\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1504",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fingerprints in the Optical and Transport Properties of Quantum Dots",title:"Fingerprints in the Optical and Transport Properties of Quantum Dots",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "Fingerprints in the optical and transport properties of quantum dots" provides novel and efficient methods for the calculation and investigating of the optical and transport properties of quantum dot systems. This book is divided into two sections. In section 1 includes ten chapters where novel optical properties are discussed. In section 2 involve eight chapters that investigate and model the most important effects of transport and electronics properties of quantum dot systems \nThis is a collaborative book sharing and providing fundamental research such as the one conducted in Physics, Chemistry, Material Science, with a base text that could serve as a reference in research by presenting up-to-date research work on the field of quantum dot systems.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0648-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5607-9",doi:"10.5772/1972",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"fingerprints-in-the-optical-and-transport-properties-of-quantum-dots",numberOfPages:480,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"426663a84c1bdc6d7af7042655bda8a0",bookSignature:"Ameenah Al-Ahmadi",publishedDate:"June 13th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1504.jpg",numberOfDownloads:32846,numberOfWosCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:37,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 28th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 30th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 30th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 29th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"25229",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameenah",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ahmadi",slug:"ameenah-al-ahmadi",fullName:"Ameenah Al-Ahmadi",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Ameenah N. Al-Ahmadi is currently a Professor of physics at Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. She received the M. Sc. degree in Physics in 2004 and awarded the Ph. D degree in Physics on June, 2006 from Ohio University at Athens, Ohio, USA. Her research interests is in the field of optical properties of nano scale system, including quantum dots, nanowires, nanotubes. She has contributed many papers in different International Journals in her area of research. She has two papers selected by Virtual Journal of Nanoscale Science & Technology in 2004 and 2006. She was the director of enrichment summer program for Giftedness & Creativity_ Sense the word_ 2010. She has been Vice-Dean of Applied science Faculty for the Academic Development and Community Services and graduate student advisor of Faculty of Applied science since 2009 and Vice-Dean of Quality and Academic Development at Umm Al-Qura University.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"37465",title:"InAs Quantum Dots of Engineered Height for Fabrication of Broadband Superluminescent Diodes",doi:"10.5772/34209",slug:"inas-quantum-dots-of-engineered-height-for-fabrication-of-broadband-superluminescent-diodes",totalDownloads:1889,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"S. Haffouz and P.J. Barrios",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37465",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37465",authors:[{id:"99201",title:"Dr.",name:"Sofiane",surname:"Haffouz",slug:"sofiane-haffouz",fullName:"Sofiane Haffouz"}],corrections:null},{id:"37466",title:"Influence of Optical Phonons on Optical Transitions in Semiconductor Quantum Dots",doi:"10.5772/34167",slug:"influence-of-optical-phonons-on-optical-transitions-in-semiconductor-quantum-dots",totalDownloads:2076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Cheche Tiberius and Emil Barna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37466",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37466",authors:[{id:"98999",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiberius Ovidius",surname:"Cheche",slug:"tiberius-ovidius-cheche",fullName:"Tiberius Ovidius Cheche"}],corrections:null},{id:"37467",title:"Temperature-Dependent Optical Properties of Colloidal IV-VI Quantum Dots, Composed of Core/Shell Heterostructures with Alloy Components",doi:"10.5772/35048",slug:"temperature-dependent-optical-properties-of-colloidal-iv-vi-quantum-dots-composed-of-core-shell-",totalDownloads:2370,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Efrat Lifshitz, Georgy I. Maikov, Roman Vaxenburg, Diana Yanover, Anna Brusilovski, Jenya Tilchin and Aldona Sashchiuk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37467",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37467",authors:[{id:"102757",title:"Dr.",name:"Aldona",surname:"Sashchiuk",slug:"aldona-sashchiuk",fullName:"Aldona Sashchiuk"},{id:"109351",title:"Prof.",name:"Efrat",surname:"Lifshitz",slug:"efrat-lifshitz",fullName:"Efrat Lifshitz"},{id:"109352",title:"BSc.",name:"Georgy I",surname:"Maikov",slug:"georgy-i-maikov",fullName:"Georgy I Maikov"},{id:"109353",title:"BSc.",name:"Roman",surname:"Vaxenburg",slug:"roman-vaxenburg",fullName:"Roman Vaxenburg"},{id:"109356",title:"MSc.",name:"Diana",surname:"Yanover",slug:"diana-yanover",fullName:"Diana Yanover"},{id:"109358",title:"BSc.",name:"Anna",surname:"Brusilovski",slug:"anna-brusilovski",fullName:"Anna Brusilovski"},{id:"109359",title:"MSc.",name:"Evgeniy",surname:"Tilchin",slug:"evgeniy-tilchin",fullName:"Evgeniy Tilchin"}],corrections:null},{id:"37468",title:"Optical Properties of Spherical Colloidal Nanocrystals",doi:"10.5772/35733",slug:"optical-properties-of-spherical-colloidal-nanocrystals",totalDownloads:1160,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Giovanni Morello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37468",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37468",authors:[{id:"105660",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanni",surname:"Morello",slug:"giovanni-morello",fullName:"Giovanni Morello"}],corrections:null},{id:"37469",title:"Molecular States of Electrons: Emission of Single Molecules in Self-Organized InP/GaInP Quantum Dots",doi:"10.5772/34765",slug:"molecular-states-of-electrons-in-quantum-dots-emission-of-single-molecules-in-self-organized-inp",totalDownloads:1504,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Alexander M. Mintairov, James L. Merz and Steven A. Blundell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37469",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37469",authors:[{id:"101544",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Mintairov",slug:"alexander-mintairov",fullName:"Alexander Mintairov"},{id:"103335",title:"Prof.",name:"James",surname:"Merz",slug:"james-merz",fullName:"James Merz"},{id:"103337",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"Blundell",slug:"steven-blundell",fullName:"Steven Blundell"}],corrections:null},{id:"37470",title:"InAs Quantum Dots in Symmetric InGaAs/GaAs Quantum Wells",doi:"10.5772/35099",slug:"inas-quantum-dots-in-symmetric-ingaas-gaas-quantum-wells",totalDownloads:2416,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Tetyana V. Torchynska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37470",authors:[{id:"39831",title:"Prof.",name:"Tetyana",surname:"Torchynska",slug:"tetyana-torchynska",fullName:"Tetyana Torchynska"}],corrections:null},{id:"37471",title:"Photoionization Cross Sections of Atomic Impurities in Spherical Quantum Dots",doi:"10.5772/36179",slug:"photoionization-cross-sections-of-atomic-impurities-in-spherical-quantum-dots",totalDownloads:1456,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"C.Y. Lin and Y.K. Ho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37471",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37471",authors:[{id:"107370",title:"Dr.",name:"Yew Kam",surname:"Ho",slug:"yew-kam-ho",fullName:"Yew Kam Ho"},{id:"107742",title:"Dr.",name:"Chih-Yuan",surname:"Lin",slug:"chih-yuan-lin",fullName:"Chih-Yuan Lin"}],corrections:null},{id:"37472",title:"Exciton States in Free-Standing and Embedded Semiconductor Nanocrystals",doi:"10.5772/36679",slug:"exciton-states-in-free-standing-and-embedded-semiconductor-nanocrystals",totalDownloads:1556,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Yuriel Núñez Fernández, Mikhail I. Vasilevskiy, Erick M. Larramendi and Carlos Trallero-Giner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37472",authors:[{id:"109335",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Vasilevskiy",slug:"mikhail-vasilevskiy",fullName:"Mikhail Vasilevskiy"},{id:"140406",title:"MSc.",name:"Yuriel",surname:"Núñez Fernández",slug:"yuriel-nunez-fernandez",fullName:"Yuriel Núñez Fernández"},{id:"140407",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",surname:"Larramendi",slug:"erick-larramendi",fullName:"Erick Larramendi"},{id:"140408",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Trallero-Giner",slug:"carlos-trallero-giner",fullName:"Carlos Trallero-Giner"}],corrections:null},{id:"37473",title:"In-Gap State of Lead Chalcogenides Quantum Dots",doi:"10.5772/36404",slug:"in-gap-state-of-3-lead-chalcogenides-quantum-dots",totalDownloads:1948,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Xiaomei Jiang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37473",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37473",authors:[{id:"108233",title:"Dr",name:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"jiang",fullName:"Jiang"}],corrections:null},{id:"37474",title:"Exciton Dynamics in High Density Quantum Dot Ensembles",doi:"10.5772/34909",slug:"optical-characteristics-of-high-density-quantum-dot",totalDownloads:1269,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Osamu Kojima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37474",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37474",authors:[{id:"102153",title:"Prof.",name:"Osamu",surname:"Kojima",slug:"osamu-kojima",fullName:"Osamu Kojima"}],corrections:null},{id:"37475",title:"Electron Transport Properties of Gate-Defined GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs Quantum Dot",doi:"10.5772/34225",slug:"electron-transport-properties-of-gate-defined-gaas-alxga1-xas-quantum-dot",totalDownloads:2348,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Dong Ho Wu and Bernard R. Matis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37475",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37475",authors:[{id:"99271",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong Ho",surname:"Wu",slug:"dong-ho-wu",fullName:"Dong Ho Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"37476",title:"Tunneling Atomic Force Microscopy of Self-Assembled In(Ga)As/GaAs Quantum Dots and Rings and of GeSi/Si(001) Nanoislands",doi:"10.5772/45770",slug:"tunneling-atomic-force-microscopy-of-self-assembled-in-ga-as-gaas-quantum-dots-and-rings-and-of-",totalDownloads:1116,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Dmitry Filatov, Vladimir Shengurov, Niyaz Nurgazizov, Pavel Borodin and Anastas Bukharaev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37476",authors:[{id:"19492",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitri",surname:"Filatov",slug:"dmitri-filatov",fullName:"Dmitri Filatov"},{id:"108153",title:"MSc.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Borodin",slug:"pavel-borodin",fullName:"Pavel Borodin"},{id:"108154",title:"Prof.",name:"Anastas",surname:"Bukharaev",slug:"anastas-bukharaev",fullName:"Anastas Bukharaev"},{id:"108156",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Shengurov",slug:"vladimir-shengurov",fullName:"Vladimir Shengurov"},{id:"138546",title:"Dr.",name:"Niyaz",surname:"Nurgazizov",slug:"niyaz-nurgazizov",fullName:"Niyaz Nurgazizov"}],corrections:null},{id:"37477",title:"Quantum Injection Dots",doi:"10.5772/35638",slug:"quantum-injection-dots",totalDownloads:1429,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Eliade Stefanescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37477",authors:[{id:"105272",title:"Prof.",name:"Eliade",surname:"Stefanescu",slug:"eliade-stefanescu",fullName:"Eliade Stefanescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"37478",title:"Quantum Mechanics of Semiconductor Quantum Dots and Rings",doi:"10.5772/35660",slug:"quantum-mechanics-of-semiconductor-quantum-dots-and-rings",totalDownloads:4057,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"I. Filikhin, S.G. Matinyan and B. Vlahovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37478",authors:[{id:"105361",title:"Dr",name:"Igor",surname:"Filikhin",slug:"igor-filikhin",fullName:"Igor Filikhin"},{id:"109479",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergei",surname:"Matinyan",slug:"sergei-matinyan",fullName:"Sergei Matinyan"},{id:"109480",title:"Prof.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Vlahovic",slug:"branislav-vlahovic",fullName:"Branislav Vlahovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"37479",title:"Non-Equilibrium Green Functions of Electrons in Single-Level Quantum Dots at Finite Temperature",doi:"10.5772/35805",slug:"non-equilibrium-green-functions-at-finite-temperature-of-electron-in-single-level-quantum-dots",totalDownloads:1825,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Nguyen Bich Ha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37479",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37479",authors:[{id:"105909",title:"Dr",name:null,surname:"Ha",slug:"ha",fullName:"Ha"}],corrections:null},{id:"37480",title:"Electron Scattering Through a Quantum Dot",doi:"10.5772/36308",slug:"electron-scattering-through-a-quantum-dot",totalDownloads:1523,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Leonardo Kleber Castelano, Guo-Qiang Hai and Mu-Tao Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37480",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37480",authors:[{id:"107805",title:"Prof.",name:"Guo-Qiang",surname:"Hai",slug:"guo-qiang-hai",fullName:"Guo-Qiang Hai"},{id:"109512",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonardo",surname:"Castelano",slug:"leonardo-castelano",fullName:"Leonardo Castelano"},{id:"109513",title:"Prof.",name:"Mu-Tao",surname:"Lee",slug:"mu-tao-lee",fullName:"Mu-Tao Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"37481",title:"Coherent Spin Dependent Transport in QD-DTJ Systems",doi:"10.5772/38986",slug:"coherent-spin-dependent-transport-in-quantum-dot-systems",totalDownloads:1417,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Minjie Ma, Mansoor Bin Abdul Jalil and Seng Ghee Tan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37481",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37481",authors:[{id:"40388",title:"Prof.",name:"Seng Ghee",surname:"Tan",slug:"seng-ghee-tan",fullName:"Seng Ghee Tan"},{id:"40392",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor B.A.",surname:"Jalil",slug:"mansoor-b.a.-jalil",fullName:"Mansoor B.A. Jalil"},{id:"126727",title:"Dr.",name:"Minjie",surname:"Ma",slug:"minjie-ma",fullName:"Minjie Ma"}],corrections:null},{id:"37482",title:"The Thermopower of a Quantum Dot Coupled to Luttinger Liquid System",doi:"10.5772/34917",slug:"photon-assisted-transport-through-a-quantum-dot-coupled-to-low-dimension-system",totalDownloads:1488,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kai-Hua Yang, Yang Chen, Huai-YuWang and Yan-JuWu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37482",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37482",authors:[{id:"102175",title:"Dr.",name:"Kai-Hua",surname:"Yang",slug:"kai-hua-yang",fullName:"Kai-Hua Yang"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2257",title:"Quantum Dots",subtitle:"A Variety of New Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"607ff61d3333a88f4c315273e91926b7",slug:"quantum-dots-a-variety-of-new-applications",bookSignature:"Ameenah Al-Ahmadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2257.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25229",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameenah",surname:"Al-Ahmadi",slug:"ameenah-al-ahmadi",fullName:"Ameenah Al-Ahmadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2258",title:"State-of-the-Art of Quantum Dot System Fabrications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c3411fdccdb578237b103a7b7fc877ff",slug:"state-of-the-art-of-quantum-dot-system-fabrications",bookSignature:"Ameenah Al-Ahmadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2258.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25229",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameenah",surname:"Al-Ahmadi",slug:"ameenah-al-ahmadi",fullName:"Ameenah Al-Ahmadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"397",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Production, Properties and Functional Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"934fe33b73b2ecba961c67d5a90021ec",slug:"nanofibers-production-properties-and-functional-applications",bookSignature:"Tong Lin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49937",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Lin",slug:"tong-lin",fullName:"Tong Lin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1045",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65d477e855685ea85913e5aba0c5217e",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",bookSignature:"John Cuppoletti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1045.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49991",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Cuppoletti",slug:"john-cuppoletti",fullName:"John Cuppoletti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3200",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"97487143b896780afaf08cfd67cd1eec",slug:"nanofibers",bookSignature:"Ashok Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3200.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7718",title:"Professor",name:"Ashok",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"191",title:"Advances in Nanocomposite Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4dc3407e602cdd348af663727baebe3d",slug:"advances-in-nanocomposite-technology",bookSignature:"Abbass Hashim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3077",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38dd4fb088a27b2552bf3d371e8c2872",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",bookSignature:"Satoru Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3077.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30519",title:"Dr.",name:"Satoru",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"satoru-suzuki",fullName:"Satoru Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3156",title:"Nanowires",subtitle:"Science and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1916d90306aa50f0cae870c88e7550fa",slug:"nanowires-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Nicoleta Lupu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3156.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6995",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Lupu",slug:"nicoleta-lupu",fullName:"Nicoleta Lupu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3558",title:"Advances in Graphene Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3a2158260a79c0fc8a4298864aa7dcd",slug:"advances-in-graphene-science",bookSignature:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3558.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"68990",slug:"erratum-application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodies",title:"Erratum - Application of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly: Development of a Multifeedstock Biodiesel Processor",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68990.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68990",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68990",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68990",chapter:{id:"63204",slug:"application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodiesel-proce",signatures:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan and Khumbulani Mpofu",dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"11921",title:"Prof.",name:"Khumbulani",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",fullName:"Khumbulani Mpofu",slug:"khumbulani-mpofu",email:"mpofuk@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"260269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilesanmi Afolabi",middleName:null,surname:"Daniyan",fullName:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan",slug:"ilesanmi-afolabi-daniyan",email:"afolabiilesanmi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63204",slug:"application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodiesel-proce",signatures:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan and Khumbulani Mpofu",dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"11921",title:"Prof.",name:"Khumbulani",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",fullName:"Khumbulani Mpofu",slug:"khumbulani-mpofu",email:"mpofuk@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"260269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilesanmi Afolabi",middleName:null,surname:"Daniyan",fullName:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan",slug:"ilesanmi-afolabi-daniyan",email:"afolabiilesanmi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10568",leadTitle:null,title:"Hysteresis in Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tHysteresis phenomena manifest themselves with highly intriguing features that have been continuously attracting the interest of scientists and physicists who have attempted to unravel the origins and the underlying mechanisms. Hysteretic behaviour is ubiquitous to different physical systems, and despite displaying diversified characteristic elements depending on the specific context, hysteresis originates from the presence of several metastable energy minima, which relate to path-dependent and rate-dependent responses to various external stimuli. This is translated in a considerable number of experimentally observable events, such as hysteretic loops in ferroic media, Bauschinger effect in elastoplastic materials, characteristic magnetic hysteresis in superconductors, current-voltage hysteresis in various electronic devices, contact angle hysteresis in liquid-solid interfaces and bistability in cell biological processes, among others. Significant progress on understanding the mechanisms underpinning hysteresis in different systems has been made over the years and improved knowledge on how to tailor hysteretic materials behaviour for application purposes has been gained.
\r\n\r\n\tThe present book aims at compiling the main achievements and novel discoveries in the field of hysteretic materials, with particular focus on the control of materials hysteresis characteristics for engineering applications. Experimental and theoretical investigations from macro- to nanoscale on ferromagnetic, ferroelectric, ferroelastic, multiferroic materials and electronic devices, including solar cells, energy storage devices, memristors and tunnelling junctions are particularly attractive for the present compilation.
",isbn:"978-1-83881-972-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-971-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-472-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6482387993b3cebffafe856a916c44ce",bookSignature:"Dr. Giuseppe Viola",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10568.jpg",keywords:"Thermodynamics of Hysteresis, Irreversibility, Modelling, Presaich Approach, Ferroic Materials, Hysteresis Loops, Resistive Switching, Non-Equilibrium Systems, Electronic Devices, Energy Conversion Devices, Energy Storage Devices, Actuators, Sensors",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Viola was awarded an individual Marie Curie Fellowship in 2014. His current research interests are mainly focused on the relationships between microstructure and properties of piezoelectric, ferroelectric/ferroelastic, and antiferroelectric ceramics for sensing and energy storage applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"173586",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Viola",slug:"giuseppe-viola",fullName:"Giuseppe Viola",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173586/images/system/173586.jpg",biography:"Giuseppe Viola (GV) graduated in Materials Engineering from Federico II, University of Naples in 2004. In 2009 he obtained his PhD from Queen Mary University of London which was focused on the study of the domain switching mechanisms in ferroelectric/ferroelastic ceramics. Afterwards, GV was employed as a Post-doctoral Reasearch Assistant at Queen Mary University of London (QMUL) and as a Materials Scientist at Nanoforce Technology Limited (a spin out company owned by QMUL). In 2014, GV was awarded an individual Marie Curie Fellowship and moved to Politecnico di Torino. In 2017, GV returned to the UK and joined UCL where he is currently based.\n\nGV's current research interests are mainly focused on the relationships between microstructure and properties of piezoelectric, ferroelectric/ferroelastic and antiferroelectric ceramics for sensing and energy storage applications. Previous research projects included the development of piezo-acoustic biosensors, investigation of domains switching mechanisms in ferroic materials and the exploitation of rapid sintering technologies for ceramics, metals and composites.",institutionString:"Independent Scientist",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University College London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64498",title:"From Sophisticated Analysis to Colorimetric Determination: Smartphone Spectrometers and Colorimetry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82227",slug:"from-sophisticated-analysis-to-colorimetric-determination-smartphone-spectrometers-and-colorimetry",body:'\nSmartphone-based analysis has recently emerged as a useful tool, and it has been found to be promising in several fields including point-of-care analyses [1], chemical and biological sensing [2], microscopy and healthcare diagnostics [3], water quality sensing for environment [4, 5, 6], leaf color analysis for agriculture [7], pH [8, 9] and glucose [10] sensing, fluorescent imaging [11], imaging cytometry [12], electrochemical sensing [13], and immunoassays [14].
\nWith recent advances on camera and sensor technologies, current smartphones are equipped with a low-power high-performance processor with up to 2.5 GHz operating frequencies; built-in high-resolution digital camera, generally above 5 Mpixels and up to 40 Mpixels; and built-in single or dual LEDs, which allow capturing an image even in low-light conditions [15]. Moreover, they are provided with advanced onboard sensors such as moisture sensors, proximity sensors, electromagnetic compasses, accelerometers, and gyroscopes [16]. These sensors generally provide fast response, being portable and of low cost, and the ability to be used in the field without extensive training [17]. Therefore, smartphones have become a tool as powerful as low-cost computers, which lead them to be valuable instruments in the analysis.
\nOver the last decade, smartphones have been increasingly used in a variety of scientific fields as spectrometers [18, 19, 20, 21, 22] and colorimeters [23, 24, 25]. Smartphone spectrometers use the wavelength components, which give spectral information, of the collimated light from the optical source which is dispersed after interaction with samples [18]. The color spectrum image is transformed into various color spaces for the extraction of quantitative data. The wavelength of the spectrum generally changes between 400 and 700 nm because of the optical filters set in front of the camera in the manufacturing process. Spectral information has been used in many applications including water monitoring [6], gas detection [26], and food quality control [27]. Smartphone colorimeters are commonly used instruments that quantify the concentration of the samples based on color changes due to concentration (like peroxide amount [28]) or time (methylene blue degradation [6]). In the colorimetric analysis, features of the referenced images need to be extracted for training the system, mostly created with machine learning or neural networks, which perform the quantitative analysis for the test images. Smartphone colorimeters have applications in both solid samples like paper-based test and liquid samples like colored solutions [29]. Both smartphone spectrometers and colorimeters are powerful tools for rapid qualitative and quantitative analyses due to the fact that they can be used in conditions where sophisticated tools or time-consuming steps cannot be used. They are rapid and low-cost tools that require less sample consumption and provide portability to perform the analysis in remote locations or locations with poor infrastructure [17].
\nWhile smartphones offer an attractive alternative to sophisticated tools for imaging and analysis in the field, there are some concerns about their suitability for quantitative analysis [1]. First, unlike scientific cameras, smartphone cameras have mostly limited control of camera parameters like exposure time, shutter speed, ISO, and color balance, and no access to raw image data which has a linear relationship with scene radiation. In addition, image processing algorithms, such as demosaicing, noise reduction, edge sharpening, white balance, and image compression, are applied automatically and vary significantly across smartphones. These methods corrupt the linearity of the pixel intensity values which causes loss of information that can be used in quantitative analysis. So, it is difficult to set and maintain imaging parameters to get accurate and repeatable information for analysis [30]. Second, ambient light conditions are hard to control during imaging in uncontrolled environments. Last, small color changes cannot be detected in an analysis as the red, green, and blue (RGB) intensity values may not be sufficient. These aforementioned concerns make smartphones questionable for quantitative analysis. Early studies in smartphone-based colorimetric analysis for medical and scientific applications pointed out these concerns and concluded that smartphones are incapable of pathology [31] or limited due to their image quality [32].
\nHowever, subsequent researchers have proposed a smartphone camera-based microscope which captures qualitatively relevant features of malaria and tuberculosis [33]. These counter conclusions and also advancements in camera and sensors together with the increasing capability in computer processing prove that smartphones are more portable, cost-efficient, and user-friendly platforms which make them alternatives to sophisticated and high-cost devices in quantitative analysis.
\nFor instance, it was shown that a smartphone by itself is capable of quantifying colorimetric test strips without any external attachments [1, 34]. In [35], water monitoring was implemented with a simple holding attachment. With the help of 3D printing, housing and optical components were integrated into a colorimetric plate reader for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) [36]. A 3D printed custom cradle including various optical components and an external broadband source, was demonstrated in [37] for biomarker absorption analysis. To detect miRNA sequences in a liquid-based assay, a smartphone-based fluorimeter system was designed using an external laser as the source [21]. Due to precise light confinement and flexible nature, optical fibers were integrated to smartphone spectrometer and applied for food quality monitoring [18]. To have more portable and cheap spectrometers, new designs were proposed without external electrical and optical components. A fiber optical bench was assembled on top of the smartphone without external LEDs to design a surface plasmon resonance-based refractive index sensor [38]. A spectrometer system was reported in [10] to detect glucose and troponin-I using built-in flash as a light source and a compact disk for the reflection grating.
\nIn the colorimetric analysis, color information could be obtained with paper-based sensors to quantify the color variation in different color spaces such as RGB, HSV, and L*a*b* [24, 39, 40, 41]. In [25], alcohol concentration in saliva was detected using paper-based test converting images from RGB to HSV color space. This was the conventional approach which needs only a smartphone camera to capture and process an image. Besides the conventional approach, non-conventional approaches were applied on liquid samples in vials for detection of chlorine in water [42], and ripeness estimation of fruits [7]. Here, quantification was calculated using analytical formulas extracted from color space parameters. However, it is prone to deviation due to the disadvantages of JPEG images such as low bit depth and heavy post-processing (white balance, contrast, and brightness adjustment) [43, 44]. On the other hand, it was shown in [28, 41] that JPEG images could be used in the colorimetric analysis when advanced algorithms like machine learning were used to process the images. Unfortunately, advanced algorithms need more computational power as they need much larger datasets for training and testing the images. To address this issue, it was reported to use local database referenced with a single image for the quantification of the concentration level of solutions [45]. The proposed design was applied on nitrite, phosphate, chromium, and phenol solutions to quantify the concentration value using a single reference image which was captured and processed initially.
\nIn literature, there are many lab-on-a-chip designs proposed for various applications [17, 46]. Bisphenol-A (BPA) detection in distilled and commercial water samples was demonstrated in [29] where a plastic fiber-based smartphone spectrometer with a custom-designed immersion probe and a cradle were used. The smartphone spectrometer was converted to a reflection probe spectrometer working within the visible spectrum. Explosive types were detected in [17] with the paper-based test using hierarchical clustering analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) regarding the color discrimination of the explosives. A closed chamber was used to eliminate ambient light conditions during imaging. Linear correlation and PCA methods were employed, respectively, for univariate and multivariate analyses [46]. It was reported that univariate analysis did not give statistically significant results due to ambient light conditions as imaging was not performed in a controlled environment. However, multivariate analysis gave promising results running PCA methods on eight different color spaces and clustering methods including red, green, blue, hue, saturation, value, lightness, and intensity parameters. A smartphone-based colorimetric reader for ELISA was proposed in [47] where imaging was performed in a controlled environment illuminated from the bottom. Ozcan and his research group [12, 14, 48, 49, 50, 51] had many designs for specific applications such as food allergen testing [48], urine [14] and blood [12] analysis, immunoassays [49], microscopy [50], and cytometry [51].
\nThe rest of this chapter is organized as follows. The next section introduces the hardware designs for smartphone-based spectrometer and colorimetry. Section 3 presents the mobile apps and image processing algorithms to be used in smartphones. Section 4 describes assay preparation to be used in testing the performance of both spectrometer and colorimeter. Section 5 details the metric to evaluate the performance of the proposed designs. Closing remarks are given in Section 6.
\nIn this section, a brief review of hardware designs of smartphone spectrometer and colorimetry is presented. Because of space constraints, only two examples of spectrometer and colorimetry are demonstrated in Section 2.1 and 2.2, respectively.
\nRecently, there has been a growing variety of spectrometer designs for specific applications. In [19], a compact imaging spectrometer was reported equipped with motorized selfie stick for remote sensing. Another spectrometer was designed to calculate spectra and quantify analytes by the assembly of medium-density-fiberboard, a DVD slice for diffraction grid, and mini incandescent lamps [20]. A flexible fiber bundle probe was integrated with a custom-designed cradle to convey spectra data to smartphone camera for food quality monitoring [18].
\nThe next design [6] is illustrated in Figure 1a, which is a low-cost, portable, plastic fiber-based spectrometric smartphone to analyze dye adsorption for field-deployable environmental and wastewater management. In the design, the rear camera of LG G4 (1/2.6″ sensor size with 5312 × 2988 resolution, 1.12 μm pixel size) was used to collect the spectral data of the assays.
\n(a) The smartphone spectrometer with the inset (top-left) of a plastic fiber assembled into the built-in flash. (b) The spectral images from different-sized plastic fibers are shown.
The smartphone was fitted into a custom-designed cradle assembled with hot-plug apparatus toting a diffraction grating, and the whole part was connected with smartphone case and cuvette holder manufactured from Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene polymer using a 3D printer (Zortrax M200) with a 150-g polymer. Two pieces of plastic fiber cables were used in the design. The first 1.5-mm-diameter fiber carried the light from the smartphone flash to the cuvette while the second fiber cable with a diameter of 0.25 mm transmitted the light from cuvette to the camera which passed through the assay. The diameter of the second cable was critical as the light for spectral data was carried with this cable. Therefore, the effect of diameter on spectral data was analyzed using 0.25-, 0.5-, and 1.0-mm cables as given in Figure 1b, and 0.25-mm diameter was found to be adequate based on this experiment. A custom cradle was specially designed to align plastic optical fibers with smartphone optical components. As the cradle was solid, the solution could be placed into the cuvette slot. In order to simplify the spectrometer system design, no collector lens or mirrored components were placed in the light path. Besides cost, the most important factor in choosing plastic optical fibers instead of glass-based fiber optics was the ability to use plastic optical fibers without special tools for stripping and cutting.
\nTo test the performance of the system, methylene blue (MB) solutions were prepared with different amounts and their respective spectral views are given in Figure 2. At the top row, the concentration of the solution varies from 0 ppm (most left), which corresponds to distilled water (DW), to 10 ppm (most right). The spectrum views are given at the bottom row where the reduction in red intensity with the concentration is quite visible.
\nMB solutions with a spectral view from 0.1 to 10 ppm.
This design was further improved to make it compatible with immersion probe, which made it more practical and user-friendly as illustrated in Figure 3 [29]. Schematic diagram of the 3D printed cradle is described in Figure 3a. The immersion probe was attached to the fiber-coupled smartphone flashlight and the reflection caused by radiation is carried to the camera via the grating. Plastic (PMMA)-based bifurcated fiber bundle was used to manufacture the probe with the diameter of 0.5 mm (also known as Y-cable) as shown in Figure 3b. The overall design is illustrated in Figure 3c. It was reported that no additional optical components were used in the reflection-based smartphone spectrometer system. The spectrum views of blank solution (left) and 5-ppm BPA solution (right) are given in Figure 3d to demonstrate color variation can be detected with the spectrometer system.
\n(a) The custom-designed cradle for smartphone-based spectrometer. Immersion probe for absorbance measurement is given in (b) and overall design is illustrated in (c). (d) The spectral images obtained from smartphone spectrometer.
As an alternative to spectrometric analysis, colorimetry is also widely used in many applications including food allergen testing [48], albumin testing in urine analysis [14], blood analysis [12], pH quantification [41], and water monitoring [45].
\nA digital tube reader designed in the 3D printer was equipped with two interchangeable LEDs to illuminate the test and control tubes so that the absorption spectrum of the colorimetric assay could be analyzed [48]. An albumin tester platform was proposed in [14] using an optomechanical attachment aligned with a smartphone camera. The 3D printed cradle was integrated to a compact laser diode, two AA batteries, a plastic lens, and an emission interference filter. An albumin-based fluorescent signal was obtained from the test tube by a digital fluorescent tube reader to calculate the albumin concentration values after comparison with a control tube. In [12], blood analysis was implemented with an integration of red blood cell counting, white blood cell counting, and hemoglobin measurement devices to smartphone cradle.
\nSmartphone-based colorimetric detection of pH, which varies between 0 and 14.0, was investigated with paper-based test [41]. The performance of the system was tested under two conditions: controlled and ambient illumination environments. To create controlled illumination settings, 3D printed cradle was equipped with apparatus which eliminates the interference of the present light as shown in Figure 4a. Four strips of same pH level were located side by side for imaging with an apparatus, then color calibration and white balancing were performed for those strips with the X-Rite ColorChecker Passport. The imaging was continued with replacing the strips in six different orientations as in Figure 4b.
\nThe overall smartphone-based colorimetry with apparatus and X-rite ColorChecker passport for color correction are shown in (a). The pH strips with various orientations used in imaging are given in (b), and (c) shows random orientations and positions of the test strips inside the smartphone field of view for dual-illumination tests.
Later, random orientations as shown in Figure 4c were used to mimic scenarios that could happen when untrained users take a picture. The reason for using a group of four strips is to see the effect of luminance variation due to their positioning with respect to the camera flash.
\nFor the ambient illumination environments, no apparatus was used, and instead of using the smartphone flash as a light source, sunlight and fluorescent and halogen sources were used. To test the system under challenging conditions, the light sources were used in solo and in dual and triple combinations. The images captured in both controlled and ambient illumination environments with a different replacement of the strips were used to train the machine learning algorithm which was designed to quantify the pH values accurately. Since the training set was enriched with the images captured in various and complicated scenarios, it was reported that pH values were detected with 100% accuracy.
\nOne possible drawback of the colorimetry method in [41] is its computational cost due to its large training dataset. To address this issue, single-image referenced colorimeter was proposed in [45]. The system was simplified in the sense of both hardware and software design. Instead of using machine learning algorithm which needs a large dataset, it used local dataset created by a user with a single reference image. In addition, images from the local dataset were compared with test images using color-matching algorithms computationally cheaper than machine learning algorithms. The hardware design was also simplified into a cardboard box as shown in Figure 5. It was painted white, and white light-emitting diodes were mounted to the box ceiling to minimize the ambient illumination effects. A holder platform with the same height as the camera was placed for the assays to maintain the same distance for imaging. The system was tested on four different (nitrite, phosphate, chromium, and phenol) assays, and it was reported that the performance accuracy was between 76 and 100% depending on the assay types.
\nExperimental setup proposed in [
The previous section described the hardware designs for smartphone-based spectrometry and colorimetry. This section presents mobile applications and algorithms proposed for these designs.
\nSoftware applications are necessary tools due to complementary characteristics for the hardware designs of spectrometer and colorimetry. Mobile apps were therefore developed to make the overall system user-friendly [14, 15, 25, 28, 36, 45, 46, 52].
\nAlbumin Tester [14] application was developed for Android phones to let the user determine the albumin concentration in the urine sample. To test alcohol in saliva, SPAQ [15, 25] application was developed which estimated the alcohol level based on the histogram distribution. Colorimetric Plate Reader app [36] was proposed for qualitative and quantitative ELISA test. PhotoMetrix [46] application was introduced, which runs the univariate and multivariate analyses to quantify the analytes in the samples. Colorimetric Test Reader app was presented in [52], which determines pH, protein, and glucose values in the assay.
\nSolmaz et al. [28] developed ChemTrainer app which quantifies the peroxide content running machine learning algorithm on the remote server as shown in Figure 6a. After capturing a photograph of colorimetric test strips, the app sends mean RGB values for a region of interest to the remoter server as machine learning algorithm needs only mean values for the classification. A message queue service was employed to enable multiple users to reach the server simultaneously.
\nThe communication between the smartphone and a remote server is illustrated in (a) and the developed ChemTrainer app is presented in (b).
Screenshots of the ChemTrainer are given in Figure 6b. In the opening page, there are two options for the user: either capturing a new image with “Experiment” button or using existing image from the phone with the “Load From Gallery” button. After an image is captured or loaded from the gallery, the user may proceed or retake a new image. Next, a region of interest needs to be cropped with adjustable crop box. The app calculates the average red, green, and blue values of the cropped image and sends to the server, which runs a classification algorithm that decides the class of image. In the meantime, the app displays a progress animation until the result comes back from the server.
\nThe ChemTrainer app was further improved to be able to work with single-image reference (SIR) and named as ChemTrainerSIR [45]. In addition, it gained additional features like saving location and time data for the previous experiments, which help the user to analyze the past results when needed. The ChemTrainerSIR app is described in Figure 7 with screenshots. There are “train” and “experiment” options on the home page as shown in Figure 7a. Training steps are introduced in Figure 7 from b to g (top row), while testing steps are described at the bottom row from h to m. If the user selects the train option, some initial information needs to be entered such as the name of the chemical compound as the name of the model (e.g., phosphate), the units of measurement (e.g., ppm), and the number of samples with known concentration levels. The user either captures an image of samples or loads from the gallery. Then, the user enters the reference values for each sample which will be used later in the testing phase. All these information are stored in a designated folder in internal storage. In the testing phase, the user first selects the model, which was used in training. Then, a new image is taken to quantify the concentration value based on comparison with the reference model.
\nOpening page of the ChemTrainerSIR app is given in (a). The top row (b–g) shows training steps, while the bottom row (h–m) presents the implementation of the app on the sample.
A digital image can be acquired either as monochrome (black and white) or color image using electronic equipment utilizing charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensors.
\nThese sensors use a two-dimensional array of millions of tiny light pixels to capture an image. These pixels collect photons and store them as an electrical signal after the shutter button of the camera is pressed which leads to the beginning of the exposure. The pixels are closed after the exposure finishes, and intensity value in the pixel is quantified as digital values by measuring the strength of the electrical signal, which is directly related with the number of photons stored in the pixel. However, this approach would only create a monochrome or gray scale image as the pixels are unable to distinguish photons in terms of color. A color filter needs to be placed over the pixel to capture a color image. This filter allows only one of the primary colors, that is red (R), green (G), or blue (B), to pass into the pixel, so that it stores only filtered photons for the respective color. In other words, the intensity of each pixel gives single color information which leads to a RAW image. Here, each pixel has only one of R, G, or B information while all R, G, and B values need to be known for each pixel. Therefore, demosaicing is applied to determine other two missing color values by interpolating from nearby pixels where those colors are known. After demosaicing, other methods such as white-balance, gamma correction, color space correction, and compression are applied to convert the image from RAW to a common format like JPEG.
\nJPEG images have a small size and they can be displayable instantly. However, there are some concerns because of the methods that are applied to convert an image from RAW to JPEG. In the conversion process, the image is compressed resulting in providing a non-linear RGB color space with only 8-bit color depth [43, 53]. However, RAW images contain original image data with 10–14 bits of color information. The conversion process corrupts the linearity of the image. A linear image conserves the relation between the intensity value and the number of photons which maintains the linearity with scene radiance. This linearity is required for quantitative scientific data acquisition in many applications [6, 30, 36, 37, 54]. As a linear image, the RAW format is therefore generally chosen. The main issue is how to reach a RAW image in smartphones. Although most semi-professional and professional cameras have access to reach the images in a RAW format, it is unconventional for smartphones. With recent developments, the latest smartphones offer access to images in the RAW format [55]. The RAW images could be found in three extensions such as “.NEF” (Nikon), “CR2” (Canon), and “.DNG.” The most used format is “.DNG” as it has a common open format. Currently, no app is available to process the “.DNG” images in a smartphone yet. Therefore, free DCRAW software [18] can be used to convert “.DNG” image to tagged image file format (TIFF) for easier extraction of the R, G, and B values of the image.
\nRGB is the most commonly used color model in image processing. However, it can be converted to other models such as hue, saturation, and value (HSV); hue, saturation, and lightness (HSL); hue, saturation, and intensity (HSI); and lightness, green-red, and blue-yellow (L*a*b*). Hue is defined with the color portion of the color model and described with a number from 0 to 360°. Saturation is defined with the amount of gray in the color, from 0 to 100%. Value, lightness, or intensity is the brightness or intensity of the color, from 0 to 100% where black is represented with 0 while 100 is the brightest.
\nAfter the image acquisition, numerous image processing methods can be employed to improve the image visualization so that better features can be extracted from the image. The feature extraction plays a critical role in some methods like PCA, convolutional neural network, and machine learning, which interpret multiple types of information contained in an image using these features [46].
\nThe performance of these methods was investigated with RAW and JPEG image formats with different color spaces such as RGB, HSV, and L*a*b*. RAW and JPEG image formats were studied in [6, 29] after converting images from RGB to HSV. Absorbance experiments were employed based on V components of HSV and it was reported that RAW format outperforms the JPEG formats in absorbance measurements. On the other hand, [41] showed that JPEG images gave a similar performance with RAM image if least-squares support-vector machine (LS-SVM) was employed in creating the learning model. Based on this conclusion, RGB, HSV, and L*a*b* color spaces were investigated using JPEG formats for quantifying peroxide content based on machine learning classifiers [28]. JPEG images were also used in [45] where the images were converted from RGB to L*a*b* color space. Instead of machine learning algorithms, color matching algorithms such as deltaE and color correlation methods were employed due to their simplicity. It was reported that deltaE showed superior performance with L*a*b color space for colorimetric water quality detection.
\nIn previous sections, various hardware and software designs were introduced for smartphone-based spectrometer and colorimetry. These designs need to be tested under the conditions that users may encounter in real life. In this section, strip and assay preparations are introduced, which are commonly used for water quality and field tests.
\nColorimetric detection of pH values was studied in [41], which used pH strips to test their proposed system. First, solutions were prepared by mixing deionized water with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and nitric acid (HNO3) to ensure the pH values in the range of 0–14.0. During the preparations, pH values were checked with a pH meter (HI 2223, Hanna Instruments, RI, USA) calibrated with standard buffers, pH 4.0 (HI 7004) and 7.0 (HI 7007) prior to using pH indicator strips (Merck, Germany). In addition, dual-illumination tests were performed with buffer solutions (4.0–9.0, Sigma-Aldrich, USA). Before imaging pH strips, they were immersed into the pH solutions for 5 s and wiped gently with tissue paper, so that light refraction caused by the liquid drops could be minimized.
\nPeroxide quantification with colorimetric tests was investigated in [28] and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solutions were prepared for the peroxide test strips (Quantofix Peroxide 100). First, a stock solution with 500 ppm concentration of H2O2 (Sigma-Aldrich) was prepared in distilled water. The stock solution was later diluted to prepare the initial concentrations such as 1, 3, 10, 30, and 100 ppm. The peroxide test strips were dipped into these solutions for 1 s, and images were taken by smartphone after they were dried on tissue paper for 5 s.
\nBisphenol-A (BPA) detection with smartphone spectrometer was demonstrated in [29]. The BPA concentration was determined with absorbance measurements using an immersion probe. The phenolic compound was put into reaction with 4-Aminoantipyrine (4-AAP) (Sigma-Aldrich, >98%) and potassium ferricyanide (Carlo Erba) for colorimetric quantification. Around 200 ppm of BPA stock solution was prepared in ethanol and then test solutions ranging from 0.1 to 10.0 ppm were prepared by serial dilution from the stock solution. The pH of all solutions was set to 8.0 using 0.25 M sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) (Sigma-Aldrich, ≤99.7%) and distilled water. To finalize the solutions, 1.5 mL of 20.8 mM 4-AAP and 1.5 mL of 83.4 mM potassium ferricyanide solutions were mixed into 12 mL of BPA solutions. The solutions were ready for the absorbance measurement after 10 min of incubation.
\nSingle-image-referenced colorimetric water quality detection in [45] was performed using four different analyte solutions. The first solution is nitrite \n
Quantitative performance evaluations of smartphone-based spectrometer and colorimeter are an important factor in the development of new algorithms and designs. Standard metrics for regression and classification problems can be used to assess smartphone-based system performance. The importance of metrics varies for each sensing scheme.
\nIn a spectrometer, the absorbance spectrum needs to be calculated using multicolored images. RGB images are mostly converted to HSV images and value (V of HSV) is used to calculate the absorbance (A) using the Beer-Lambert law [56],
\nwhere
In classification-based colorimetry, the following metrics are available: classification accuracy, sensitivity (recall), specificity, precision, and f1-score. These metrics are the same in traditional machine learning classification tasks and can be extracted from the confusion matrix. Classification accuracy is detection accuracy in the case of analytical detection. For binary classification problems with only two classes, the receiver operation characteristic (ROC) curve and area under curve (AUC) are additional metrics. In a confusion matrix, rows represent the instances in an actual (true) class while columns represent the instances in a predicted class. To calculate the detection accuracy, diagonal elements of the confusion matrix are summed and divided by the total number of data points. Precision is calculated by the ratio of true positive events to the sum of true and false positive events as given below:
\nThe sensitivity (recall) is the ratio of true positive to the sum of true positive and false negative:
\nLastly, f1 score is the harmonic average of precision and the recall and is equal to 1 for perfect precision and recall:
\nRegression and classification metrics should be chosen based on the colorimetric detection scheme. Spectrometric detection requires the use of regression metrics while the detection of discrete color change should be assessed with classification metrics.
\nIn this chapter, a review of smartphone-based colorimetric determination of chromogenic assays has been provided on color spaces, existing color matching and detection techniques, hardware and software designs, and performance metrics that have been developed over the past few decades.
\nAfter a broad survey of the smartphone spectrometers, a technical background of the methods for image acquisition system, image analysis, and measurement procedure, which are commonly used as baseline methods in the literature, was introduced with their basic mathematical, statistical concepts and definitions, which are required for understanding the mathematics and techniques behind the proposed colorimetric detection methods.
\nIn addition, portable hardware designs compatible with smartphones and their Android applications were introduced with fundamental differences including physical setup, interfaces, and challenges.
\nMoreover, performance metrics were analyzed in order to see which aspects are considered more in the evaluation and impacts of these perspectives on the evaluation results.
\nThe authors thank Dr. Gazihan Alankuş for mobile apps and the “Ekosfer Laboratory and Research Services” for their assistance with the colorimetric assays. This research was supported by the scientific research projects coordination unit of Izmir Katip Celebi University (project no. 2018-ÖDL-MÜMF-0021).
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
The harmful health and environmental implications of conventional cigarettes have been firmly established after decades of studies. Researchers and scientists have been engaged in unearthing and asserting their adverse effects. With the corporation of academic associations and governments, guidelines and law enforcements for cigarette control and management have achieved great success. However, because of the addiction to cigarette (mainly caused by nicotine, a pivotal component of conventional cigarette), it is challenging to propose a smooth transition period for smokers who want to quit. The emergence of electronic cigarettes (EC) greatly solved this issue for a short time and it became a dramatically successful approach for a period of time. More and more researchers assumed EC’s harmlessness compared to conventional cigarette, since it is designed as an ideal replacement of conventional cigarette. But in the meanwhile, potential harmful consequences were found among adolescent and pregnant women who attempted to utilize or had been exposed to e-cigarette [1, 2]. The prevalent utilization of electronic cigarette has become a controversial topic and people hold contrasting opinions. On the one hand, American Cancer Society and Benowitz et al. hold its positive attitude toward EC because of its comparative less side-effect and well-behaved tolerance [3, 4]. On the other hand, accumulated evidence further expose the increasingly serious side effect of EC products [5, 6]. As a war of words, EC may be better to consumers’ health than conventional cigarette, but it still plays a bad role in deteriorating the cardiovascular system and causing chest pain, especially for those who are undergoing existing cardiovascular disease. Scientists need a fresh mind to think about how EC correlates with pain feeling for its consumers [7].
\nElectronic cigarettes (ECs) or e-cigarettes are battery-operated products designed to deliver nicotine (can be without) combined with other chemicals such as flavors. An internal heat source turns nicotine and other chemicals into vapor when inhaled by the user. The main components of an EC include a cartridge, a heating atomizer, and a battery. With current evidence, the ingredients in the cartridge, the heating process, and spontaneous explosion of battery have the potential to do harm and cause pain to human beings [8, 9, 10]. Compared with pain caused by conventional cigarette, thermally induced pain is an emerging concern and effective preventative methods have not been developed yet [9, 10, 11]. Owing to its unpredictability, caution should be taken when carrying or vaping EC.
\nFinally, EC has grasped considerable public attention since 2014 based on the publication data of PubMed released. With relatively few years of investigation, neither the benefits nor the adverse effects of electronic cigarettes could be fully unearthed. Currently, the association between EC and various pains mainly depends on case reports and clinical questionnaire studies [12, 13, 14]. In this chapter, a systematic review will be conducted regarding both the common pains that EC consumers complained about using abundant data and the rare discomforts based on occasional cases. Moreover, a comprehensive comparison between conventional cigarette users and EC users can effectively demonstrate the potential effects of EC consumption, no matter first, second, or third hand.
\nPublications searching was conducted using PubMed and EMBASE with keywords: “electronic cigarette” or “e-cigarette” or “electronic nicotine delivery systems” or “vaping” or “tobacco products” or “cigarette smoking” and “pain” or “ache” or “musculoskeletal pain” or “chronic pain” or “headache” or “injury” without requirement of released time for the articles. All articles were written in English. All abstracts had been reviewed; if they met the topic of relationship between EC and pain, full-length articles were checked.
\nHeadache is a symptom that could happen in any part of the brain with different mechanisms and in various ways. Based on an international online questionnaire study with large numbers of participants aiming to investigate the side effects and potential benefits of EC, headache was reported by 11.4% of who currently or previously consumed EC products [5]. It is worth mentioning that, for those participants who used EC, the concentration of nicotine was varied. Electronic cigarettes provide a gradual nicotine reduction strategy for those smokers who want to quit conventional smoking. According to this survey, there was no clear relationship between the frequency and severity of adverse effects and nicotine absorbed [5]. In an open-labeled, randomized, parallel group, clinical trial study was conducted at a certain nicotine concentration to probe the comparison between conventional smokers who switched to EC and those who continued with conventional cigarette for over 12 weeks. Researchers found no significant health improvement among those who switched, but rather adverse effects such as headaches and some other agonies, especially during the first week, and these symptoms could partially be ascribed to nicotine withdrawal [15]. Later on, the same participants participated in a trial that wanted to evaluate the long-term effects of EC consumption; after 24 months of investigation, the study showed that headache was the most complained symptom and there were no worse clinical presentation compared with the baseline condition [12]. Similarly, systems that retrospectively reviewed and summarized the recent clinical complications of using EC found that headache was actually the most frequently reported adverse effect [16].
\nHeadache, either associated with nicotine withdrawal symptoms or unknown mechanisms, could impressively prevent smokers to quit conventional smoking and switch to low-harmful EC products. In the studies shown above, there were no details on how the headaches happened nor its frequency and severity. Furthermore, some of the clinical studies were mainly based on online questionnaires; thus, there could have been selection bias and the criteria might have been interpreted more subjectively than objectively. More studies are needed in both experimental and clinical fields.
\nAmong those e-cigarette-using individuals who complained about chest pain, the most reported syndromes were related with either lung malfunction, structure disfigures [17, 18], or potential cardiovascular diseases [19].
\nConsistent evidence has shown that conventional cigarette users are readily trapped in lung problems. However, only a limited number of studies have focused on EC users who caught chest pain. Dr. Sommerfeld et al.’s study [17] presented a previously healthy young woman who developed pleuritic chest pain after EC use. Soon the chest pain deteriorated into acute respiratory distress syndrome after acute respiratory failure. With completed routine and pathological examination, this patient was diagnosed with hypersensitivity pneumonitis after using EC products with unknown mechanism. This particular case reminds clinicians and consumers of EC’s rare but dreadful consequences. Another patient was a previous conventional cigarette consumer who switched to EC to quit smoking. A month later, this patient was referred to the pulmonary department and complained about a month-long pain that was sharp, intermittent, and on both sides of the chest. Upon inpatient studies, dyspnea was confirmed and the doctors ascribed her symptoms to the recent EC use. Later, she was diagnosed with organizing pneumonia via pathological examination and was improved with steroids along with abstinence from e-cigarette use [18]. This case demonstrated that EC contributes to the deterioration of patients’ health and possibly causes chest pain through various mechanisms. According to an international survey, about 3% of EC users have struggled with chest pain [5]. Even without thoroughly investigating the disadvantages of EC, attention should be paid when EC is used without other choices.
\nNicotine, the major component of conventional cigarette, was ascertained to induce addiction, which impedes smokers to quit conventional cigarette by causing difficult withdrawal symptoms [1, 8]. This leads to the rise of electronic cigarettes, designed to help quit smoking with less withdrawal agony. Its designer claimed that it is the ideal replacement for conventional cigarette but with much less nicotine inside. But when surveys were conducted to clarify the components of EC, the concentration of nicotine varied among different brands and products [4]. A randomized, partially single-blinded, 6-period crossover clinical study of adult smokers was conducted to compare how nicotine alteration impacts smoking urge between EC users and conventional cigarette users. Though obvious blood plasma nicotine levels were detected, subjects who were exposed to EC products behaved better than conventional cigarette users [20]. On the other hand, holding alternative opinion toward the advantage of using EC, Lee et al. [21] demonstrated that smoking electronic cigarettes could damage DNA and reduce repair activity in mouse lung, heart, and bladder via various chemical measurements and predicted its harm in human lung and bladder cells [21].
\nWith regard to cardiovascular symptoms induced by EC, the mainstream opinion is mostly positive because it is relatively harmless compared with conventional cigarette [3, 4, 7]. However, consumers should be cautious that smoking EC is not totally free of danger as cases have shown EC users develop cardiovascular diseases, especially among young people and women who are pregnant [4, 7]. Based on experimental studies, EC components have the potential to activate platelet activation, adhesion, inflammation, and aggregation, which are critical steps for the occurrence and development of cardiovascular diseases [22]. The unfavorable influence of EC has also been demonstrated on young smokers who were previously free of cardiovascular diseases. The researchers suggested that using EC can increase aortic stiffness and blood pressure in addition to the unfavorable effect on the cardiovascular system [19].
\nChest pain seems to be caused less frequently and less seriously with EC consumption than with conventional cigarette usage. However, due to shortage of investigation, no conclusive statement about its harm could be drawn. To summarize, EC users still encounter various kinds of chest pain; among them, chest pain induced by cardiovascular system is relatively specific and likely caused by the effects of nicotine [7, 20], while, for other chest pains that are mainly ascribed to respiratory system malfunction, acute pain was prone to happen and is probably correlated with hyper-immune response [5, 17, 18].
\nThere are still other specific pains reported as a consequence of EC consumption. Such aches mainly occurred in the abdomen [23] and the oral cavity [24].
\nDr. Madsen et al. reported a 45-year-old female who presented with abdominal pain and fever, conceivably caused by inflammatory reaction after abrupt EC use. Imaging evidence suggested lung cancer metastasis, while pathological examination was negative for malignant findings and suggested a foreign body reaction. Upon cessation of e-cigarette use, this patient made a recovery. This was a unique case leading inflammatory reaction of EC to mimic metastatic cancer [23].
\nA cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the relationship between EC use and oral health among adolescents showed that EC use possibly increased the risk of tongue and inside-cheek pain among student users in Korea [24]. Specific to this study, gingival pain was not found significantly more frequent when compared with the non-EC group [24]. However, an international questionnaire survey suggested that 13.1% of EC users developed gingivitis in about a 10-month follow-up [5]. Some have tried to explain the difference in findings by considering ethnic differences or ways of vaping.
\nReported occasionally and lacking profound investigation, these aches were possibly correlated with EC use. Likewise, EC caused chest pain through induced inflammatory reaction [17] and induced abdominal pain via a similar mechanism [23]. For oral pain, inconsistent results were obtained from surveys. Gingival pain did occur more frequently among EC users even though there were no complete statistical agreements. More studies and surveys should be conducted to address this issue.
\nThermal injury hardly happens during conventional cigarette use. However, due to the instability of device and improper carrying methods, both physical and chemical exposure could happen to EC users. There seems to be no effective way to prevent thermal injury other than quitting. Most recent thermal injury cases reported were associated with the explosion of battery or high-temperature vaping [9, 10, 11, 25, 26]. Since a considerable number of cases and researches concluded that EC use is responsible for thermal pain, greater public attention is needed.
\nPaley et al. [25] reported two cases in which the explosion of EC products caused corneoscleral laceration and ocular burns and such effects were like nightmares for the patients and their family. Through retrospectively reviewing the institutional burn database of EC injury, Serror et al. [9] illustrated the potential mechanism underlying thermal EC injury. They reached four possible mechanisms: (1) thermal burns by flames due to a phenomenon called “thermal runaway,” (2) blast lesions secondary to the explosion, (3) chemical alkali burns caused by the spread of the electrolyte solution, and (4) thermal burns without flames due to overheating. Their results provide a way to redesign and improve the safety of EC devices. Meanwhile, another retrospective survey was conducted to investigate the severity of pain those patients suffered; they concluded that the majority of EC explosions caused second- and third-degree burns within the same wound bed. Among those who got injured, the spontaneous explosion of the battery was the most common reason. Explosion of these products also occasionally made an unbearable impact on spine and caused C1 and C2 fractures in a young EC user. Data collected from the US Consumer Product Safety Commission’s National Electronic Injury Surveillance System revealed more explosion and burn injuries recently [11].
\nThermal injury is increasingly threatening to those EC users who are not cautious; incidents that occurred can actually cause a serious condition and victims should be referred to emergency treatment. The critical point is thermal injury seems unpredictable without suitable regulation of these devices since it can happen spontaneously.
\nWithdrawal symptoms should mainly be attributed to nicotine, a miraculous compound that causes addictive feeling and prevents current smokers from quitting. Withdrawal symptoms are a series of discomforts arisen owing to the short of nicotine. To investigate the pain behavior in smokers and non-smokers, experiments unearthed that smoking withdrawal was associated with blunted stress response and increased pain sensitivity [27]. This finding suggests that during the time when smokers are trying to quit cigarette consumption, they will suffer more pain sensitivity and consequently be unable to keep up with the process. The same story is revealed by an online survey that aimed to test the association between pain and the potential to quit smoking. They found that smokers who suffered chronic pain had less willingness, lower confidence, and greater difficulty to quit cigarette [28]. Moreover, based on a rat model, nicotine deprivation (which produces a similar mechanism as nicotine withdrawal) increased the pain threshold and decreased the pain tolerance [29]. Along the same lines, researches revealed that pain severity was significantly and positively associated with e-cigarette dependence [6, 13]. These experiments had demonstrated the relationship between pain-taking and the possibility of getting rid of nicotine-based cigarette.
\nConsistent and severe pain feeling caused by withdrawal syndrome was the most critical problem that hampered users to quit tobacco products. Even though EC products claimed to have less nicotine, they still arouse ache among EC consumers, especially for those who used conventional and electronic cigarette at the same time. Most pains were unspecific for those individuals who complained about withdrawal symptoms, which had no simple approaches to cure. As a consequence, chronic pains in withdrawal symptoms correlate with EC usage; it cannot be neglected and should be taken into serious consideration.
\nAerosol and e-liquid are the major components of EC products that are mixed with various ingredients [3]. The process of vaping can produce some heavy metal contamination to smokers and second-hand or third-hand delivered harm. Though few researches have been done to interpret the side effects of EC, experimental studies illustrate the effects of some chemicals. Through reflection X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, aldehydes, cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, arsenic, and chromium were detected in different types of EC products and they are likely to be harmful to human health [30].
\nStudies using ALDH2*1/*2 heterozygous mice, designed to be impaired in the metabolic aldehydes, found they were significantly more sensitive to painful stimuli than other wild-type mice and this alteration can be inhibited by an ALDH2-selective activator [31]. This experiment proposed the possibility of aldehydes altering the threshold of pain. Furthermore, EC users are possibly exposed to toluene and formalin owing to vaping. Cervantes-Duran et al. [32] suggested that acute toluene exposure fomented formalin-induced acute and long-lasting nociceptive hypersensitivity in rats [32]. Meanwhile, propylene glycol could attenuate the adverse effects of high-dose nicotine and allow EC users to develop high tolerance toward EC products [33]. By analyzing urinary cadmium levels, La-Up et al. [34] found there was a positive relationship between urinary cadmium level and chronic musculoskeletal pain. The survey showed that for the cadmium-contaminated areas in northwest Thailand, people had high risk of being trapped in chronic musculoskeletal pain. This finding in turn suggests that exposure to cadmium, which is contained in EC vaping, may cause chronic musculoskeletal pain [34].
\nAll in all, the compounds in EC products vary. Some of them are found in conventional cigarettes while others are newly discovered. A large amount of these compounds have the potential to alter pain threshold or induce pain feeling. Until recently, the cause mechanism was not fully illustrated and individuals are still exposed to false advertisements and potential second- or third-hand vaping. Such conditions are partially caused by the lack of clear quality control and quality assurance, since different EC products could have different ingredients.
\nElectronic cigarettes, once considered an ideal replacement of conventional cigarette for current smokers, have caused considerable problems and grasped public and researchers’ attention recently. First of all, EC products are not harmless [3, 5] and EC consumers have not fully understood the potential harms of EC usage yet [1, 4]. In addition, even with a limited number of studies, lots of researches were conducted to compare conventional cigarette and EC; their findings agreed that EC does have its disadvantages and the relationship between EC use and pain is still on its way to become fully clarified.
\nThe apparent safety of EC appeals to current conventional cigarette users, who consider using it to help them avoid the dreadful consequences of cigarette consumption [6]. Meanwhile, EC also allows youngsters to satisfy their curiosity without violating the law and without causing obvious health concerns compared to conventional cigarette (at least before major health and environmental concerns are brought to public attention). Thanks to the enthusiasm on investigating EC and recent findings, stricter prohibition of EC usage in public areas and better prevention of EC exposure to youngsters and women have been enacted [14].
\nAbove all, consuming EC products does have its harm toward human health, though it is relatively safe compared with conventional cigarette usage [3, 4]. EC consumption has possibly led to headache [5, 12, 15], chest pain [5, 17], thermal injury [10, 11], and other pain-related agonies. Fortunately, scientists have begun to test EC components more thoroughly and are trying to conclude the adverse effects of EC consumption.
\nWhile the discussion of EC’s advantage and disadvantage is still fierce and there is still uncertainty about mechanism and the prevalence of pain, researches and clinical cases will reach a comprehensive evaluation of EC with growing evidence.
\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
",metaTitle:"Access policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All IntechOpen published chapters are available OPEN ACCESS can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\\n\\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\\n\\nThe full content of chapters can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\\n\\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\\n\\nIntechOpen chapters are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\\n\\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\\n\\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\\n\\nAll IntechOpen books are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2021-02-26
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"All IntechOpen published chapters are available OPEN ACCESS can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\n\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\n\nThe full content of chapters can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\n\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\n\nIntechOpen chapters are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\n\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\n\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\n\nAll IntechOpen books are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2021-02-26
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5818},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5287},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1757},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10539},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:909},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15929}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119317},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"9"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10519",title:"Middleware Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c326d436ae0f4c508849d2336dbdfb48",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10519.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"26677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdia",surname:"Ajana El Khaddar",slug:"mehdia-ajana-el-khaddar",fullName:"Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10695",title:"Computational Fluid Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f8fd29e4b72dbfe632f47840b369b11",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10695.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10651",title:"Machine Learning - Algorithms, Models and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6208156401c496e0a4ca5ff4265324cc",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jaydip Sen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10651.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10692",title:"Critical Systems - Towards Antifragility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"78d284ad921e9677830ef0335b1f1276",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Darrell Mann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10692.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"297423",title:"Prof.",name:"Darrell",surname:"Mann",slug:"darrell-mann",fullName:"Darrell Mann"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10691",title:"Intelligent and Futuristic Computer Animation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5496e567e838f1eaeafba5f9a776b13a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ahmad Hoirul Basori and Dr. Andi Besse Firdausiah Mansur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10691.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"13394",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad Hoirul",surname:"Basori",slug:"ahmad-hoirul-basori",fullName:"Ahmad Hoirul Basori"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10859",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"63a4e514e537d3962cf53ef1c6b9d5eb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ciza Thomas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10859.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10857",title:"Augmented Reality",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5d66e2c09cddac7cc377ffb103aa7ef9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dragan Mladen Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10857.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3cf7194a8c120e74db9dd632b9affb83",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nodari Vakhania",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"202585",title:"Prof.",name:"Nodari",surname:"Vakhania",slug:"nodari-vakhania",fullName:"Nodari Vakhania"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dragan Mladen Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:47},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:9},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5319},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9021",title:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"522c6db871783d2a11c17b83f1fd4e18",slug:"novel-perspectives-of-stem-cell-manufacturing-and-therapies",bookSignature:"Diana Kitala and Ana Colette Maurício",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9021.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1127",title:"Alternative Medicine",slug:"alternative-medicine",parent:{title:"TCM and Alternative Medicine",slug:"tcm-and-alternative-medicine"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:112,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:34,numberOfDimensionsCitations:91,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"alternative-medicine",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7910",title:"Acupuncture",subtitle:"Resolving Old Controversies and Pointing New Pathways",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ee244050594f166365bb63ec51a447a",slug:"acupuncture-resolving-old-controversies-and-pointing-new-pathways",bookSignature:"Marcelo Saad and Roberta de Medeiros",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7910.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51991",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Saad",slug:"marcelo-saad",fullName:"Marcelo Saad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3304",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6d3a937281325154720c678283daff0",slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",bookSignature:"Lucy L. Chen and Tsung O. Cheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3304.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49147",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucy L",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"lucy-l-chen",fullName:"Lucy L Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3369",title:"Alternative Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e5a330fdcaea1dbe6b571b1f2ee93b56",slug:"alternative-medicine",bookSignature:"Hiroshi Sakagami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3369.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82603",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakagami",slug:"hiroshi-sakagami",fullName:"Hiroshi Sakagami"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"386",title:"Acupuncture",subtitle:"Concepts and Physiology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a1b327d1a93e8dfd07289ab0a701aa39",slug:"acupuncture-concepts-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Marcelo Saad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51991",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Saad",slug:"marcelo-saad",fullName:"Marcelo Saad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1316",title:"Acupuncture",subtitle:"Clinical Practice, Particular Techniques and Special Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60c42faaae3504a330936fc3ff4456ee",slug:"acupuncture-clinical-practice-particular-techniques-and-special-issues",bookSignature:"Marcelo Saad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1316.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51991",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Saad",slug:"marcelo-saad",fullName:"Marcelo Saad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"41698",doi:"10.5772/54003",title:"Propolis: Alternative Medicine for the Treatment of Oral Microbial Diseases",slug:"antifungal-activity-of-propolis-oral-clinical-studies-in-humans",totalDownloads:4937,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"alternative-medicine",title:"Alternative Medicine",fullTitle:"Alternative Medicine"},signatures:"Vagner Rodrigues Santos",authors:[{id:"79610",title:"Dr.",name:"Vagner Rodrigues",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Santos",slug:"vagner-rodrigues-santos",fullName:"Vagner Rodrigues Santos"}]},{id:"41492",doi:"10.5772/53333",title:"Application of Saponin-Containing Plants in Foods and Cosmetics",slug:"application-of-saponin-containing-plants-in-foods-and-cosmetics",totalDownloads:6364,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"alternative-medicine",title:"Alternative Medicine",fullTitle:"Alternative Medicine"},signatures:"Yukiyoshi Tamura, Masazumi Miyakoshi and Masaji Yamamoto",authors:[{id:"97471",title:"Mr.",name:"Masaji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamamoto",slug:"masaji-yamamoto",fullName:"Masaji Yamamoto"}]},{id:"41526",doi:"10.5772/53868",title:"Network Pharmacology and Traditional Chinese Medicine",slug:"network-pharmacology-and-traditional-chinese-medicine",totalDownloads:2514,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"alternative-medicine",title:"Alternative Medicine",fullTitle:"Alternative Medicine"},signatures:"Qihe Xu, Fan Qu and Olavi Pelkonen",authors:[{id:"23803",title:"Prof.",name:"Olavi",middleName:null,surname:"Pelkonen",slug:"olavi-pelkonen",fullName:"Olavi Pelkonen"},{id:"67044",title:"Dr.",name:"Qihe",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"qihe-xu",fullName:"Qihe Xu"},{id:"162445",title:"Dr.",name:"Fan",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"fan-qu",fullName:"Fan Qu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"21310",title:"Acupuncture Analgesia Research and Clinical Practice in Taiwan",slug:"acupuncture-analgesia-research-and-clinical-practice-in-taiwan",totalDownloads:2651,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"acupuncture-concepts-and-physiology",title:"Acupuncture",fullTitle:"Acupuncture - Concepts and Physiology"},signatures:"Jaung-Geng Lin and Yi-Hung Chen",authors:[{id:"57293",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaung-Geng",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"jaung-geng-lin",fullName:"Jaung-Geng Lin"},{id:"61147",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi-Hung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yi-hung-chen",fullName:"Yi-Hung Chen"}]},{id:"18907",title:"Yamamoto New Scalp Acupuncture (YNSA): Development, Principles, Safety, Effectiveness and Clinical Applications",slug:"yamamoto-new-scalp-acupuncture-ynsa-development-principles-safety-effectiveness-and-clinical-applica",totalDownloads:20327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"acupuncture-clinical-practice-particular-techniques-and-special-issues",title:"Acupuncture",fullTitle:"Acupuncture - Clinical Practice, Particular Techniques and Special Issues"},signatures:"Thomas Schockert",authors:[{id:"51993",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Schockert",slug:"thomas-schockert",fullName:"Thomas Schockert"}]},{id:"43336",title:"Acupuncture for Cancer Patients: Practice and Research",slug:"acupuncture-for-cancer-patients-practice-and-research",totalDownloads:2052,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",fullTitle:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine"},signatures:"Lizhen Wang and Ting Bao",authors:[{id:"57457",title:"Dr.",name:"Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",slug:"ting-bao",fullName:"Ting Bao"},{id:"166458",title:"Dr.",name:"Lizhen",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lizhen-wang",fullName:"Lizhen Wang"}]},{id:"42666",title:"Evaluating the Geography and the Visibility Tendencies of Acupuncture Treatment Locations in Metropolitan Toronto",slug:"evaluating-the-geography-and-the-visibility-tendencies-of-acupuncture-treatment-locations-in-metropo",totalDownloads:1591,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",fullTitle:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine"},signatures:"Stephen P. Meyer",authors:[{id:"51244",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Meyer",slug:"stephen-meyer",fullName:"Stephen Meyer"}]},{id:"43315",title:"Explore Laser Acupuncture’s Role",slug:"explore-laser-acupuncture-s-role",totalDownloads:3484,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",fullTitle:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine"},signatures:"Wen-Long Hu, Yu-Chiang Hung and I-Ling Hung",authors:[{id:"49804",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Chiang",middleName:null,surname:"Hung",slug:"yu-chiang-hung",fullName:"Yu-Chiang Hung"},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu"},{id:"166738",title:"Dr.",name:"I-Ling",middleName:null,surname:"Hung",slug:"i-ling-hung",fullName:"I-Ling Hung"}]},{id:"66440",title:"Scalp Acupuncture and Mental Disorders",slug:"scalp-acupuncture-and-mental-disorders",totalDownloads:656,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"acupuncture-resolving-old-controversies-and-pointing-new-pathways",title:"Acupuncture",fullTitle:"Acupuncture - Resolving Old Controversies and Pointing New Pathways"},signatures:"Chuen Heung Yau and Cheuk Long Ip",authors:[{id:"277860",title:"M.D.",name:"Chuen Heung",middleName:null,surname:"Yau",slug:"chuen-heung-yau",fullName:"Chuen Heung Yau"},{id:"292850",title:"Mr.",name:"Cheuk Long",middleName:null,surname:"Ip",slug:"cheuk-long-ip",fullName:"Cheuk Long Ip"}]},{id:"43339",title:"Immediate Effects of Microsystem Acupuncture in Patients with Oromyofacial Pain and Craniomandibular Disorders (CMD): A Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial",slug:"immediate-effects-of-microsystem-acupuncture-in-patients-with-oromyofacial-pain-and-craniomandibular",totalDownloads:1818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",fullTitle:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine"},signatures:"Irmgard Simma, Jochen M. Gleditsch, Leopold Simma and E. Piehslinger",authors:[{id:"159339",title:"Dr.",name:"Irmgard",middleName:null,surname:"Simma",slug:"irmgard-simma",fullName:"Irmgard Simma"}]},{id:"43391",title:"New Development in Sham Acupuncture Needle",slug:"new-development-in-sham-acupuncture-needle",totalDownloads:2438,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",fullTitle:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine"},signatures:"Sungchul Kim",authors:[{id:"158590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sungchul",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"sungchul-kim",fullName:"Sungchul Kim"}]},{id:"43300",title:"Nitric Oxide in Acupuncture Mechanism",slug:"nitric-oxide-in-acupuncture-mechanism",totalDownloads:1949,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",fullTitle:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine"},signatures:"Masahiko Tsuchiya",authors:[{id:"159856",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Masahiko",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuchiya",slug:"masahiko-tsuchiya",fullName:"Masahiko Tsuchiya"}]},{id:"43311",title:"High-Tech Equipment for Moxibustion in Modern Medicine",slug:"high-tech-equipment-for-moxibustion-in-modern-medicine",totalDownloads:1892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",fullTitle:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine"},signatures:"Takashi Seki, Junnosuke Okajima, Akiko Kikuchi, Shin Takayama, Masashi Watanabe, Hiroko Kusuyama, Ayane Matsuda, Soichiro Kaneko, Tetsuharu Kamiya, Atsuki Komiya, Minami Fujiwara, Nobuo Yaegasi, Tomoyuki Yambe and Shigenao Maruyama",authors:[{id:"57950",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Seki",slug:"takashi-seki",fullName:"Takashi Seki"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"alternative-medicine",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/289570/zeynep-mustafaeva",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"289570",slug:"zeynep-mustafaeva"},fullPath:"/profiles/289570/zeynep-mustafaeva",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()