Test parameters selected for the ball-cratering wear experiments.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Figure 1 presents a schematic diagram of the principle of this micro-abrasive wear test, in which a rotating ball is forced against the tested specimen in the presence of an abrasive slurry, generating, consequently, the called “wear craters” on the surface of the tested material.
Micro-abrasive wear test by rotating ball: a representative figure showing the operating principle and the abrasive particles between the ball and the specimen; “
Initially, the development of the ball-cratering wear test aimed to measure the thickness of thin films (Figure 2a and b) [1], which can be made using the equations detailed in Ref. [2]. Because of the technical features, this type of micro-abrasive wear test has been applied to study the tribological behavior of different materials [3, 4, 5], for example, in the analysis of the volume of wear (
Examples of wear craters generated on coated system: (a) multilayer and (b) thin film of TiN.
As a function of the abrasive slurry concentration, two micro-abrasive wear modes can be usually observed on the surface of the worn crater: “grooving abrasion” is observed when the abrasive particles slide on the surface, whereas “rolling abrasion” results from abrasive particles rolling on the specimen’s surface. Figure 3a [11, 12] and Figure 3b presents, respectively, images of “grooving abrasion” and “rolling abrasion.”
Micro-abrasive wear modes: (a) “grooving abrasion” [
Many works on coefficient of friction (
Analyzing and studying important researches regarding to tribological behavior of materials submitted to micro-abrasive wear test conditions [7, 8, 9, 26], the purpose of this work is to report the influence of the micro-abrasive wear modes on the behaviors of the volume of wear (
A ball-cratering wear test equipment with free-ball mechanical configuration (Figure 4 [27]) was used for the micro-abrasive wear tests, which has two load cells: one load cell to control the “normal force” (
Ball-cratering micro-abrasive wear test equipment used in this work: free-ball mechanical configuration, able to acquire, simultaneously, the “normal force
Experiments were conducted with thin films of:
TiN
TiAlN
TiN/TiAlN
TiHfC
ZrN
TiZrN
The abrasive material was black silicon carbide (SiC) with an average particle size of 3 μm; Figure 5 [4] presents a micrograph of the abrasive particles (Figure 5a) and the particle size distribution (Figure 5b). The abrasive slurries were prepared with SiC and glycerine.
SiC abrasive [
Table 1 presents the values of the test parameters defined for the micro-abrasive wear experiments.
Test parameters selected for the ball-cratering wear experiments.
The normal force value defined for the wear experiments was
All tests were
The volume of wear (
Figures 6 and 7 show examples of worn surfaces obtained in the experiments; in all wear craters, the maximum depth (
Occurrence of “grooving abrasion” on the surface of the thin film of TiN.
Occurrence of “rolling abrasion” on the surface of the thin film of TiN.
The actions of the micro-abrasive wear modes showed an important influence on the volume of wear and on the coefficient of friction of the thin films studied in this research. A significant increase in the volume of abrasive particles from
Figures 8 and 9 show the behaviors of the volume of wear (
Volume of wear (
Coefficient of friction (
The values of the volume of wear reported under conditions of “rolling abrasion” (high-abrasive slurry concentration,
The values of the coefficient of friction reported under “grooving abrasion” (low-abrasive slurry concentration,
The results obtained indicated the conclusions:
The concentration of abrasive slurry affected the occurrence of “grooving abrasion”—under low concentration—or “rolling abrasion,” under high concentration.
The volume of wear increased with the increase of the abrasive slurry concentration.
With the low concentration of abrasive slurry, “grooving abrasion” and, consequently, high values of coefficient of friction were reported. In this situation, the abrasive particles were incrusted on the counter-body, hindering their movements and generating high tangential forces.
On the other hand, when the high concentration of abrasive slurry was used, “rolling abrasion” occurred. In this case, the abrasive particles were free to roll along the surface of the thin film, causing a low coefficient of friction.
abrasive slurry concentration—in volume, [% SiC + % glycerine] diameter of the wear crater, [mm] diameter of the ball, [mm] depth of the wear crater, [μm] coefficient of wear, [mm3/N m] ball rotational speed, [rpm] normal force, [N] radius of the ball, [mm] tangential force, [N] volume of wear, [mm3] coefficient of friction
In the past decade, endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) in human pathophysiology have gained much more attention due to their ability to affect development and reproduction in humans and wildlife. In accordance with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), EDCs can be defined as ‘exogenous agents that disrupt the hormone homeostasis by interfering with the synthesis, secretion, transport, metabolism, receptor binding or elimination of endogenous hormone [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. EDCs comprise mainly heterogeneous compounds, including synthetic (chemical) and natural (plant products such as isoflavones) responsible for disrupting the hormone system. Endocrine disruptors may be found easily in almost every product used in our daily life, including detergents, plastic bottles, food, toys, pesticides, insecticides, and flame retardants. The criteria proposed by the European Commission for being in the process of defining any compound as EDCs should at least exhibit three characters: (1) an endocrine activity, (2) an adverse or deleterious endocrine mediated effect in the exposed subject or its progeny or subpopulations (3) a plausible cause-effect relationship between the two [7, 8]. Most of the EDCs interfere with the endocrine system by binding the hormonal receptor or regulating genomic expression. Increasing evidence has documented that the highest risk is posed during early and postnatal development while forming organ and neural systems [9]. Sometimes, epigenetic changes (DNA methylation or acetylation) or histone modifications are also involved in endocrine disruption [10].
EDCs are highly heterogeneous and can be classified based on their origin: Industrial and household chemicals (dioxins, phthalates, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), alkylphenols, plasticizers, fire retardants), agricultural (insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, phytoestrogens), residential {bisphenol A (BPA), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), phthalates} and some pharmaceuticals agents {parabens, diethylstilbestrol (DES)} [3, 5, 11]. Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic are also included in the EDCs long list (Figure 1) [10, 12]. According to the Stockholm Convention (2001), both production and usage of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) was restricted [13]. Guidelines for a list of chemicals were developed to store and eliminate them, which was happened in 2008 and 2014 [14]. Initially, almost twelve POPs were designated as “dirty dozen” due to their severe adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. Hence, their production and use were banned. The dirty dozen included industrial chemicals, pesticides, and by-products such as aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene, PCBs, hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans [9].
Sources and examples of EDCs.
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals may exhibit various exposure routes to enter the human body. Generally, inhalation (e.g., Plasticizers), dietary intake (e.g., Foods), dermal absorption (e.g., Cosmetics), and embryonic exposure (e.g., Transfer from mother) represent the main exposure pathways (Figure 2) [5, 15]. Following any of these pathways, EDCs may enter the food chain and accumulate in different tissues [16]. Mostly EDCs are highly lipophilic in nature and hence accumulate in the adipose tissue having a long half-life. These aforementioned features explain the exact reasons for being the accumulation of EDCs for years in the adipose tissue. Humans and other top predators are at the top of the food chain. Hence, due to bioaccumulation and biomagnification, they may store many EDCs, ultimately leading to various adverse consequences. Even lifelong exposure or fetal or neonatal stage exposure may bring about cumulative or additive or synergic effects. Therefore, the timing of exposure is of utmost importance in evaluating adverse effects on the endocrine system.
Route of entries of EDCs.
Endocrine disruptors such as dioxins, PCBs, perfluorinated compounds, and DDT are commonly found in pesticide-contaminated soil or groundwater or industrial waste quickly enter the human body via oral consumption of food or water. Some of the commonly used EDCs (DDT, vinclozolin, pyrethroids, chlorpyrifos) in households, agriculture, or public disease vector control may come in contact with human skin or through inhalation. In addition to this, cosmetics, personal care products, sunscreens, medications (triclosan, paraben, phthalates) that we apply on our skin are also responsible for their uptake into our body [17]. Professional workers using fungicides, pesticides, and chemicals are most prone and at high risk of EDCs exposure.
The mammalian reproductive cycles are mainly controlled by an intricate play between hypothalamus pituitary and gonads [18]. The hypothalamic Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) neurons regulate reproductive functions in all vertebrates. The hypothalamic–pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis plays a crucial role in the normal development of the reproductive system by controlling the ovarian as well as uterine cycles in females and also spermatogenesis in males [18, 19]. In response to GnRH release from the hypothalamus, pituitary gonadotropic cells synthesize and release Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), which travel via the bloodstream to the target organs. LH and FSH are essential as regulators of both ovarian and testicular function. In males, LH stimulates testicular Leydig cells to synthesize and secrete testosterone, which in turn maintains spermatogenesis in Sertoli cells through its paracrine action and exerts sexual and anabolic actions. While FSH acts on Sertoli cells to produce androgen-binding protein, which is critical for spermatogenesis initiation and ultimately augments sperm production [20]. In females, the production of GnRH, LH, and FSH via the HPG axis are similar, but the actions of these hormones are different. LH and FSH exert their function on the ovaries to promote follicular maturation, ovulation, corpus luteum development, and estrogen and progesterone production [21, 22]. These hormones also have a role in regulating the uterine (menstrual) cycle to prepare for ovulation and embryo implantation [23]. These gonadal steroid hormones secreted by ovaries and testis can inhibit GnRH’s hypothalamic synthesis via a feedback loop, hence playing a vital role in regulating reproductive function. In most mammals, 17β- Estradiol, testosterone, and progesterone are the primary estrogen, androgen, and progestin, respectively, and each of their receptors are expressed abundantly in the hypothalamus (Figure 3) [24].
Regulation of HPG axis.
It is widely known that EDCs molecule, either natural or synthetic, follows the classical mechanism of action to mimic or interfere with the action of an endocrine regulated network of vertebrates. This interference can happen through different mechanisms, either through genomic or non-genomic actions. So before understanding the mechanism of endocrine disruption, we must have a clear picture of the endocrine system that relies on the synthesis and release of hormones from various endocrine glands and its transport via the bloodstream to the required distant cells and tissues [25]. This process involves complex interacting signaling pathways and hormone receptors to control normal body function. Estrogen receptors (ERs) regulate the transcription of their target genes via multiple pathways, either directly or indirectly. Any changes in ER signaling may lead to adverse consequences such as hormone-dependent cancer, abnormal fetal growth and development, altered metabolism, and sometimes impaired fertility. Although the effect of EDCs is not limited to only the ligand-dependent ER signaling pathway, it is the best-studied of ER targeted endocrine disruption. ER in response to ligand signals through both genomic as well as a non-genomic pathway. Briefly, ER mediates its signal in the genomic pathway by binding directly to estrogen-responsive elements (ERE) or indirectly through coactivators such as SP-1 or AP-1. Although the best well-studied nuclear receptor cofactors belong to the p160 family of coactivators (e.g., SRC-1, SRC-2, and SRC-3) but the cofactor complex that mediates ER signaling is more complicated.
The non-genomic pathway has a rapid response as within minutes of ligand binding, signal transduction occurs. During estrogen ligand, a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR-30) activates and mediates the signal independent of ERs and stimulates cAMP production, fluctuates intracellular calcium, or lead to MAPK or PI3K signaling cascades events. BPA and DES are extensively studied EDCs, which also induce rapid estrogen signaling via the non-genomic pathway (Figure 4).
Genomic and non-genomic pathway of estrogen signaling.
Steroid hormones are a group of lipophilic molecules that regulate a wide variety of physiological functions starting from fetal life to adulthood [26]. All these steroid hormones are biosynthesized from cholesterol, including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, progestin, estrogen, and androgen, regulating sexual and reproductive development. Steroidogenic enzymes involved in the steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway are considered as the crucial targets for EDCs action. For example, Researches have demonstrated that exposure of Nonylphenol (NP) concentration 10−4 to 10−1 M at several ages with multiple rat generations (N = 3-4 per group) can decrease P450scc activity in testes [27]. Phthalates exposure, which consists of a particular class of pesticides, inhibits testosterone synthesis in Leydig cells due to direct CYP17 inhibition and hence exerts anti-androgenic effects [28]. Furthermore, BPA of different concentrations (10−8 to 10−4 M) have been shown to inhibit the enzymatic activity of 3β-HSD, CYP17A1, and 17β-HSD3 in a dose-dependent manner in both human and rat testicular microsomes [29]. EDCs exposure also inhibits the activity of 5-α reductase, which is one of the main enzymes involved in dihydrotestosterone production from testosterone and hence in the regulation of masculinization of the external genitalia and the prostrate [30].
Aromatase (cyp19a) is known as the potential target action of EDC, and any modulation in its expression and function alters the estrogen production rate and hence disrupts the estrogen-dependent process [31]. A study suggested that BPA exposure in rat testis R2C Leydig cells stimulate aromatase activity and is correlated with upregulation in COX-2 in R2C cells [32].
In addition to steroidogenic enzymes and hormone metabolism, EDCs are also known to affect hormone-related receptor and their expression. EDCs, due to their similarity in structural features with the endogenous estrogen hormones, bind easily with the estrogen receptors and thus modify estrogen-responsive gene expression. EDCs that display binding with ERs include industrial bisphenolics, pharmaceutical chemicals, phytoestrogens, and organochlorine pesticides. Methoxychlor (MTX) and DDT are examples of organochlorine pesticides that exhibit estrogenic activity through binding with ERα and ERβ ligand-binding domains [33]. Thus, as reported, both pesticides adversely affect the female reproductive trait by impairing normal follicle development and stimulating uterine proliferation [34]. The insecticide endosulfan has a similar estrogenic activity that causes ovarian regression in both in vitro and in vivo studies [35]. Endosulfan competes with estradiol for interacting with the estrogen receptor but with lower affinity and, in turn, affects sex-specific gene expression [36]. Endosulfan can also affect the male reproductive system by decreasing the gene expression of testis-related transcription factors (sox9a and wt1) [37]. BPA possesses a binding affinity for ERs subtypes (ERα and ERβ) and is categorized as a prototypical non-steroidal ER [38].
It is also important to note that EDCs exhibit multiple hormone-binding actions regardless of their binding to hormonal receptors. For instance, DDT is an agonist for the estrogen receptor, but one of the metabolites of DDT shows anti-androgenic activity [39]. Similarly, BPA shows estrogenic and androgenic activity but exhibits an antagonist nature for thyroid hormone [40, 41].
The female reproductive system’s development is credited to folliculogenesis, where adverse biological effects of EDCs can be observed. The primordial follicles finally become primary, pre-antral, and the antral follicle. Environmental toxicants such as BPA, MTX, and phthalates may interfere at any developmental stage of the aforementioned antral follicle growth and hinder the reproduction, sometimes causing infertility. BPA exposure during in-vitro studies has been shown to inhibit mouse antral follicle development [42]. Follicle growth is dependent on the proliferation of theca and granulosa cells [43].
Estrogens are well-known as the gatekeepers of the female reproductive system. The sudden increase during puberty opens the gate to enter the reproductive life, and at menopause, the gate gets closed due to their decreased level. Thus, the environmental chemicals that behave as agonists or antagonists to estrogen hormone may play a role in precocious puberty, polycystic ovary syndrome, delay in menopause, and premature ovarian failure [44]. Increased growth of the endometrium and breast cancer are some of the unwanted side effects in females that can also occur due to EDCs exposure.
The growing evidence of EDCs affecting puberty or early breast development in the female has dramatically increased. It has been observed from the studies that the age of menarche has been decreased from 16-17 years to less than 13 years [5]. The increased estrogen-to-androgen ratio due to overexpression of aromatase activity has been shown to cause early or premature breast development and sometimes gynecomastia in boys [45, 46].
Breast cancer is a multifactorial disease [47] and mainly results from time-related complex interactions between internal and external factors [48]. Although endogenous estrogen has a role in breast tumor genesis, but estrogen-mimicking exogenous EDCs such as PCBs, BPA, DES, and phthalates have substantial impacts on breast development during the perinatal period and also on carcinogenesis in adults [48]. Studies have reported that women with prenatal exposure to DES, a synthetic estrogen, have an increased risk of breast cancer in their later age (≥40 years) [49]. Perinatal BPA exposure at environmentally relevant concentration alters breast development in both outbred mice and rats. The mode of action of estrogen-mimicking EDCs is two-fold; firstly, their action is on the proliferation of stromal cells and, secondly, concerned with epigenetic mechanisms [50]. EDCs affect the stromal cells by interfering with the estrogen signal pathway. HOXB9 is a homeobox-containing gene that plays a vital role in mammary gland development and is associated with breast cancer. Reports have shown that BPA competes with ER and leads to activation of this gene through histone modification and acetylation [50].
Endometriosis and uterine fibroids are the most common female reproductive disorders, having an estimated combined incidence of up to 70% of women. Due to their cryptic nature, many women with either endometriosis or fibroids may remain asymptomatic or undiagnosed and are more likely caused due to environmental endocrine-active compounds. For instance, non-human primates exposed to environmental contaminant TCDD (dioxin) have a higher endometriosis rate. The onset of fibroids occurs mainly after puberty, and this benign uterine tumor regresses after menopause. Fibroids are found to be more sensitive to the estrogen effect [51]. Hence, due to its dependency on estrogen for its growth, the role of environmental estrogen-mimicking EDCs in fibroid disease should be considered. Several reports have documented that developmental exposure to EDCs such as MTX, PCBs, DDT, DES have been implicated in the development of uterine fibroid disease [52].
About 1% of the female population under 40 years of age suffers from POF, leading to other comorbidities related to reproductive disorder or early menopause [53]. The possible mechanism of POF development includes premature activation of the follicle, blockage of follicle maturation, and acceleration of apoptosis. Several cases of POF have been reported, and EDCs might have some association with its occurrence. Many EDCs are related to multi-oocyte follicles (MOF) mediated by EDCs-induced ERβ agonist action. Administration of BPA (0.1-1,000 μg/kg) to pregnant mice between the critical periods of differentiation (9th-16th day), ovarian cysts appeared in adulthood, which was significantly more in number in the group that received 1 μg/kg BPA [54]. Paraben is another example of EDC that affects folliculogenesis by stimulating anti-mullerian hormone (AMH) mRNA expression and inhibits the early stage of ovarian follicle in newborn rats [44]. Similarly, MTX inhibits folliculogenesis and increases AMH expression in the pre-antral and early-antral follicles [55]. Recent studies have demonstrated that neonatal exposure of DES (3 μg/kg) induces MOF [56].
Studies have shown that fetal and neonatal exposure to EDCs exposure in humans may interfere with hormonal regulation and result in irregular or long cycles of the menstrual cycle [57]. The irregularities in the menstrual cycle may ultimately reduce fecundity. In-utero exposure to estrogenic compounds such as phytoestrogens or BPA in an animal model such as adult mice increases estrous cycle duration. In comparison, perinatal exposure to BPA results in early suspension and irregular cyclic activity [58] that are likely due to a change in LH secretion’s hypothalamic control and ovulation [59].
This disease is a more prevalent endocrine disorder in women, characterized by anovulation and hyperandrogenism. This syndrome is associated with a higher prevalence of obesity, insulin resistance, and other metabolic comorbidities. However, this disease’s pathogenesis is still not exact, but evidence shows that genetic and environmental factors such as EDCs may contribute to PCOS’s clinical development. BPA, a well-known estrogenic and androgenic endocrine disruptor, acts differently to interfere in reproductive functions. In vitro studies have shown that BPA exposure in rat ovarian thecal interstitial cells increases testosterone synthesis.
In contrast, in male rats, BPA competes with androgens to bind on sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), increasing serum-free androgen level. BPA exposure during neonatal conditions could lead to PCOS development. Besides, the estrogenic effect of environmental contaminant BPA enhances the risk of hypertension, type2 diabetes, and dyslipidemia (Table 1) [60].
Reference | Chemicals | Organism | Results |
---|---|---|---|
[5] | EDCs | Human | Decreased age of menarche |
[54] | BPA | Mice | Induces PCOS |
[44] | Paraben | Rats | Inhibit early stage of ovarian follicle |
[55] | MTX | Rats | Increase the expression of AMH in the pre-antral and early-antral follicles |
[56] | DES | Mice | Induces MOF |
[57] | PBD, PCB | Human | Irregular menstrual cycle |
[58] | BPA | Human | Irregular menstrual cycle |
[60] | BPA | Human | Development of PCOS |
A summary of the remarkable studies on effects of EDCs on female reproductive systems.
A large number of studies reported the toxic effects of environmental contaminants on male reproductive health. Numerous EDCs present in our environment may have a causative role in testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) in humans. Impaired spermatogenesis, decrease in semen quality, sperm anomalies, hypospadias, ectopic testes, cryptorchidism, and testicular cancer are important risk factors responsible for the symptoms of developmental disorder, TDS and ultimately causing male infertility. During the normal condition, a functional hormonal feedback loop regulates and ensures proper homeostasis. Sometimes, at the time of sexual development, exposure to certain chemicals may disrupt this tightly-regulated hormonal balance. Even short-term exposures can also have adverse effects and may cause infertility [61].
Semen parameters are used to measure sperm quality and are sometimes considered indicators of compromised male fertility [62]. Recently, the adverse health effects of the male reproductive system, especially due to BPA’s estrogenic property, have attracted much more attention. BPA is well-known as a testicular toxicant in animal models as it results in decreased sperm quality and motility, oxidative stress increases, and alters steroidogenesis [42]. Few studies were done in occupationally exposed men, and infertile men have also reported a negative correlation between semen quality and urinary BPA levels. The underlying mechanism may be related to increased oxidative stress and disruption in the steroidogenesis pathway [63].
Functional anomalies of sperm may play a crucial role in male infertility. As reported, in comparison with fertile controls, infertile men have higher seminal reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels; hence studies have suggested ROS might have some role in male infertility. Sperm cells do not contain any cytoplasmic defense enzymes that can serve as ROS scavengers. Therefore, a change in lipid peroxidation (LPO) impairs the plasma membrane fluidity and integrity and ultimately leading to loss of sperm function and movement. Exposure to carbaryl causes low LPO concentrations with an increase in ROS and hence may be associated with altered semen quality, especially sperm motility [64].
Furthermore, BPA was also associated with DNA damage, lower sperm count, abnormal sperm morphology, and motion [65]. Regarding the hormonal level, BPA caused higher FSH, lower inhibin B level, and a lower estradiol-to-testosterone ratio [65]. In a study comprising 375 fertile men, BPA was further associated with decreased free androgen index and higher testosterone level [66].
Mixtures of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs), shortly named ‘dioxins’, produce adverse health effects reported in several studies. For instance, A study have reported a potential association between chemical dioxins exposure and semen quality. Exposed men have a higher percentage of oligospermia and abnormal sperm morphology [67].
Testicular cancer is the most common disorder found in most young men in many countries. A worldwide trend can be observed towards the increasing number of testicular cancers. Exposure to environmental contaminants such as phthalates causes low semen quality, which ultimately may coincide with the development of cryptorchidism, testicular cancer, and hypospadias. The combination of the three aforementioned disorders of the male reproductive system can be termed as “so-called” testicular TDS. Experimental and epidemiological evidence has demonstrated that TDS is an outcome of interference during embryonal physiological programming and gonadal development in fetal life [68, 69]. EDCs such as phthalates, vinclozolin, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), and acetaminophen have shown a significant etiopathogenetic role towards the onset of TDS [10]. Despite all these studies, the exact contribution and mechanism behind pesticide and EDC exposure towards testicular cancer development have not been elucidated to date. However, genetic and environmental factors have been documented for the reduced sperm count and disease formation (Table 2) [70].
Reference | Chemicals | Organism | Results |
---|---|---|---|
[42] | BPA | Human | Decreased sperm quality and motility, altered steroidogenesis |
[63] | BPA | Rat | Disrupted steroidogenic pathway |
[64] | Carbaryl/naphthalene and chlorpyrifos | Human | Altered semen quality, sperm motility |
[65] | BPA | Human | Lower sperm count, abnormal sperm morphology, higher FSH, lower inhibin B level, lower estradiol-to-testosterone ratio |
[67] | Dioxin | Human | Higher percentage of oligospermia and abnormal sperm morphology |
[10] | Phthalate, Vinclozolin, PBDE | Human | TDS |
A summary of the remarkable studies on effects of EDCs on male reproductive systems.
Although adult exposure towards EDCs is an essential factor, the duration of EDCs exposure in fetus and neonate is also of primary concern. It plays a crucial factor in determining its fate. For instance, Due to early EDCs exposure, development is compromised because EDCs at the neonatal stage are extremely sensitive and affect the same brain regions, circuits, hormone-sensitive pathways, and receptors like the endogenous hormones. Such effects have been reported for several EDCs across various species and have profound detrimental consequences in developing organisms compared to adults [71, 72]. The extreme sensitivity of developing fetus and neonate has been described briefly in a chapter titled “The Fragile Fetus” by Howard Bern [73]. All those protective mechanisms present in adults like DNA Repair Mechanism, detoxifying enzymes, liver metabolism, competent immune system, and the blood–brain barrier are not fully developed or functional during the fetus or neonatal stage. Even the metabolic rate of developing organisms is much higher than adults, which may be the cause of increased toxicity due to environmental contaminants exposures. Numerous reports have documented that developmental exposure to EDCs can lead to various adverse effects in adults and sometimes cause tumors in endocrine tissues and adverse reproductive consequences in males and females [74]. Pieces of evidence have stated that exposure to environmental triggers such as EDCs during critical stages in fetal sex differentiation and development in utero disrupts reproductive organ differentiation and sometimes leading to intersex variation (IV) conditions. IV can be defined as a morphological and physiological anomaly where an individual is born with a congenital condition such as ambiguous genitalia/ hermaphrodite or pseudohermaphroditism etc. [75]. The most evident case for endocrine disruption in utero that may lead to the onset of adult disease in the newborn is prenatal exposure to DES. Between 1958 and 1976, doctors prescribed synthetic estrogen to pregnant women to prevent miscarriages and premature delivery. It was almost a 4-6million pregnancies that were treated with DES in the US alone. In 1971, DES was linked with a rare gynecologic neoplasm in female offspring of DES-exposed pregnancies [76]. Subsequent studies have documented the link between maternal treatment with DES and cervicovaginal cancer in DES-exposed daughters, usually in their late teens or early 20s. This was the first evidence of transplacental carcinogenesis in humans [51]. Additionally, the offspring of DES-exposed mothers also had functional and anatomical abnormalities of the uterus and fallopian tubes.
The epigenetic modifications can be defined as “heritable and reversible chemical modifications of chromatin, resulting in an adjustment of its activity without a change in the underlying DNA sequence [77]. Notably, epigenetic effects are mediated by those transcription factors that enhance or repress any specific genes’ transcription. The well-studied epigenetic modifications include DNA methylation at the cytosine base, post-translational modification of histone proteins (histone acetylation and deacetylation), and non-coding RNAs. Post-translational modification of histone protein at specific amino acids, for instance, lysine, may alter chromatin’s structure and function. Generally, acetylation of histone at lysine position results in activation of transcription by relaxing the chromatin structure, while methylation of lysine depending on the position may lead to activation or repression of gene expression. However, deacetylation may lead to transcriptional repression or silencing of the genes. Non-coding RNA is the transcript of gene sequences that do not code for proteins but regulate its expression in a cis or trans manner mainly involved in some unique functions such as genomic imprinting, X-chromosome inactivation, and developmental patterning and differentiation [70].
The most commonly studied epigenetic mechanism is the EDCs effect on the enzymes that regulate epigenetic patterning, especially the DNA methyl transferase (DNMTs). The endocrine disruptor, Vincolozolin, an androgen receptor antagonist, induced increased expression of dnmt mRNA expression in an in-vivo model through an AR-mediated pathway [78]. Studies have reported that DES can activate immediately early genes such as c-myc, c-jun, c-fos, and lactoferrin, which are upregulated during childhood [53]. This activation is possible due to the promoter region’s hypomethylation of the lactoferrin gene in the adult uterus [79]; however, no such patterns were observed when an adult was exposed during adulthood at the same interval. Upon prenatal exposure to DES, tet1 mRNA expression was significantly decreased in mouse uterus and the same response found in zebrafish gonads upon BPA exposure [21, 80, 81]. Exposure to EDCs during development could alter the perturbation of the genome’s epigenetic patterning and may result in adult-onset disease. The epigenetic changes in the ovary have been reported for the organochlorine pesticide MTX. In a study, MTX exposure from embryonic to postnatal days caused hypermethylation in the ERβ promoter regions by performing DNA methylation analysis using bisulfite sequencing and methylation-specific PCR [82].
Research over the last few years exploited the adverse effects of EDCs, which were lesser-known. Some of them were heavily used in the past decade, and some are just enlisted their names on the list of ‘emerging pollutants,’ and altogether, they are creating an unhealthy world to live on for us as well as for other animals. This chapter summarizes the harmful effects of EDCs exposure on male and female reproductive physiology and also elucidates the possible mechanism of actions. Though numerous articles and reports regarding these EDCs’ toxicological effects are available today, still very little is known about their mechanism of action in our body. The poor understanding of their underlying mechanism in hampering one’s endocrine system keeps us at bay to fight against it. Be it your morning toothpaste or your hair nourishing shampoo, and you cannot escape from the exposure of EDCs in your daily life. Even processed foods have EDCs in them. Scientists predict that there are many more of this kind of chemical whose effects are yet to be evaluated. Many countries’ government bodies are actively monitoring the situations and taking actions accordingly alongside the scientists who are tirelessly working to find out ways to nullify the adverse effects. We can follow the recent resources available in the public domains and choose a healthy way to live to minimize the EDCs exposure. Extra care should be taken in choosing your packaged food materials, cosmetics, plastic made equipment, cooking utensils, fruits, and vegetables. Finally, emphasis should be on the betterment of regulatory systems for introducing new, untested chemicals alongside the continuous use of chemicals already proved for being EDCs. Utmost care should be taken for pregnant women and infants, who are most vulnerable to EDCs exposure.
All authors thank Banaras Hindu University, India for providing necessary resources and support to write the present chapter with the support from University Grant Commission (UGC)-Junior Research Fellowship to PG, AM, and AS. This work received no external funding from any agency.
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
All authors listed have made a substantial contribution in this chapter. And special thanks to AM for making the required illustrations for this chapter. Thanks to RKS for reviewing the manuscript before the final submission.
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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. 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He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. Nkanga",slug:"carotenoids-in-cassava-manihot-esculenta-crantz",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81576",title:"Carotenoids in Thermal Adaptation of Plants and Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104537",signatures:"Ivan M. Petyaev",slug:"carotenoids-in-thermal-adaptation-of-plants-and-animals",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Ivan",surname:"Petyaev"}],book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81358",title:"New Insights on Carotenoid Production by Gordonia alkanivorans Strain 1B",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103919",signatures:"Tiago P. Silva, Susana M. Paixão, Ana S. Fernandes, José C. 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