based methodology that stimulate knowledge construction between practitioners and teachers
choosing relevant learning technologies and decide on e-learning forms such as number of physical meetings, use of web-conferencing systems, learning management system (LMS) functionalities, etc.
meeting experienced industry practitioners need of work-integrated learning, hence intertwining theory with relevant practice for workplace demands of new knowledge
understanding how design work is developing over a period of time for meeting both universities and industry needs of competence development
In the results below, tying and untying knots within the e-learning design activities are analyzed from both a teacher and a practitioner perspective. The excerpts are examples of knotworking processes that are negotiated from various levels. For examples problems and solutions regarding decisions on e-learning content for on-line tasks and examinations, experiences of performing such tasks, validity for practitioners to learn and enhance their own (practitioners) everyday knowledge and skills. The object orientation, the tool-mediation, the co-constituted activities and the contradictions [21] are principles of knotworking, which are analyzed in the activities through untying and tying on various levels (micro and mezzo) in which teachers and practitioners actually manifesting their experiences and thoughts.
5.1 Untying: teachers perspectives
Negotiating certain learning situations within the design work is a process of untying identified and experienced issues and to find a new objective.
5.1.1 Campus mode versus on-line mode
One teacher emphasizes physical meetings for interaction: “… we can push for having at least three meetings here at PTC for discussions and labs with real equipment ….”
This teacher is untying a problem by departure from habits of a traditional campus teaching mode, towards transformation to an on-line situation. Teachers earlier identities on how to conduct physical labs and to redefine their classroom context into an e-learning context is about finding a balance from one context to another.
5.1.2 Issues of new e-learning technologies
Another teacher within automation, with high software skills, are trying to unfold software issues: “There is much software, and I think the challenge is how to present the content of the course in a new way.”
A third teacher argues: “… technology problems to get connected with industries because of firewalls. Also, we cannot do everything online, we need to meet and discuss according to my experience.”
Both teachers are explaining their anxiety of handling new technologies and the problems are untyed into certain micro-level issues concerning lack of skills and organizational restrictions. These hindrances make them anxious about how to perform qualitative e-learning solutions.
5.2 Tying: teachers perspectives
Processes of how to solve problems, to find models and new content delivery and also combining resources in new way in order to achieve new goals (both student goals and accomplished exams) are processes of tying together separate threads into future solutions.
5.2.1 Designing together with practitioners
This teacher claim that it is important to include practitioners’ knowledge:
“… look after what experiences they bring in with their background and if they have examples connected to the course … based on that, we arrange the assignments.”
Another teacher on the same topic: To find ways of explicate and include tacit knowledge is hard: “There is not a physical explanation on everything they observe. Therefore, we cannot explain everything. So, there is still a phenomenon what a person does that we can’t really explain.”
Both excerpts refer to considerations on how to design for or with practitioners in order to grasp their workplace experiences into an e-learning format. This knotworking process of tying suggests that understanding each other practices (university vs. industry) across boundaries are fruitful.
5.2.2 Designing digitized cases and labs
Actual problem solving (during a course task) is trained through authentic labs, earlier referred to as a process of untying in which labs should be conducted in a physical space. Such activities are strongly bound to hands-on actions and therefore become hard to mediate as digital learning content. However, one teachers says, there is a need for a qualified system for 3D graphics: “So, I think it’s good to create a virtual lab … it requires a very high graphic quality … then you can do your experiments online. However, we are not even close to that yet.”
In the tying process the teacher is suggesting new solutions into an unknown practice with high-quality graphics systems etc. An innovative solution that will generate satisfied practitioners conducting the course. It is a matter of continuously redefining and thereby shaping boundaries of the teaching role as they come to act in both worlds simultaneously.
5.2.3 Digitizing learning content
One teacher says: “I think the greatest challenge is to choose which content that must be interactive and to do the separation of other learning material… we do not believe in 45 minutes movies.”
By learning from bad experiences of long video material including all learning material, new ideas are tied into producing short video films and to decide on other tool-mediations for the rest of the learning material in other forms. This is a process of coordination in order to maintain the workflow through intertwining various technologies and pedagogics.
5.2.4 Work-integrated learning
One teacher describes WIL as: “WIL is two-folded; first to motivate it to the management that knowledge is good, giving specific demands on knowledge that makes you go to business tomorrow. However, for this type of WIL we are planning, when the companies actually buy a course from us, I think they should have a very clear vision, what they should do with the knowledge, and what they want to achieve by educating their staff.”
This teacher is arguing for how WIL also needs to be included in e-learning, hence designing for e-WIL courses. Tying together the university vision of WIL with blended e-learning targeting and involving industry practitioner’s knowledge requirements, is a way of having innovative ideas on how to perform high qualitative design work.
Untying and tying is an on-going process of resolving tensions and dilemmas into tying new solutions and finding good examples to go further with. The old mental models of campus education traditionally do not fit into this new type of practice. The professional teacher identity is grounded in historical traditions of the classroom metaphor in which the teacher also is the expert, and the learner should follow. However, the excerpts above illustrate that such practice is no longer valid in an on-line environment in which involvement of industry professional’s know-how needs to be co-constructed.
5.3 Untying: practitioners perspectives
Untying is a process of unfolding problems to further delineate solutions which is illustrated below from the industry practitioners’ perspectives with their experiences of conducting e-WIL courses and participating in focus group sessions as part the ProdEx project. They are actively contributing to the design work incorporating their home company requirements together with their individual experience-based know-how of the broad subject area of engineering knowledge.
5.3.1 Time and routines for e-learning studies as part of work is affecting the work situation
This negotiated knotworking of untying concerns the problematic dilemma of the company’s dissimilar conditions to allow practitioners to compensate time for studies versus working hours.
Interviewer:Do you need to compensate with work time for this course day?
Operator 1:No, it is more a feeling one has.
Operator 2:What I did not do at work today, I must catch up later.
Operator 3:I need to clock in at the factory every morning…
The operators have different issues for not having time to conduct the studies as they wish. Such dilemmas need to be considered for the teachers when they design how and when certain tasks and examinations could be performed and how it will affect the outcome of a course.
Other untying issues regard how the companies businesses objectives of increased business values are interfering the practitioners when the companies rather view them “as investments” and not emphasize and support their individual learning progress.
Operator 3:…will my company earn money after I participated in this course?
Interviewer: Hmm, the payoff may not occur instantly, what do you mean?
Operator 4: Through a single course, no, but maybe with a series of courses.
Operator 2: But this competence initiative was not intended due to the company to earn money on us, we should increase our knowledge in case of foretoken, or?
Operator 1: Do not say so to me, the purpose was to earn money!
Operator 5: XX, the HR manager said that we should increase our knowledge to develop from operators into service clerks (engineers), we are sitting loose in case of foretoken, and need to broaden our knowledge and get academic degrees.
Operator 6: Of course, the company wants to earn money on us, like with everything else…
The discussion is heating up and everybody is chatting in each other’s mouths. This untying of a problematic situation in which various obstacles are negotiated as alleged assumptions are not common to consider in the e-learning design work. The ethical dilemmas encountered here, are mostly uncommon when educating students in traditional campus courses.
5.3.2 Negotiating obstacles to achieve an academic degree
Furthermore, in the same session as above, the operators clearly describe problems of getting an academic degree meanwhile fear to not lose the job.
Operator 1: Yes, but that is also a question of study full-time or not. This course will give you some breadth.
Operator 2: But if the company was really interested of, hell yes, let’s get Marcus an education so that he will flourish into being as qualified as possible…?
Operator 1: If such case I would study half time right away, but such time is not even possible…
These two operators are eager to achieve personal development but clearly lack any opportunities to find a possible solution. By untying such dilemmas, they also manifest their fearfulness of not being able to hold on to their job if they don’t perform competence development. They are time pressured and hence the course content needs to be up-to-date and designed in a flexible form adjusted to full-time work hours.
5.4 Tying: practitioners perspectives
These excerpts refer to the course design regarding breaking up old teaching routines with less talking’s and doings in real life. How are such tying of new solutions and routines developing?
5.4.1 Time and place for qualitative e-learning towards new practices
In this session practitioners suggest using the latest technology of modern equipment to learn for new practices.
Operator M1: But we like to have more meetings here [PTC], so we can run the robots down the machine hall.
Technician 2: More web-based tasks and when we are here [at PTC], we like to run more labs, like those we did today on the final exams. Very nice!
5.4.2 Incorporating business issues for becoming a competent professional in forms of work-integrated learning
The skilled expert operators, liked to help out, and felt they had superior skills in relation to those with an academic degree. The university lacked enough preparations to support those with low experience of practical factory work.
Operator 2: You must have your own machine, the material, and also tools to test. These are the prerequisites, otherwise you cannot solve the task.
Operator 6: However, the benefit was to take an example from the own factory.
Technician 1: But you cannot just walk into the factory and start during ongoing manufacturing…
Again, the real case issues return due to lack of possibilities for all practitioners to perform the real case task. Hence, in this process of tying and re-tying, was emerging by pointing to the industry organizations values of high knowledge and how such knowledge could contribute to others. This was possible through finding own solutions in the real-tasks and to unfold experience-based know-how. Finding well-formulated tasks for real cases within the courses became important input to the teachers.
To summarize. The object of activity was fluent in the knots and the professionals brought in new knowledge through historical experiences and responses to their own doings and organizational culture (university and industry). Negotiations were conducted throughout the mutual design work before and during course implementation, which was captured during teaching and learning activities. Results show how negotiated knotworking on the boundaries between university and industry need to be accomplished, because crossing boundaries is not enough. It gives an understanding on how to go further with solutions or best practice for future innovative objectives. By applying the concept of knotworking it was possible to grasp explanations and innovations for a new design practice.
6. Discussion
In this research approach, knotworking was applied to the teacher study and the practitioner study that connected temporary groups of teachers, practitioners, tasks, and tools across organizational boundaries, to improve learning and knowledge development within production technology. The tying and untying of problems and suggested solutions were knotworking that took part during the course activities and hence described during the sessions. Knotworking that was negotiated in conversations and communicated, were studied from both the teacher and practitioner perspectives and in different time scales. Consequently, grasping such expressed knowledge, was used to give implications for the overall e-learning design process towards a qualitative design practice of e-WIL courses. The illustrated analysis show that knotworking, and specifically negotiated knotworking is prerequisite inter-organizational collaborative activities towards new modes of expanded object of activities. This means to find new forms, content, and constructions for strengthening expert knowledge between theory and practice, in order to open up respective expert knowledge area.
The negotiated knotworking analysis showed how habits and routines (structures) are not working anymore. Rather, the study shows the importance of not transfer old habits into a new on-line community situation that asks for a transformative process to act in a whole new way. By setting aside old structures and rather focus on a more creative e-learning mode of new technologies and content production the professionals are pushed to design differently.
Practitioners actively contributed to the creation of work-integrated e-learning through their own expertise and knowledge into the courses as valuable subject resources. Through negotiated knotworking of untying and tying, co-construction of new e-WIL solutions in various forms emerged.
Recommendations are to design in short cycles of learning activities including planning and implementation of both new e-learning technologies, real-case tasks, interactive pedagogy etc. towards qualitative e-WIL courses.
7. Conclusion
The analysis of the two studies explored a broad variation to further understand the e-learning practices in the design and implementation work of e-WIL courses. Given this, the concept of negotiated knotworking emphasized immediate actions of shared objects of interest as well as longitudinal processes of learning activities.
The chapter argues that knotworking is a concept for capturing creativity and innovation in temporary groups that meet around common challenges, in which everyone needs quick and creative input of both the joint work and the own areas of responsibility. To summarize, the following lessons learnt are outlined:
Knotworking stimulates direct uptake on short-term responses to changing objects of activity through tying, untying, and retying together seemingly separate threads of activity
Organizing for temporarily teams in order to stimulate shared motives, and sharing knowledge and learning insights outside traditional organizational boundaries are crucial
Decision making and engagement in new learning practices require stakeholders’ (industry-university) abilities of inter-organizational boundary crossing activities
Actors’ (practitioners, teachers) willingness to problem-orientation and curiosity of new technology and knowledge sharing need to be supported
Universities openness to new learning strategies of theory-practical intertwining, stimulating mutual learning through innovative pedagogy, e.g. case-based and work-integrated cases and tasks should be a priority.
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgement to the project management in the ProdEx project at University West, for participation and contribution to the research results. Thank you, all industry partners, involved in the studies during meetings and interviews. The original studies and data collection were funded by the Swedish Knowledge Foundation and this chapter is funded by the Sweden’s innovation agency.
School of Business, Economics and IT, University West, Sweden
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century - Challenges and Prospects",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century - Challenges and Prospects",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. M Mahruf C Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M Mahruf C",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m-mahruf-c-shohel",fullName:"M Mahruf C Shohel"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"290576",title:"BSc.",name:"Bong Soon",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",email:"bs6238@swu.ac.kr",fullName:"Bong Soon Lim",slug:"bong-soon-lim",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Forest Decline Under Progress in the Urban Forest of Seoul, Central Korea",slug:"forest-decline-under-progress-in-the-urban-forest-of-seoul-central-korea",abstract:"Vegetation in the urban area showed not only a difference in species composition but also lower diversity compared with that of the natural area. Successional trend was normal in natural area, but that in urban areas showed a retrogressive pattern. Korean mountain ash (Sorbus alnifolia (Siebold & Zucc.) K.Koch), a shade intolerant species, dominated such a retrogressive succession. The vegetation decline is due to changes of mesoclimate and soil properties that imbalanced distribution of green space induced as the result of urbanization. In recent years, new environmental stress due to climate change is imposed additively to this forest decline. Drought is the very environmental stress. Drought-induced plant damage started from withering of leaves of plants introduced for landscaping in the urban area. Over time, branches died and death of the whole plant body followed. In particular, damage of Korean mountain ash, the product of retrogressive succession, was remarkable. As retrogressive succession has already progressed much, thus such phenomenon could be recognized as crisis of urban forest.",signatures:"Chang Seok Lee, Songhie Jung, Bong Soon Lim, A Reum Kim, Chi Hong Lim and Hansol Lee",authors:[{id:"254042",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang Seok",surname:"Lee",fullName:"Chang Seok Lee",slug:"chang-seok-lee",email:"leecs@swu.ac.kr"},{id:"262359",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi Hong",surname:"Lim",fullName:"Chi Hong Lim",slug:"chi-hong-lim",email:"sync03@nie.re.kr"},{id:"290576",title:"BSc.",name:"Bong Soon",surname:"Lim",fullName:"Bong Soon Lim",slug:"bong-soon-lim",email:"bs6238@swu.ac.kr"},{id:"290577",title:"MSc.",name:"A Reum",surname:"Kim",fullName:"A Reum Kim",slug:"a-reum-kim",email:"dkfma_v@hanmail.net"},{id:"290578",title:"MSc.",name:"Songhie",surname:"Jung",fullName:"Songhie Jung",slug:"songhie-jung",email:"jungsonghie@naver.com"},{id:"290579",title:"MSc.",name:"Hansol",surname:"Lee",fullName:"Hansol Lee",slug:"hansol-lee",email:"hsl421@daum.ne"}],book:{title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"107036",title:"Dr.",name:"Fausto",surname:"Acerbi Junior",slug:"fausto-acerbi-junior",fullName:"Fausto Acerbi Junior",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Lavras",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"249459",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Terra",slug:"marcela-terra",fullName:"Marcela Terra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"254042",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang Seok",surname:"Lee",slug:"chang-seok-lee",fullName:"Chang Seok Lee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276222",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduarda",surname:"Silveira",slug:"eduarda-silveira",fullName:"Eduarda Silveira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276688",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Latif",surname:"Khan",slug:"mohammed-latif-khan",fullName:"Mohammed Latif Khan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"279797",title:"Dr.",name:"Purabi",surname:"Saikia",slug:"purabi-saikia",fullName:"Purabi Saikia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"279806",title:"MSc.",name:"Rima",surname:"Kumari",slug:"rima-kumari",fullName:"Rima Kumari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"279807",title:"BSc.",name:"Ayan",surname:"Banerjee",slug:"ayan-banerjee",fullName:"Ayan Banerjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"285660",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",surname:"Kumar",slug:"amit-kumar",fullName:"Amit Kumar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"285661",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Kumar",slug:"rahul-kumar",fullName:"Rahul Kumar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"partnerships",title:"Partnerships",intro:"
IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
",metaTitle:"Partnerships",metaDescription:"IntechOpen was built by scientists, for scientists. We understand the community we serve, but to bring an even better service to the table for IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we partnered with the leading companies and associations in the industry and beyond.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/partnerships",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
ALPSP
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
\\n
\\n\\n
OASPA
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
\\n
\\n\\n
STM
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\\n
\\n\\n
COPE
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
\\n
\\n\\n
Creative Commons
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\\n
\\n\\n
Crossref
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
\\n
\\n\\n
Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
\\n
\\n\\n
CLOCKSS
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\\n
\\n\\n
Counter
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\\n
\\n\\n
DORA
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
\\n
\\n\\n
iThenticate
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
\\n
\\n\\n
Enago
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
\\n
\\n\\n
SPi Global
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\\n
\\n\\n
Amazon
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\\n
\\n\\n
DHL
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
\n
\n\n
OASPA
\n\n
\n\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
\n
\n\n
STM
\n\n
\n\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\n
\n\n
COPE
\n\n
\n\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
\n
\n\n
Creative Commons
\n\n
\n\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Crossref
\n\n
\n\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
\n
\n\n
Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
\n\n
\n\t
Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
\n
\n\n
CLOCKSS
\n\n
\n\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\n
\n\n
Counter
\n\n
\n\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\n
\n\n
DORA
\n\n
\n\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
\n
\n\n
iThenticate
\n\n
\n\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
\n
\n\n
Enago
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\n\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
\n
\n\n
SPi Global
\n\n
\n\t
SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\n
\n\n
Amazon
\n\n
\n\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\n
\n\n
DHL
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/54719/images/system/54719.jpg",biography:"Prof. Hany A. El-Shemy received his two PhD degrees in Biochemistry and Genetic Engineering from the University of Cairo, Egypt and University of Hiroshima, Japan. He became an assistant professor in the Biochemistry Department of Cairo University, Egypt, from Sept. 1996 and advanced to associate professor in Sept. 2002 as well as a full professor in March 2007. His research interests are in the fields of plant biotechnology and medicinal plants (Molecular Biology). He registered 2 patents, wrote 12 international books, published more than 90 SCI journal papers and 45 conference presentations, and served as the technique committee member as well as chair in many international conferences and the editor in BMC Genomics as well as in Current Issues in Molecular Biology, and also a reviewer for more than 25 SCI cited journals. He received several awards, including State Prize awarded from the Academy of Science, Egypt (2004); Young Arab Researcher Prize awarded from Schuman Foundation, Jordan (2005); State Excellence Prize from the Academy of Science, Egypt (2011 and 2018); and Cairo University Prizes (2007, 2010, and 2014). He served as an expert for African Regional Center for Technology, Dakar, Senegal, plus a visiting professor at Pan African University, African Union, Nairobi, Kenya. He was appointed acting vice president of the Academy of Science and Technology from November 2013 to November 2014, Egypt. He was also a dean of the Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University from 2014 to 2017.",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"93369",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Gibon",slug:"yves-gibon",fullName:"Yves Gibon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"105746",title:"Dr.",name:"A.W.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Koopman-van Gemert",slug:"a.w.m.m.-koopman-van-gemert",fullName:"A.W.M.M. Koopman-van Gemert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105746/images/5803_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Anna Wilhelmina Margaretha Maria Koopman-van Gemert MD, PhD, became anaesthesiologist-intensivist from the Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) in 1987. She worked for a couple of years also as a blood bank director in Nijmegen and introduced in the Netherlands the Cell Saver and blood transfusion alternatives. She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5816},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5281},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1754},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10511},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:906},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15913}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1754},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"24"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10764",title:"Antenna Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2fbf1c7a5d92723f08198fc9b526a8ad",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Hussain Al-Rizzo and Assistant Prof. Said Abushamleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10764.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"153384",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain",surname:"Al-Rizzo",slug:"hussain-al-rizzo",fullName:"Hussain Al-Rizzo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10964",title:"Wearable Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0981ee7867892cc6e0a4edd65b792ac9",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10964.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:44},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:2},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5315},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9536",title:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cf6891060eb438d975d250e8b127ed6",slug:"education-at-the-intersection-of-globalization-and-technology",bookSignature:"Sharon Waller, Lee Waller, Vongai Mpofu and Mercy Kurebwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharon",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"sharon-waller",fullName:"Sharon Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9524",title:"Organ Donation and Transplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ef47e03cd4e6476946fc28ca51de825",slug:"organ-donation-and-transplantation",bookSignature:"Vassil Mihaylov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313113",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassil",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylov",slug:"vassil-mihaylov",fullName:"Vassil Mihaylov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",middleName:null,surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"319",title:"Poultry Science",slug:"poultry-science",parent:{title:"Animal Biology",slug:"animal-biology"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:63,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitations:56,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"poultry-science",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8470",title:"Poultry",subtitle:"An Advanced Learning",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88f09746e2b424573c8dc0bd927e9dbb",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",bookSignature:"Asghar Ali Kamboh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8470.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6623",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee6c1f2e58822c19bc014a9684cad0da",slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",bookSignature:"Xiaojun Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6623.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"183723",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaojun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"xiaojun-liu",fullName:"Xiaojun Liu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5315",title:"Poultry Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d2b2b8ff84b12d9afe428b7d059b0b46",slug:"poultry-science",bookSignature:"Milad Manafi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5315.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"56772",title:"Dr.",name:"Milad",middleName:null,surname:"Manafi",slug:"milad-manafi",fullName:"Milad Manafi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"52152",doi:"10.5772/64970",title:"An Overall View of the Regulation of Hepatic Lipid Metabolism in Chicken Revealed by New-Generation Sequencing",slug:"an-overall-view-of-the-regulation-of-hepatic-lipid-metabolism-in-chicken-revealed-by-new-generation-",totalDownloads:1483,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Hong Li, Zhuanjian Li and Xiaojun Liu",authors:[{id:"183723",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaojun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"xiaojun-liu",fullName:"Xiaojun Liu"},{id:"192708",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"hong-li",fullName:"Hong Li"},{id:"192709",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhuanjian",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"zhuanjian-li",fullName:"Zhuanjian Li"}]},{id:"52216",doi:"10.5772/65254",title:"Biofilms of Salmonella and Campylobacter in the Poultry Industry",slug:"biofilms-of-salmonella-and-campylobacter-in-the-poultry-industry",totalDownloads:2038,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Daise A. Rossi, Roberta T. Melo, Eliane P. Mendonça and Guilherme\nP. Monteiro",authors:[{id:"184318",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Roberta",middleName:"Torres",surname:"Melo",slug:"roberta-melo",fullName:"Roberta Melo"},{id:"184319",title:"MSc.",name:"Eliane Pereira",middleName:null,surname:"Mendonca",slug:"eliane-pereira-mendonca",fullName:"Eliane Pereira Mendonca"},{id:"184320",title:"MSc.",name:"Guilherme Paz",middleName:null,surname:"Monteiro",slug:"guilherme-paz-monteiro",fullName:"Guilherme Paz Monteiro"},{id:"184321",title:"Dr.",name:"Daise Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Rossi",slug:"daise-aparecida-rossi",fullName:"Daise Aparecida Rossi"}]},{id:"52242",doi:"10.5772/64846",title:"How to Control Campylobacter in Poultry Farms?: An Overview of the Main Strategies",slug:"how-to-control-campylobacter-in-poultry-farms-an-overview-of-the-main-strategies",totalDownloads:1575,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Michel Federighi",authors:[{id:"183926",title:"Dr.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Federighi",slug:"michel-federighi",fullName:"Michel Federighi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62271",title:"Selection Methods in Poultry Breeding: From Genetics to Genomics",slug:"selection-methods-in-poultry-breeding-from-genetics-to-genomics",totalDownloads:3472,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Vishesh Kumar Saxena and Gautham Kolluri",authors:[{id:"234356",title:"Dr.",name:"Gautham",middleName:null,surname:"Kolluri",slug:"gautham-kolluri",fullName:"Gautham Kolluri"},{id:"239339",title:"Dr.",name:"V.K",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"v.k-saxena",fullName:"V.K Saxena"}]},{id:"52383",title:"Assessment of Maize (Zea mays) as Feed Resource for Poultry",slug:"assessment-of-maize-zea-mays-as-feed-resource-for-poultry",totalDownloads:3730,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Herbert K. Dei",authors:[{id:"28844",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert",middleName:"Kwabla",surname:"Dei",slug:"herbert-dei",fullName:"Herbert Dei"}]},{id:"65864",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:2068,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde",authors:[{id:"273409",title:"Mr.",name:"Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Oloyo",slug:"ayodeji-oloyo",fullName:"Ayodeji Oloyo"},{id:"274920",title:"MSc.",name:"Adedamola",middleName:null,surname:"Ojerinde",slug:"adedamola-ojerinde",fullName:"Adedamola Ojerinde"}]},{id:"52005",title:"The Effect of Age on Growth Performance and Carcass Quality Parameters in Different Poultry Species",slug:"the-effect-of-age-on-growth-performance-and-carcass-quality-parameters-in-different-poultry-species",totalDownloads:1864,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Daria Murawska",authors:[{id:"147435",title:"Dr.",name:"Daria",middleName:null,surname:"Murawska",slug:"daria-murawska",fullName:"Daria Murawska"}]},{id:"52046",title:"Chemical Contaminants in Poultry Meat and Products",slug:"chemical-contaminants-in-poultry-meat-and-products",totalDownloads:2220,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Ayhan Filazi, Begum Yurdakok-Dikmen, Ozgur Kuzukiran and Ufuk\nTansel Sireli",authors:[{id:"152542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayhan",middleName:null,surname:"Filazi",slug:"ayhan-filazi",fullName:"Ayhan Filazi"},{id:"184153",title:"Dr.",name:"Begum",middleName:null,surname:"Yurdakok-Dikmen",slug:"begum-yurdakok-dikmen",fullName:"Begum Yurdakok-Dikmen"},{id:"184154",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozgur",middleName:null,surname:"Kuzukiran",slug:"ozgur-kuzukiran",fullName:"Ozgur Kuzukiran"},{id:"184155",title:"Dr.",name:"Ufuk Tansel",middleName:null,surname:"Sireli",slug:"ufuk-tansel-sireli",fullName:"Ufuk Tansel Sireli"}]},{id:"66081",title:"Genetic and Hormonal Regulation of Egg Formation in the Oviduct of Laying Hens",slug:"genetic-and-hormonal-regulation-of-egg-formation-in-the-oviduct-of-laying-hens",totalDownloads:667,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Birendra Mishra, Nirvay Sah and Sanjeev Wasti",authors:[{id:"274927",title:"Dr.",name:"Birendra",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"birendra-mishra",fullName:"Birendra Mishra"},{id:"290539",title:"Dr.",name:"Nirvay",middleName:null,surname:"Sah",slug:"nirvay-sah",fullName:"Nirvay Sah"},{id:"290540",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjeev",middleName:null,surname:"Wasti",slug:"sanjeev-wasti",fullName:"Sanjeev Wasti"}]},{id:"52216",title:"Biofilms of Salmonella and Campylobacter in the Poultry Industry",slug:"biofilms-of-salmonella-and-campylobacter-in-the-poultry-industry",totalDownloads:2038,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Daise A. Rossi, Roberta T. Melo, Eliane P. Mendonça and Guilherme\nP. Monteiro",authors:[{id:"184318",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Roberta",middleName:"Torres",surname:"Melo",slug:"roberta-melo",fullName:"Roberta Melo"},{id:"184319",title:"MSc.",name:"Eliane Pereira",middleName:null,surname:"Mendonca",slug:"eliane-pereira-mendonca",fullName:"Eliane Pereira Mendonca"},{id:"184320",title:"MSc.",name:"Guilherme Paz",middleName:null,surname:"Monteiro",slug:"guilherme-paz-monteiro",fullName:"Guilherme Paz Monteiro"},{id:"184321",title:"Dr.",name:"Daise Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Rossi",slug:"daise-aparecida-rossi",fullName:"Daise Aparecida Rossi"}]},{id:"61570",title:"Adenoviruses and Their Diversity in Poultry",slug:"adenoviruses-and-their-diversity-in-poultry",totalDownloads:965,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk",authors:[{id:"212649",title:"Dr.",name:"Jowita Samanta",middleName:null,surname:"Niczyporuk",slug:"jowita-samanta-niczyporuk",fullName:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk"}]},{id:"52234",title:"Selenium Requirements and Metabolism in Poultry",slug:"selenium-requirements-and-metabolism-in-poultry",totalDownloads:1609,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Anicke Brandt‐Kjelsen, Brit Salbu, Anna Haug and Joanna Szpunar",authors:[{id:"183779",title:"Dr.",name:"Anicke",middleName:null,surname:"Brandt-Kjelsen",slug:"anicke-brandt-kjelsen",fullName:"Anicke Brandt-Kjelsen"},{id:"192152",title:"Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Spzunar",slug:"joanna-spzunar",fullName:"Joanna Spzunar"},{id:"192153",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Haug",slug:"anna-haug",fullName:"Anna Haug"},{id:"192154",title:"Prof.",name:"Brit",middleName:null,surname:"Salbu",slug:"brit-salbu",fullName:"Brit Salbu"}]},{id:"53276",title:"Mycotoxins in Poultry",slug:"mycotoxins-in-poultry",totalDownloads:2992,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Ayhan Filazi, Begum Yurdakok-Dikmen, Ozgur Kuzukiran and Ufuk\nTansel Sireli",authors:[{id:"152542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayhan",middleName:null,surname:"Filazi",slug:"ayhan-filazi",fullName:"Ayhan Filazi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"poultry-science",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/290576/bong-soon-lim",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"290576",slug:"bong-soon-lim"},fullPath:"/profiles/290576/bong-soon-lim",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()