Photosynthesis rates of four poplar hybrids treated with mixed heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn) under greenhouse conditions.
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This environment-friendly green technology has gained its popularity over the years in terms of its success with other conventional techniques. The specific definitions of phytoremediation are various however the basic definition involves growing of plants in a contaminated matrix with the intentions of removing, transforming or stabilizing environmental contaminants (Figure 1) [1, 2, 3, 4]. The generic term phytoremediation originates from the Greek prefix φυτο “phyto” – plant, attached to the Latin root “remedium” – to correct or remove, restoring balance, or remediating [5, 6].
Possible pollutant fates during phytoremediation: the pollutant (represented by red circles) can be stabilized (phytostabilization) or degraded (phytostimulation) in the rhizosphere, sequestered or degraded (phytoextraction, phytodegradation) inside the plant tissue, or volatilized (phytovolatilization) in the air [4].
Various physical, chemical, and biological techniques are available to remediate metal contaminated soils. Classical environmental cleanup methods are known as ex situ methods which are typically expensive and destructive include excavation, thermal treatment, chemical soil washing, soil incineration, volatilization, vitrification, chemical extraction, solidification, and landfills [5, 7] which either detoxifies or destroys the contaminant chemically or physically. As a result, the contaminant undergoes stabilization, solidification, immobilization, incineration or destruction [8]. These methods are not only labor intensive and expensive but also produce a residue rich in heavy metals which require further treatment. Moreover, these physiochemical technologies used for soil remediation render and create irreversible changes to soil properties altering the land usage as a medium for plant growth, as they remove all biological activities along with disturbing the native soil microflora [2, 5].
Hence, phytoremediation has been recognized as a cost-effective and eco-friendly method of remediating heavy metals from contaminated environments. From the five different processes involved in phytoremediation, phytoextraction has been identified as the superior type where the plants extracts heavy metals from the contaminated soil [9]. Phytoextraction (also known as phytoaccumulation, phytoabsorption or phytosequestration) is the uptake of contaminants from the soil by plant roots and their translocation and accumulation in the above-ground biomass [8, 10, 11]. In addition, rapid growth with high biomass production, extensive root system, high survival and adaptation to low-quality soil substrates and high tolerance to excessive concentrations of heavy metals are properties exhibited by plants suitable for phytoremediation. In general, species and hybrids of poplar, jatropha, and willow are being exploited for the dual purpose of phytoremediation as well as energy production [4, 12, 13, 14]. Generally, plants have the potential to absorb metals from the substrate; however, few are capable of extracting, accumulating, and tolerating high concentrations of heavy metals in their system. The discovery of hyperaccumulator plants which are capable of absorbing heavy metals 50–500 times than normal plants has greatly contributed to the revolutionary advancement of phytoextraction technology [15].
Sources of pollution in the environment are widely due to global industrialization. Natural and anthropogenic sources are means through which heavy metals enter the environment. Significant natural sources include weathering of minerals, erosion and volcanic activity whereas anthropogenic sources include mining, smelting, electroplating, use of pesticides and fertilizers along with biosolids in agriculture, sludge dumping, industrial discharge, and atmospheric deposition [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Phytoremediation technology is applicable to a broad range of contaminants, including metals, radionuclides [21, 22, 23], and organic compounds such as chlorinated solvents, polycyclic hydrocarbons, pesticides, explosives, and surfactants [3].
From a chemical point of view, heavy metals are defined as elements with metallic properties and an atomic number of >20 and specific gravity of >5. The most common heavy metal contaminants are Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn [2]. In this chapter the term “heavy metals (HMs)” will be referred to those potentially phytotoxic elements that are a major environmental concern due to their persistence in the environment and their impact on humans via the food chain. Heavy metals have adverse effects on human health and therefore heavy metal contamination deserves special attention [5]. HMs such as As, Cd, Hg, Pb, and Se are non-essential since they do not perform any known plant physiological function [24]. However, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn are essential elements which are required for normal plant growth and metabolism [24]. These essential HM’s at supra-optimal concentrations can lead to poisoning [25]. All essential metals are toxic at high concentrations since they cause oxidative stress due to the free radical formation and disrupt the function of pigments and enzymes by replacing essential metals [8, 26].
Populus is a genus of 25–35 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family of Salicaceae, native mostly to the Northern Hemisphere. English names commonly applied include poplar, aspen, and cottonwood. This genus has a large genetic diversity and can grow from 15 to 50 m (49–164 ft.) tall, with trunks of up to 2.5 m (8 ft. 2 inch) in diameter. The genus Populus is divided into 6 sections on the basis of leaf and flower. Four different poplar clones were selected based on previous research as well as their response in terms of biomass in the field [27, 28, 29]. The responses of these four chosen clones were better with seasonal changes as well. These clones included:
Eco 28 – Populus euramericana guinier
DN 034 – Populus deltoides × P. nigra
TN 074 – Populus trichocarpa × P. nigra
TD 225 – Populus trichocarpa × P. deltoids
Early phytoremediation studies used hyperaccumulator species [30, 31] which are plants that are able to accumulate unusually high levels of metals in their tissue. Studies conducted on willows and poplars (Salicaceae family) showed that the efficiency of metal extraction is markedly lower compared to hyperaccumulators, even if on a large scale basis the removal of metals from soil could be higher [32]. According to Zacchini et al. [28], Salicaceae plants thrive in a wide range of soil and climatic conditions [33] and also express a good metal tolerance hence making them good candidates for phytoremediation work.
Four poplar hybrids were selected based on their genetic diversity, growth, and wellbeing in the field. Cuttings of approximately 15 cm from the hybrids were planted in 2 L pots filled with sandy loam soil. Two months after sprouting and root stabilization, the plantlets were treated with mixed heavy metals of concentrations ranging from 0 mg L−1 as control followed by 5, 50, 100, 200 and 500 mg L−1.
The mixed heavy metals utilized included Chromium III chloride (Cr3Cl), Copper (II) chloride (CuCl2), Cadmium chloride (CdCl2) and Zinc chloride (ZnCl2). Individual HMs was separately prepared and equal amounts were mixed for each concentration. Each plantlet was treated with 20 ml of mixed HM only once during the 3 month treatment period while the plants were watered regularly. Photosynthesis and transpiration rates were measured using LCi-SD (ADC Bioscientific Ltd., Hoddesdon, UK) portable photosynthesis system before and during the treatment period along with the photosynthetic pigments.
After the 3 month treatment period, the plants were harvested for further heavy metal analysis. Plant leaves, stem, and roots were separated, thoroughly washed with running tap water and finally with distilled water after which morphological characteristics were noted and the plants were prepared for further biochemical and heavy metal analysis. Each concentration constituting of four replicates were analyzed for various parameters and an average was used for statistical analysis. Various plant parts including leaves, stems, and roots were dried at 50°C for 48 hours. These dried plant parts were ground using the 8000 mixer mill (SPEX. SamplePrep). The physical and chemical properties including the levels of heavy metals were determined using the aqua regia method. Soil heavy metal analysis involved, a collection of the soil samples which were air-dried and sieved and digested using the aqua regia method. Soil samples 1.5 g were digested and the samples were analyzed for various HMs by ICP – AES analysis (iCAP 7000 Series ICP spectrometer, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA).
The biological accumulation coefficient (BAC) was calculated as the ratio of heavy metal in the shoot to that in soil given in Eq. 1 [34]. Biotranslocation coefficient was determined as a ratio of heavy metals in plant shoot to that in plant root given in Eq. 2 [35, 36]. Eq. (3) shows the bioconcentration factor (BCF), calculated as metal concentration ratio in plant roots to soil; Eq. (4) shows the concentration index (CI), calculated as the concentration of heavy metals in the treated plant to control [35, 36].
These factors were used to determine the phytoextraction potential of the studied plants. Shoot in the equations refers to stem + leaves and HM for heavy metal.
Data are expressed as mean ± standard error of mean (SEM and statistically analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s Multiple Range Tests using SPSS Version 21 (IBM Corp., USA). Statistical significance was accepted at P < 0.05.
Exposure of poplar hybrids to mixed HMs under greenhouse conditions showed an increase in the rate of photosynthesis with increased HM concentrations (Table 1).
Heavy metal concentrations (mg L−1) | Photosynthesis rate – A (μmol m−2 s−1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hybrid 1 (Eco 28) | Hybrid 2 (DN 034) | Hybrid 3 (TN 074) | Hybrid 4 (TD 225) | |
0 | 10.21 ± 0.20bc | 10.12 ± 0.26b | 9.05 ± 0.34ab | 9.05 ± 0.17a |
5 | 8.82 ± 1.24c | 7.75 ± 0.26c | 9.72 ± 0.27a | 8.20 ± 0.54ab |
50 | 11.32 ± 0.18b | 11.43 ± 0.52ab | 7.11 ± 0.42c | 6.84 ± 0.63b |
100 | 8.56 ± 0.23c | 10.21 ± 0.93b | 8.12 ± 0.46bc | 7.23 ± 0.50b |
200 | 8.71 ± 0.21c | 12.60 ± 0.52a | 2.61 ± 0.50d | 8.88 ± 0.53a |
500 | 14.54 ± 0.70a | 11.73 ± 0.11a | 10.08 ± 0.20a | 7.70 ± 0.56ab |
Photosynthesis rates of four poplar hybrids treated with mixed heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn) under greenhouse conditions.
Mean values ± SEM, (n = 10).
Means within columns followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range test.
Values significantly different from control (0).
The highest rate of photosynthesis was observed in Hybrid 1, 14.54 μmol m−2 s−1 at 500 mg L−1 mixed HMs. This was observed as the highest photosynthetic rate among all four hybrids. Fluctuations in hybrid 2 photosynthetic rates were observed across all concentrations with the lowest of 7.75 μmol m−2 s−1 at 5 mg L−1 and highest of 12.60 μmol m−2 s−1 at 200 mg L−1 HM concentration. The lowest photosynthetic rate of 2.61 μmol m−2 s−1 at 200 mg L−1, increased 5 times to 10.08 at 500 mg L−1 was observed in hybrid 3. Hybrid 4, on the other hand, had a significantly higher photosynthesis rate of 8.20 μmol m−2 s−1 at 5 mg L−1 which decreased to 6.84 and 7.23 at 50 and 100 mg L−1 respectively. A clear pattern can be observed in terms of photosynthesis rate for all 4 poplar hybrids, the photosynthesis rate increases with increasing mixed HM concentrations with the majority being significant around 200–500 mg L−1 mixed heavy metal concentrations. This increase in the photosynthetic rate at high HM concentrations could be due to the ability of the hybrids to tolerate high concentration of HMs. This can be based on previous studies on higher plants and trees [37] and effects of chromium stress on photosynthesis [38] are due to carbon dioxide fixation, electron transport, photophosphorylation and enzyme activities [38] whereas cadmium stress leads to Fe(II) deficiency which seriously affected photosynthesis [39]. Hence, if the photosynthesis rates did not decrease this would mean that either the plant is capable of surviving in an environment with high HMs or due to competition with other heavy metals and other environmental factors limited heavy metal are absorption and translocation.
Variations in transpiration rates were observed across all hybrids, the highest value coincided with 50 mg L−1 for hybrid 1 at 11.23 mmol m−2 s−1 followed by 500 mg L−1 at 8.89 mmol m−2 s−1 (Table 2).
Heavy metal concentrations (mg L−1) | Transpiration rate – E (mmol m−2 s−1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hybrid 1 (Eco 28) | Hybrid 2 (DN 034) | Hybrid 3 (TN 074) | Hybrid 4 (TD 225) | |
0 | 7.45 ± 0.24c | 10.17 ± 0.41a | 8.29 ± 0.39b | 5.99 ± 0.16c |
5 | 5.96 ± 0.70d | 8.64 ± 0.52bc | 9.96 ± 0.1b | 6.38 ± 0.15bc |
50 | 11.23 ± 0.05a | 9.61 ± 0.26ab | 10.87 ± 0.44a | 3.55 ± 0.53d |
100 | 7.84 ± 0.28c | 8.77 ± 0.78abc | 10.14 ± 0.72a | 6.24 ± 0.61c |
200 | 5.30 ± 0.11d | 9.99 ± 0.38ab | 3.42 ± 0.53c | 8.14 ± 0.34ab |
500 | 8.89 ± 0.13b | 7.64 ± 0.1c | 9.53 ± 0.28ab | 7.52 ± 0.47a |
Transpiration rates of four poplar hybrids treated with mixed heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn) under greenhouse conditions.
Mean values ± SEM, (n = 10).
Means within columns followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range tests.
Values significantly different from control (0).
The highest transpiration rate at 9.99 mmol m−2 s−1 at 200 mg L−1 followed by 9.61 at 50 mg L−1 was observed for hybrid 2. Significantly different transpiration rates for control were observed at low mixed heavy metal concentrations of 5 and 100 mg L−1. The transpiration rates of hybrid 3 were most significant at all concentration with the highest 10.87 mmol m−2 s−1 at 50 mg L−1 followed by 10.14 mmol m−2 s−1 at 100 mg L−1 and the lowest of 3.42 mmol m−2 s−1 at 200 mg L−1. Hybrid 4 had the lowest transpiration rates at 50 mg L−1 (3.55 mmol m−2 s−1) and the highest at 200 mg L−1 (8.14 mmol m−2 s−1). No specific relationships were observed for transpiration rates across the different mixed HM concentrations in hybrid 4 however, the rates observed across all 4 hybrids of poplar significant. However, the differences varied for each hybrid; generally, a decrease in transpiration rate was observed with increase in mixed HM concentrations. According to Carlson et al., gas exchange measurements are often used to detect the most sensitive site of action [40]. In case of the studied hybrids even though the photosynthetic rate at high HM concentrations increased, the decrease in transpiration rate clearly suggests that the plants were stressed in certain ways. A more detailed study would help deduce the specific areas affected by the HMs.
Heavy metal stress alters many physiological and metabolic processes in plants. Based on this, the data presented in this chapter demonstrates that mixed HM exposure leads to a significant decrease in photosynthetic pigments in poplar hybrids. Chlorophyll content often measured to assess the impact of environmental stress, since changes in pigment content are linked to visual symptoms of plant illness and photosynthetic productivity [41]. In the present study, the photosynthetic rates decreased for all poplar hybrids across all HM concentrations except hybrid 1 (Eco 28). Decline in photosynthetic rates has been exhibited in other plants, due to a reduction in photosynthetic pigments by the HMs. In various plants, HMs such as Hg, Cu, Cr, Cd, and Zn have been found to decrease chlorophyll contents [42]. This decline in photosynthetic pigments is most probably due to the inhibition of the reductive steps in the biosynthetic pathways due to the high redox potential of many HMs. In addition, protochlorophyllide reductase the key enzyme, involved in the reduction of protochlorophyll to chlorophyll is well known to be inhibited HMs [43]. Various authors have reported a similar decrease in chlorophyll content under heavy metal stress in cyanobacteria, unicellular chlorophytes (Chlorella), gymnosperms such as Picea abies and angiosperms, such as Zea mays, Quercus palustrus and Acer rubrum, sunflower as well as almond [44, 45, 46]. There are few reports that show an enhancement of pigments after exposure to heavy metals [47].
Various studies have also been conducted on the effects of single heavy metals on different plant species. The effects of Cd and Pb on Brassica juncea L. exhibited a decline in growth, chlorophyll content and carotenoids, however, Cd was found to be more detrimental than Pb [48]. According to the study on physiological effects of Cd and Cu on peas (Pisum sativum), photosynthetic pigments and photosynthesis rates declined at all concentrations of Cd and only at high Cu concentrations [49].
The effects of mixed heavy metals, which compete with each other in the soil-water medium could be one of the reasons for the contradictory segments of the data. Root uptake and levels of accumulation in leaves vary depending on the hybrid, hence an overall expected decline in hybrids 2, 3 and 4. Whereas hybrid 1 had the highest photosynthetic rate, decreases for 5, 50 and 100 mg L−1 were observed. However, a slight increase which was lower than 0 mg L−1 was observed at 500 mg L−1 HM concentration. Hybrid 1 The significant increase in photosynthetic and transpiration rates in hybrid 1 is also supported by the increase in photosynthetic pigments. The overall BAC of HMs in hybrid 1 would be a contributing factor in understanding how hybrid 1 responds to high concentrations of mixed HMs. This highlights for a better understanding on the form of heavy metal ions in the soil solution and their interaction with the plant roots and eventually their absorption into the system and translocation to above ground parts.
Essential heavy metals (Cu and Zn) are constituents of many enzymes and proteins and are required for normal plant growth and development. However, greater concentrations of any HMs either essential or non-essential can lead to toxic symptoms and growth inhibition in most plants. Overall, a decrease in plant photosynthetic efficiency can be partly responsible for the decrease in plant growth and biomass production.
The biological accumulation coefficient (BAC), biological translocation coefficient (BTC), bioconcentration factor (BCF) and metal accumulation or concentration index (CI) are given in Tables 3–6 respectively.
Hybrid | HM conc. (mg L−1) | BAC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Cd | Cr | Zn | ||
Eco 28 | 0 | 0.10 ± 0.10b | 0.23 ± 0.23c | 0.83 ± 0.27a | 2.38 ± 0.35ab |
5 | 0.12 ± 0.10ab | nd | 0.78 ± 0.19a | 2.73 ± 0.16ab | |
50 | 0.17 ± 0.25a | 24.01 ± 3.00a | 0.18 ± 0.44a | 3.16 ± 0.11b | |
100 | 0.13 ± 0.01ab | 15.81 ± 5.28ab | 0.14 ± 0.44a | 2.90 ± 0.15ab | |
200 | 0.12 ± 0.01ab | 7.50 ± 1.22bc | 0.12 ± 0.36a | 2.78 ± 0.26ab | |
500 | 0.11 ± 0.62b | 8.13 ± 3.73bc | 0.98 ± 0.43a | 2.12 ± 0.57b | |
DN 034 | 0 | 0.15 ± 0.10a | nd | 0.22 ± 0.12a | 1.08 ± 0.19a |
5 | 0.12 ± 0.01ab | nd | 0.09 ± 0.11a | 3.51 ± 0.22a | |
50 | 0.88 ± 0.19b | 27.72 ± 10.23a | 0.85 ± 0.27a | 3.10 ± 0.95a | |
100 | 0.96 ± 0.20b | 8.59 ± 2.08b | 0.10 ± 0.28a | 2.40 ± 0.71a | |
200 | 0.12 ± 0.01ab | 14.55 ± 6.12ab | 0.14 ± 0.38a | 3.11 ± 0.11a | |
500 | 0.12 ± 0.01ab | 6.52 ± 1.18b | 0.09 ± 0.20a | 3.18 ± 0.24a | |
TN 074 | 0 | 0.15 ± 0.01a | nd | 0.58 ± 0.01a | 4.20 ± 0.35a |
5 | 0.14 ± 0.13a | nd | 0.11 ± 0.06a | 4.81 ± 0.28a | |
50 | 0.13 ± 0.16a | 58.26 ± 26.00a | 0.13 ± 0.56a | 3.81 ± 0.13a | |
100 | 0.15 ± 0.17a | 17.30 ± 2.60b | 0.53 ± 0.01a | 4.34 ± 0.25a | |
200 | 0.14 ± 0.64a | 6.95 ± 1.16b | 0.23 ± 0.15a | 3.46 ± 0.87a | |
500 | 0.16 ± 0.02a | 11.08 ± 4.41b | 0.68 ± 0.21a | 4.89 ± 0.45a | |
TD 225 | 0 | 0.09 ± 0.02ab | nd | 0.13 ± 0.04a | 2.25 ± 0.60a |
5 | 0.12 ± 0.02ab | nd | 0.10 ± 0.02a | 2.42 ± 0.50a | |
50 | 0.15 ± 0.18a | 15.10 ± 2.49 a | 0.19 ± 0.09a | 2.83 ± 0.27a | |
100 | 0.98 ± 0.15ab | 10.06 ± 1.46ab | 0.06 ± 0.01a | 1.93 ± 0.42a | |
200 | 0.07 ± 0.02b | 8.90 ± 4.28ab | 0.12 ± 0.05a | 1.48 ± 0.54a | |
500 | 0.93 ± 0.02ab | 6.81 ± 2.96bc | 0.15 ± 0.04a | 1.71 ± 0.49a |
Biological accumulation coefficient (BAC) of Cu, Cd, Cr and Zn for the four poplar hybrids under greenhouse conditions.
Values are Mean ± SE, (n = 4). nd – not detected.
For each metal in each treatment values followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P ≤ 0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range test.
Hybrid | HM conc. (mg L−1) | BTC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Cd | Cr | Zn | ||
Eco 28 | 0 | 0.35 ± 0.58ab | 3.40 ± 0.65a | 0.32 ± 0.72b | 2.44 ± 0.54a |
5 | 0.28 ± 0.38b | 1.96 ± 0.44b | 0.79 ± 0.24b | 2.54 ± 0.45a | |
50 | 0.49 ± 0.10a | 1.25 ± 0.06bc | 1.94 ± 0.73a | 2.81 ± 0.31a | |
100 | 0.31 ± 0.56b | 1.30 ± 0.74bc | 1.19 ± 0.49ab | 2.42 ± 0.15a | |
200 | 0.26 ± 0.16b | 1.01 ± 0.26bc | 0.64 ± 1.44b | 2.76 ± 0.45a | |
500 | 0.90 ± 0.40 c | 0.43 ± 0.19c | 0.28 ± 1.67b | 1.83 ± 1.01a | |
DN 034 | 0 | 0.60 ± 0.32ab | 1.75 ± 0.60ab | 3.65 ± 1.79a | 5.25 ± 0.18a |
5 | 0.49 ± 0.40bc | 2.61 ± 0.42a | 0.83 ± 0.27b | 5.20 ± 0.75a | |
50 | 0.35 ± 0.10c | 1.53 ± 0.70ab | 1.07 ± 0.56b | 4.28 ± 1.73a | |
100 | 0.33 ± 0.69c | 1.08 ± 0.26b | 0.78 ± 0.33b | 2.70 ± 0.70a | |
200 | 0.35 ± 0.50c | 1.08 ± 0.25b | 1.12 ± 0.33b | 3.93 ± 0.83a | |
500 | 0.30 ± 0.31c | 0.74 ± 0.70b | 0.69 ± 0.16b | 3.82 ± 0.22a | |
TN 074 | 0 | 0.70 ± 0.85a | 4.82 ± 0.60a | 0.47 ± 0.18a | 5.97 ± 1.02c |
5 | 0.57 ± 0.92ab | 2.86 ± 0.56b | 1.51 ± 2.64a | 4.47 ± 0.17c | |
50 | 0.33 ± 0.23bc | 1.43 ± 0.65c | 0.44 ± 0.30a | 12.80 ± 10.46c | |
100 | 0.50 ± 0.96ab | 1.18 ± 0.30c | 0.50 ± 0.46a | 115.97 ± 10.19a | |
200 | 0.35 ± 0.15bc | 0.60 ± 0.32c | 1.17 ± 0.83a | 47.53 ± 9.36b | |
500 | 0.13 ± 0.16c | 1.80 ± 0.32c | 0.06 ± 0.04a | 11.75 ± 10.62c | |
TD 225 | 0 | 0.31 ± 0.0 4a | 2.53 ± 0.78a | 1.73 ± 0.85a | 3.23 ± 1.32a |
5 | 0.29 ± 0.52a | 2.60 ± 0.93a | 1.12 ± 0.33a | 2.26 ± 0.43a | |
50 | 0.36 ± 0.58a | 2.55 ± 0.79a | 1.32 ± 0.77a | 2.83 ± 0.38a | |
100 | 0.23 ± 0.03ab | 0.88 ± 0.24ab | 0.55 ± 0.18a | 2.87 ± 0.85a | |
200 | 0.11 ± 0.24bc | 0.38 ± 0.07b | 0.57 ± 0.27a | 1.23 ± 0.38a | |
500 | 0.07 ± 0.03c | 0.47 ± 0.20b | 0.59 ± 0.27a | 0.99 ± 0.37a |
Biological translocation coefficient (BTC) of Cu, Cd, Cr and Zn for the four poplar hybrids under greenhouse conditions.
Values are Mean ± SE, (n = 4). nd – not detected.
For each metal in each treatment values followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range test.
Hybrid | HM conc. (mg L−1) | BCF | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Cd | Cr | Zn | ||
Eco 28 | 0 | 0.32 ± 0.66a | 0.58 ± 0.56b | 0.25 ± 0.58a | 1.18 ± 0.37a |
5 | 0.45 ± 0.67a | nd | 0.10 ± 0.01b | 1.16 ± 0.57a | |
50 | 0.30 ± 0.10a | 13.44 ± 4.80a | 0.08 ± 0.28b | 1.12 ± 0.90a | |
100 | 0.46 ± 0.78a | 12.45 ± 1.90a | 0.13 ± 0.13b | 1.21 ± 0.89a | |
200 | 0.47 ± 0.15a | 8.27 ± 1.43a | 0.18 ± 0.15ab | 1.06 ± 0.98a | |
500 | 0.58 ± 0.19a | 6.99 ± 3.00ab | 0.17 ± 0.06ab | 0.62 ± 0.21a | |
DN 034 | 0 | 0.24 ± 0.22c | nd | 0.58 ± 0.01b | 0.78 ± 0.48a |
5 | 0.25 ± 0.01c | nd | 0.15 ± 0.49ab | 0.71 ± 0.84a | |
50 | 0.28 ± 0.12bc | 34.18 ± 15.58a | 0.12 ± 0.31ab | 0.86 ± 0.11a | |
100 | 0.28 ± 0.12bc | 8.06 ± 0.81b | 0.20 ± 0.70a | 0.83 ± 0.15a | |
200 | 0.35 ± 0.32ab | 12.18 ± 3.74b | 0.15 ± 0.33ab | 0.93 ± 0.23a | |
500 | 0.42 ± 0.24a | 8.62 ± 1.03b | 0.14 ± 0.01ab | 0.83 ± 0.06a | |
TN 074 | 0 | 0.22 ± 0.05a | nd | 0.33 ± 0.42a | 0.75 ± 0.11ab |
5 | 0.25 ± 0.06a | nd | 0.47 ± 0.25a | 1.08 ± 0.80a | |
50 | 0.23 ± 0.16a | 12.68 ± 8.20ab | 0.20 ± 0.98a | 0.57 ± 0.31c | |
100 | 0.32 ± 0.53a | 14.69 ± 2.08 a | 0.11 ± 0.15a | 0.04 ± 0.04b | |
200 | 0.38 ± 0.74a | 8.68 ± 2.26ab | 0.20 ± 0.05a | 0.06 ± 0.01a | |
500 | 0.32 ± 0.38a | 11.08 ± 8.44ab | 0.17 ± 0.10a | 0.38 ± 0.34bc | |
TD 225 | 0 | 0.28 ± 0.04c | nd | 0.10 ± 0.02b | 0.81 ± 0.14a |
5 | 0.40 ± 0.01bc | nd | 0.11 ± 0.01b | 1.05 ± 0.16a | |
50 | 0.42 ± 0.02bc | 8.48 ± 3.05bc | 0.19 ± 0.03ab | 1.03 ± 0.12a | |
100 | 0.43 ± 0.01bc | 14.72 ± 5.49ab | 0.11 ± 0.02b | 0.75 ± 0.09a | |
200 | 0.62 ± 0.15ab | 19.74 ± 6.48a | 0.22 ± 0.02a | 1.16 ± 0.07a | |
500 | 0.55 ± 0.18bc | 4.68 ± 1.71bc | 0.18 ± 0.06ab | 0.72 ± 0.25a |
Bio-coefficient factor (BCF) of Cu, Cd, Cr and Zn for the four poplar hybrids under greenhouse conditions.
Values are Mean ± SE, (n = 4). nd – not detected.
For each metal in each treatment values followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range test.
Hybrid | HM Conc. (mg L−1) | CI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Cd | Cr | Zn | ||
Eco 28 | 0 | ||||
5 | 1.04 ± 0.13b | 2.88 ± 0.49d | 0.55 ± 0.48a | 0.89 ± 0.06a | |
50 | 0.78 ± 0.18b | 8.92 ± 1.66c | 0.82 ± 1.63a | 0.93 ± 0.07a | |
100 | 1.02 ± 0.14b | 17.29 ± 2.11b | 0.81 ± 0.10a | 0.97 ± 0.06a | |
200 | 1.20 ± 0.32b | 31.13 ± 1.62a | 0.96 ± 0.15a | 0.91 ± 0.05a | |
500 | 1.79 ± 0.73a | 33.65 ± 3.28a | 1.05 ± 0.31a | 0.78 ± 0.06a | |
DN 034 | 0 | ||||
5 | 1.02 ± 0.03b | 1.33 ± 0.03d | 1.78 ± 0.35a | 0.85 ± 0.04a | |
50 | 1.02 ± 0.10b | 5.00 ± 0.66cd | 1.30 ± 0.25a | 0.77 ± 0.16a | |
100 | 1.11 ± 0.04b | 6.89 ± 1.39c | 1.95 ± 0.54a | 0.82 ± 0.12a | |
200 | 1.25 ± 0.70b | 16.49 ± 2.33b | 1.97 ± 0.35a | 0.86 ± 0.04a | |
500 | 1.50 ± 1.48a | 29.62 ± 2.21a | 1.72 ± 0.17a | 0.83 ± 0.05a | |
TN 074 | 0 | ||||
5 | 1.14 ± 0.10b | 1.42 ± 0.24c | 3.95 ± 1.23a | 1.23 ± 0.18a | |
50 | 1.21 ± 0.85b | 4.60 ± 0.54c | 2.12 ± 0.66a | 0.86 ± 0.72b | |
100 | 1.30 ± 0.71b | 12.53 ± 0.89bc | 0.94 ± 0.11a | 0.87 ± 0.44b | |
200 | 1.55 ± 0.18b | 20.49 ± 3.25ab | 3.07 ± 1.09a | 0.94 ± 0.50b | |
500 | 2.39 ± 0.30a | 33.17 ± 8.13a | 2.20 ± 0.27a | 1.23 ± 0.11a | |
TD 225 | 0 | ||||
5 | 1.39 ± 0.03b | 2.94 ± 0.53d | 0.89 ± 0.15c | 1.52 ± 0.02a | |
50 | 1.49 ± 0.03b | 8.30 ± 1.01c | 1.85 ± 0.43a | 1.43 ± 0.12ab | |
100 | 1.47 ± 0.06b | 12.58 ± 1.56c | 0.67 ± 0.40c | 0.96 ± 0.13b | |
200 | 1.65 ± 0.18b | 25.98 ± 1.99b | 1.63 ± 0.33ab | 0.96 ± 0.21b | |
500 | 2.40 ± 0.19a | 35.69 ± 2.87a | 1.96 ± 0.20a | 1.03 ± 0.09b |
Coefficient index (CI) of Cu, Cd, Cr and Zn for the four poplar hybrids under greenhouse conditions.
Values are Mean ± SE, (n = 4). nd – not detected.
For each metal in each treatment values followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range test.
Individual HMs showed variations in BAC in the studied hybrids. Copper and chromium BAC values were below 1.0 across all treatments in hybrid 1. However, Cd BAC values were at a high of 24.01 at 5 mg L−1 followed by 15.81 at 100 mg L−1, decreasing by almost half to 7.50 and 8.13 for 200 and 500 mg L−1 respectively. BAC values for Zn were in the range of 2–3 with the highest significant value noted at 50 mg L−1. The BAC values for hybrids 2, 3 and 4, Cu and Cr were all less than 1, whereas Cd and Zn were higher especially at 50 mg L−1 decreasing gradually to 500 mg L−1. BAC values for hybrid 3 were higher for Cd and Zn.
Copper BTC were less than 1.0 for all hybrids across all HM concentrations. Chromium values fluctuated between 0.06 and 1.94. No significant differences were observed at higher heavy metal treatment concentrations. For Eco 28, 50 and 10 mg L−1 heavy metal treatment concentrations had BTC values >1.0, whereas for hybrid 2 and 3 the BTC values were greater than 1 at 200 mg L−1. Cadmium BTC values greater than one ranging up to 3.0 for lower heavy metal concentrations only. The highest values were observed at 5 mg L−1 for hybrids 3 and 4. Zinc, on the other hand, had the highest BTC for all hybrids.
BCF values for Cu and Cr for all 4 hybrids were less than 1.0 across all treatments. However, hybrid 1 Zn BCF was slightly above 1.0, with the highest value of 1.21 at 100 mg L−1. For hybrid 2 at 5 mg L−1 and hybrid 4 at 5, 50, and 200 mg L−1 the BCF value was greater than 1.0.
The CI values were highest for the heavy metal Cd (Table 6) and increased with increasing heavy metal treatment concentrations across all studied hybrids. However, the highest CI was observed in hybrid 1 at 200 mg L−1 and 500 mg L−1 followed by hybrids 4, 3, and 2. Copper and chromium CI values were similar, with no significant differences between the two hybrids, whereas CI values for Zn were less than 1.0.
The absorption, accumulation, and translocation of Cu, Cr, Cd, and Zn on the four studied poplar hybrids depend on the plant and soil environment which determines the availability of HMs. BTC and BAC values greater than 1 in addition to metal concentrations suggested by Baker and Brooks [15] would qualify a plant as a hyperaccumulator [36]. In the case of the studied hybrids, all four show translocation and accumulation potential for Cd and Zn whereas Cr translocation values are only significant for hybrid 1. Copper, on the other hand, has BTC and BAC values lower than 1 which is also supported by the heavy metal concentrations in the tissue (dry weight). The highest BCF (ratio of metal concentrations in the roots to that in soil) was for Cd for all hybrids and only for Zn in hybrid 1, which indicates the ability of the plant to accumulate targeted HMs from the soil medium. Phytoextraction efficiency is related to both plant metal concentration and dry matter yield hence, the ideal plant to remedy a contaminated site should be high yielding with the ability to tolerate and accumulate target contaminants [50].
Selection of poplar hybrids for phytoremediation was based on their general growth and performance. According to the data, the response of the hybrids to the different HMs and concentrations varied. The bioavailability of metals in trees and subsequent metal accumulation in its tissues can vary hugely depending on the metal contamination source and site conditions [51]. Based on the mean HM contents in the hybrids, the concentration of Zn is higher in leaves. The highest Zn content of 425.49 mg kg−1 dry weight for hybrid 3 followed by 309.52 mg kg−1 for hybrid 2 was observed (results not shown). Overall, Cu and Cr were neither well accumulated nor translocated in all hybrids based on the values of BAC, BTC, and BCF. On the other hand, Zn was the only HM that was accumulated in high concentrations especially in the leaves of all hybrids across all concentrations. The highest BAC values were for hybrid 3 at 500 mg L−1 whereas BTC values for hybrid 3 Zn were also the highest compared to all other clones, stating clearly the efficient accumulation as well as translocation ability of the hybrid. The BCF values for Cd and Zn for hybrid one were >1 for all concentrations except 500 mg L−1 Zn. Based on previous research [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56] and the results presented in this chapter we can conclude that trees differ in their ability to absorb heavy metals from the soil. The translocation ability from the root to the shoots also vary under different conditions.
In conclusion based on the physiochemical parameters analyzed, the individual heavy metal contents in each hybrid along with the phytoextraction potential indices, it can be deduced that hybrid 1 (Eco 28) can be selected as a suitable candidate for phytoremediation work with a focus on Cd and Zn phytoextraction capabilities. Hybrid 3 (TN 074) also shows potential as a phytoremediator, however, the studied physiochemical parameters were severely affected by exposure to high concentrations of mixed HMs. This also indicates that subsequent studies are needed to determine the potential of using hybrid 3 as a candidate for phytoremediation of mixed heavy metal contaminated sites. Phytoextraction has been advocated as an effective, eco-friendly and cost-effective technology for the remediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals. The success of phytoextraction depends on several factors which include the concentration of heavy metals in the soil, bioavailability of heavy metals for uptake, and the capability of the plant to absorb and accumulate metals in their tissues. The existing flora diversity needs to be exploited to screen out new and effective hyperaccumulators. In addition to these extensive field-based research for extended durations are also required to better understand heavy metal uptake and accumulation. photosynthesis rate bioaccumulation coefficient bio-coefficient factor biotranslocation coefficient chlorophyll a chlorophyll b concentration index transpiration rateAcronyms and abbreviations
The authors would like to thank the entire team of Professor Kang Ho-Ducks laboratory for their continuous support and encouragement during the fieldwork and writing. We would also like to extend our appreciation and acknowledgment to Professor Goontawk Lee, Head of Soil Quality Analysis Center and Dr. Ho Sang Kang at the National Instrument Center for Environmental Management (NICEM), Seoul National University for their assistance and support in the soil and plant heavy metal analysis. This work was supported by the grant from the “Forest Science and Technology Development” (Project No. S211215L030110) funded by the Korea Forest Service, Republic of Korea.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
In very recent educational literature, Covid 19 is most frequently represented as a ‘game changer’ [1]; seriously disruptive of schooling as we have come to know and recognise it, while hastening clarion calls for reform of the status quo [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Notwithstanding the import of the word ‘pandemic’, throughout the twentieth century, there have been repeated cries of ‘crisis’ in education, ‘A Nation At Risk’ [7] comes to mind, pre-dated by the ‘Sputnik’ (1957) shock (see [8]), perhaps foreshadowing more contemporary pre-occupations with STEM, and more recent systemic tremors in the form of ‘PISA shock’ [9] as it impacted in Germany, and elsewhere. Perhaps, more than many other research ‘Powerful Reforms and Shallow Roots’ [10] captures the manner in which repeated efforts at systemic reform have failed to ignite the radical change that was envisaged [11]. Rather, such efforts, frequently flounder on the rocks of school realities, while repeatedly re-learning that attempting ‘teacher proof’ curricula as a means of bypassing teacher competence and capacities, thus providing a short cut to ‘school improvement’ seeks to downplay or ignore the recurring lesson that ‘teachers matter’ [12], and are most likely to be central to educational processes into the future. There are compelling reasons for this that provide solid ground on which to build the argument presented in this chapter.
\nFirst, the pandemic (still with us) has very definitely reinforced the message that ‘home schooling’ when combined with ‘working from home’ is not a sustainable ‘bargain’ between the public and the state; schooling in various forms will need to be sustained into the future. Thus, while flexible working from home arrangements are likely to continue after various vaccines ride to the rescue, respect for teachers, and what schooling in general manages to achieve, has been enhanced in the eyes of parents and public, and maybe even policy-makers. Second, while versions of ‘lockdown’ necessitated that schools go online, with varying degrees of success, in general, teachers have had to get to grips with technologies to an unprecedented extent, extended by higher education institutions that provide professional support to the profession online, thus ‘alien’ technologies have become familiar to many; a benefit that provides experience on calibrating the use and effectiveness of various platforms for student engagement, teaching, learning and leading—spawning ongoing reflection and debate. Yet, these actual and potential benefits have made all concerned yearn for face-to-face interactions, formal and informal, as the lifeblood of communication, community, and holistic education. Third, these recent experiences have increased awareness of inequalities due to concern regarding access to: hardware, software, as well as quiet spaces for work and learning, providing further evidence of the necessity for schools as ‘safe havens’ of challenge, respect and caring. Fourth, such considerations have accentuated the necessity to revisit schooling as a ‘public good’ [13], something to which Governments need to be committed, providing sustained and adequate resources and in the process, preventing those who see the potential of technologies for profit and the privatisation of teaching and learning, thus exacerbating rather than diminishing inequalities that, in recent years, have been shown repeatedly to have increased [14]. While we readily recognise that, at a time of rapid change, predicting the future has never been more precarious, it is essential to salvage from past and present ‘bricolage’ [15] as the building blocks of possible futures. Thus, we ask: What pedagogical repertoires provide the most likely prospect of achieving and sustaining educational development goals?
\nTwo eminent economists recently stated that “a healthy society is a vast web of cooperative activity sustained by mutual kindness and obligations” [16]. After decades of neoliberalism, some strains more virulent than others, there has been a considerable rise in ‘possessive individualism’ and ‘market fundamentalism’ [16] that privilege human competitiveness at the expense of our capacity to collaborate constructively. Such dispositions cultivate a mindset: “the more we view ourselves as self-made and self-sufficient the less likely we are to care for the fate of those less fortunate than ourselves” [17]. From an educational perspective this thinking promotes “learning as acquisitiveness, an individual pursuit, essentially that market mechanisms are the primary instruments for achieving the public good” [17]. The consequences are massive erosion of trust, decline in solidarity and a general retreat from public or common good, and these conditions make their way directly and indirectly into public schooling. Such pressures give rise to two languages and attendant logics—that of accountability and professional responsibility, as indicated in Table 1 below.
\nResponsibility | \nAccountability | \n
---|---|
based in professional mandate situated judgement trust moral rationale internal evaluation negotiated standards implicit language framed by professions relative autonomy and personally inescapable proactive | \ndefined by current governance standardised by contract control economic/legal rationale external auditing predetermined indicators transparent language framed by political goals compliance with employers’/ politicians’ decisions reactive | \n
The types of logic and implications of professional responsibility and accountability [18].
This categorisation recognises that accountability language and logic espouses the market assumptions and norms, whereas the language and logic of responsibility include degrees of relative autonomy and professional judgement. As part of our value stance in dealing with the tensions created by these competing and contradictory logics we recognise that it is possible to be accountable while not behaving in a professionally responsible manner; there is a moral dimension to the latter that, for an individual and a member of a profession, is inescapable. Additionally, while asserting that public good should prevail over private gain, from a professional responsibility perspective, it is necessary to recognise that “decision-by-rulebook intentionally eliminates judgement based on tacit knowledge”, something that is part of the lifeblood of the teacher-learner encounter [16]. We are obliged to be accountable, this is inescapable, while behaving in a professionally responsible manner is a choice, an inescapable responsibility as professionals. Sustainable futures, even pedagogical futures, depend upon it. Sustainable development necessitates doing things differently to avoid the inadequacies of previous initiatives, while remaining open to the possibilities of what sustainable futures may look like. Moreover, education for sustainable development (ESD) is an approach to education that requires changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to enable a more just and sustainable society for all [19].
\nNational educational policies are part of a wider international framework which requires states to respond to the challenges of the 21st century. Obligations arise from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that was established in 1994 and the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 193 United Nations (UN) member states in 2015 [20]. Education for sustainable development is also supported by international policy initiatives such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) Global Competence Framework [21] and the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation’s (UNESCO) publications on Global Citizenship Education [22] and Education for Sustainable Development [23]. Such initiatives have been heavily critiqued from an educational perspective as lacking the transformative intent required to challenge the economic growth models which continue to drive climate change [24]. Nevertheless, in some contexts they have triggered educational reform efforts at national levels [25]. OECD reports on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) have also become increasingly influential in education on a global scale [9].
\nFor the purposes of this chapter, we draw on qualitative research that involved a content analysis of the education policies of the OECD and UNESCO since 2014, the year that marked a decade of education for sustainable development [19], while also drawing on international literature and other related empirical work of the authors [13, 26]. This provided a backdrop to the evidence-based recommendations on the future of education by such think tanks as the World Economic Forum [27], the World Bank [28] and the Economists Intelligence Unit, [29]. While the aforementioned are all economic agencies, pre-occupied with preparation for the world of work, rather than providing a ‘good’ education they are influencing education policy on a global scale by publishing recommendations on pedagogical approaches required for 21st century schooling. Themes discussed below have emerged from a meta-analysis of documents selected from searches undertaken using various combinations of key words such as: trends facing education, education for sustainable development, 21st century skills, digital technology in education and 21st century teacher competencies. The most prominent of these documents are summarised in Table 2 and are included in the reference list. A systematic examination of these policy documents revealed a number of recurring considerations as pivotal triggers for change in education and the expectations regarding teachers’ capacity and competencies within this reform agenda.
\nYear | \nOrganisation | \nTitle | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|
2014 | \nUNESCO | \nShaping the Future We Want - UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development | \n[19] | \n
2015 | \nUnited Nations | \nTransforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development | \n[20] | \n
2015 | \nUNESCO | \nGlobal Citizenship Education | \n[22] | \n
2015 | \nOECD | \nStudents, computers and learning: Making the connection | \n[30] | \n
2015 | \nOECD | \nEducation policy outlook 2015: making reforms happen | \n[31] | \n
2017 | \nOECD | \nEducation for Sustainable Development | \n[23] | \n
2018 | \nOECD | \nGlobal Competency for an Inclusive World | \n[21] | \n
2018 | \nOECD | \nEducation 2030: The future of education and skills | \n[32] | \n
2018 | \nUNESCO | \nICT Competency Framework for Teachers V03 | \n[33] | \n
2019 | \nOECD | \nTrends Shaping Education | \n[34] | \n
2019 | \nUNESCO | \nEducation for Sustainable Development. A roadmap | \n[35] | \n
2019 | \nOECD | \nTALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners | \n[36] | \n
2019 | \nWorld Bank | \nWorld Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work | \n[28] | \n
2019 | \nThe Economist Intelligence Unit | \nWorldwide Educating for the Future Index 2019: From policy to practice | \n[29] | \n
2020 | \nOECD | \nPISA 2018 Results (Volume VI): Are Students Ready to Thrive in an Interconnected World? | \n[37] | \n
2020 | \nWorld Economic Forum | \nThe Future of Jobs Report | \n[27] | \n
Chronology of salient policies analysed as part of this study.
Using inductive analysis, three main pedagogical themes emerged from the research, teachers’ capacity for: a) adaptive expertise and collaborative practice; b) technology enhanced learning and c) the fostering of 21st century skills, while these are considered through the lens of accountability-professional responsibility and sustainable development. Analysis here gains in significance by providing in-depth scrutiny of policy content, not for the purposes of generalisation, but rather to influence future deliberations on policy and practice as a contribution to shaping possible futures, in an open-ended rather than a prescriptive manner, leaving room for other voices as to how such policy items may be tailored to particular needs, while seeking to build and expand pedagogical repertoires through practical know how, thus sustaining development.
\nThere are many ‘trends’ shaping education including: increasing global population climate change, pressure on living space for humans, increased risks of pandemics, income inequality, globalisation, and increased pervasiveness of technology in our lives all of which demand a systemic and rapid response from education systems all around the world [34]. UNESCO is entrusted to lead and coordinate the Education 2030 Agenda [35], which is part of a global movement to eradicate poverty through 17 Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. Education, essential to achieve all of these goals, has its own dedicated Goal 4, which aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. The OECD’s Education 2030 aims to help education systems determine the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values students need to thrive in and shape their future and “contributes to the UN 2030 Global Goals for Sustainable Development (SDGs), aiming to ensure the sustainability of people, profit, planet and peace, through partnership” [32]. The OECD [34] assert that in a complex and rapidly changing world, the discernible role of education in supporting the SDGs might necessitate the restructuring of formal and informal learning environments, and reimagining education content and delivery. Moreover, as knowledge of human development and learning is expanding exponentially the potential to shape more effective educational practices as suggested by Darling Hammond et al. [38] has also increased (see Table 3. below).
\nI. Supportive Environment | \n||
---|---|---|
Structures of Effective Caring | \nClassroom Learning Communities | \nConnections among staff and families | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
II. Productive Instructional Strategies | \n||
Student-centred Instruction | \nConceptual Understanding and Motivation | \nLearning how to learn | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
III. Social and Emotional Development | \n||
Integration of Social Emotional Skills | \nDevelopment of Habits and Mindsets | \nEducative and Restorative Behavioural Supports | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
IV. System of Supports | \n||
Multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS) | \nCoordinated access to integrated services | \nExtended learning opportunities | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
Practices aligned with the science of learning and development. Adapted from [38].
Making the most of these advances, however, requires assimilating insights across multiple fields and connecting them to knowledge of successful approaches that are emerging in education [38]. Enabling teachers to acquire ‘adaptive expertise’ or ‘adaptive competence” required to apply meaningfully learned knowledge and skills flexibly and creatively across different contexts in a globalised society [39] is important and will require teachers to work with other stakeholders. This is not a new concept however, and there is a considerable literature that recognises the importance of ‘improvisation’ as an integral dimension of the teaching-learning encounter [40]. More than a century ago, Dewey [41, 42] not only re-conceived the way that learning should happen, but also the role that the teacher should play in the process of learning [43, 44]. For Dewey, it is not enough for the classroom teacher to be a lifelong learner of the techniques and subject-matter of education; they must aspire to share what they know with others in their learning community [45]. Freire [46], like Dewey, believed that each student should play an active role in their own learning, instead of being the passive recipients of knowledge. Consequently, both authors are in agreement that the ideal teacher would be open-minded and confident—confident in their competence while also open-minded to sharing and learning from his or her students [47]. A recent study by Farrell and Marshall [26] in the context of initial teacher education (ITE) found that some student teachers’ use of digital pedagogy toppled the typical co-operating teacher/student teacher hierarchy, placing the student teacher as mentor to the co-operating teacher. This was particularly true of the recent move to remote learning as a result of Covid 19. The pandemic is also a powerful reminder that education plays a significant role in facilitating not just academic learning, but also in supporting physical, social and emotional well-being. The key, in these instances, is a willingness to collaborate for mutual gain, thus building pedagogical capacity, as well as enhancing pedagogical repertoires through adapting technologies.
\nBalancing traditional forms of education and learning with wider social and personal development means new roles for all involved in education while seeking simultaneously to provide a holistic education, frequently against the grain of external policies more pre-occupied with preparation for the world of work. Such challenges necessitate melding the old with new, a multi-disciplinary approach to education and requiring “Democratic Pedagogical Partnership” whereby “formal but flexible arrangement between teacher educators and stakeholders who engage in ‘collaborative professionalism’ improve learning for all students in a variety of contexts through effective pedagogy and practice” [48]. One of the four Common European Principles for Teacher Competences and Qualifications [49] is that teaching is a ‘profession based on partnership: institutions providing teacher education should organise their work collaboratively in partnership with schools, local work environments, work-based training providers and other stakeholders” In further recognition of the role of partnerships in education, the Council of the European Union [50] observes that:
\nTeacher education programmes should draw on teachers’ own experience and seek to foster cross disciplinary and collaborative approaches, so that education institutions and teachers regard it as part of their task to work in cooperation with relevant stakeholders such as colleagues, parents and employers.
\nIn support of this, the OECD [31] advocates that partnerships are central to the fostering of innovative teaching and learning-communities in which there is a bridge between theory and practice and between practitioners and those engaged in academic research. Making this rhetoric a reality will be a challenge even in the most advanced economies. Culture and context matter along with access to the continuing professional development of teachers [36]. Therefore, if governments are to harness the potential of education to have a positive impact on sustainable development, they need to invest in cultivating the most accomplished aspects of pedagogy that exists and can be enhanced by the transformative digital technology increasingly at our disposal. It will be difficult to achieve, and, in the first instance, it will be necessary for the research and policy communities, even in the most advanced economies, to address why pedagogical reform failure, reform fatigue or overload, are getting in the way of more sustainable transformations, more rooted in teacher-learner engagement, and the efforts necessary to overcome such challenges.
\nAs indicated above, the Covid 19 pandemic has lent renewed urgency to being adaptive, while also extending pedagogical repertoires to embrace the potential offered by various technologies. More generally, the rapid pace of change and challenges facing the 21st century provides opportunities “and a window for action, as evidenced by the power of digitalisation to transform, connect and empower” [34]. Digital technology is playing a pivotal role in the development of modern economies and societies. This has profound implications for education, both because digital technology can enable new forms of learning and because it has become important for young people to master digital technology in preparation for adult life [37]. While schools are key sites for the building of adaptive competences [51], including the competences to embed digital technology in teaching, learning and assessment [33], a recent OECD report [30] notes that “the reality in our schools lags considerably behind the promise of technology.” While there is an expectation that teachers are proficient in the use of digital technology, in teaching, learning and assessment, the reality is that this is not always the case [52]. Provision of continuing professional development for teacher educators [53] is fundamental to developing digital competence, as is collaboration with leading experts including those from industry [54].
\nIn order to develop a coherent professional learning plan for teachers, it is import to establish an agreed framework for digital competences that teachers need in order to harness the potential of digital technology in teaching, learning and assessment. However, given the pace of development of evolving technologies, this too is a tall order. McGarr and McDonagh [55] synthesised digital learning frameworks from around the world into a four-part model encompassing Technical skills, Pedagogical skills, Cyber-ethics and Attitudes (PEAT) (see Figure 1 below).
\nSynthesised model of teachers’ digital competence – The PEAT model [56].
Their model encapsulates the necessary technical, pedagogical and ethical competencies that are required for teacher education in the 21st century. According to Brox [57] there is currently a narrow utilitarian adoption of technology by teachers and she argues that “teacher education should encourage a deeper understanding of technology, in which both human and technological agency are explored and problematized”. Tsvetkova and Kiryukhin [58] assert that there is.
\n…a triad of digital competencies that create a stable structure for their development including: Vital (custom) digital competencies that enable teachers to keep up with the world of digital devices and services; profile and professional competencies that will determine the adaptability and success in the conditions of digitalization of professions and social digital competence of citizens that will help to preserve our delicate world on the principles of humanism and creative development of our children, to avoid atomisation of digital society.
\nDigital enhanced learning is an ambitious agenda and in the absence of time, resources and continuing professional development teachers are in danger of becoming scapegoats for lack of progress in this regard. Additionally, by focusing on a more technicist approach to skills, there is an underlying assumption that these are easily grafted on to teachers’ existing pedagogical repertoires, when there are more fundamental epistemic and identity considerations in play that take time to ferment as part of transforming not only the knowledge base of teaching that is crucial also forging 21st century teacher identities.
\nAnother aspect of this challenge is equality of access to adequate infrastructure to support digital enhanced pedagogy. There is a case to be made for broadband to be made a public good if all education stakeholders are to have parity of access to digital enhanced learning opportunities. A further concern is the influence of the corporate sector that is currently filling the gap in continuing professional development by providing free online courses to teachers who wish to increase their level of competence in the area. However, creative and constructive engagement with the best forms of adaptive pedagogy, in whatever shape or form, has the potential to provide a sense of optimism for building a better future. Enthusiasm for promoting technologies for the benefit of already wealthy technology entrepreneurs is no substitute for sustained engagement that recognises the complexities of teaching and learning.
\n\nThe Worldwide Educating for the Future Index [29] offers evidence of a consensus that education systems urgently need to prepare students for the challenges that await them in work and society. For several decades, there has been an expressed urgency on the part of policy-makers to shape the future, but with modest success, as evidenced by what McLaughlin refers to as ‘misery research’ [59, 60]. Throughout the period of these calls to transform the experience of schooling, what has emerged, and research has consolidated, is a broad agreement on the vital role that critical thinking, creativity, communication, entrepreneurship and other future-oriented skills, including digital capabilities, have potential to play in helping students meet those challenges [27, 28]. This so-called list of 21st century skills [61] emerged from a splurge of initiatives and frameworks driven by corporate and government partnerships over the past decade [62] such as Partnership 21 (P21) and Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATC21S). More recently the OECD [21] introduced the notion of Global Competencies for an Inclusive World where “Globally competent individuals can examine local, global and intercultural issues, understand and appreciate different perspectives and world views, interact successfully and respectfully with others, and take responsible action toward sustainability and collective well-being”. While such policy rhetorics may be aspirationally laudable, there is a sense also that saving the planet, a major challenge in itself, is being grated onto existing reform initiatives and challenges to systems of schooling. It is not that schools do not have a potentially significant part to play in reversing the worst features of climate change, but that cultivating the voices of students and harnessing their agency for transformation can only be effective in tandem with political leadership, will and adequate allocation of resources. Too often in the past, too much is left to systems of schooling, and too great a burden placed on teachers alone to bring about desired reforms. Thus in the absence of adequate professional support, holding the profession accountable for such a significant agenda, becomes an unjust burden rather than a professional challenge, worthy of a responsible response.
\nThe rhetoric of 21st century skills orients toward the world of work at a time when we also need an emphasis on the promotion of education to foster broader objectives such preparing young people for “a rapidly changing, uncertain, risky and possibly dangerous future” [63]. Moreover, a predominantly economic focus on education has inherent contradictions [64] regarding teachers’ vital role in promoting the necessary “transformative shifts in how we think and act” [65] that are required for the changes in human behaviour essential for sustainable living. The capacity for transformative models of education to take root is dependent on a range of factors including preparedness of schools and teachers to embrace such approaches [66].
\nEducation systems around the world are responding to the changing economic, environment, social and political global landscape by reviewing their curricula to include key skills and competencies. Thijs and van den Akker’s [67] description of curricular strata, where the supra level begins with transnational discourses about education, leading to the macro level of national level policy intentions and on to the meso level of policy guidance and facilitation to the micro level of school-level curricular practices and finally to the nano level of classroom interactions, demonstrates the complexities of implementing changes in the education sphere. While such a tiered approach to policy framing may well be necessary and appropriate, such a trickle down approach to trans-formation needs to give considerably more recognition to ‘continuous adaptation’ [68], thus also, considerably more dependent on micro capacities to extend the knowledge base of teaching, from a content and pedagogical perspective.
\nLehtonen et al. [69] concur that the educational space is both complex and contested, presenting educators with the challenge of addressing difficult knowledge in a politicised and, at times, divisive context. The ability of teachers to critically form their responses to challenging and intricate situations, activating prior experience to move between repertoires for action in the light of reflection on alternative futures will be very varied across different contexts [70]. At the core of this dilemma is the concept of professional agency, whereby practitioners have the capacity to act in particular circumstances making sense of policies and of the multiple nuanced factors that influence the process by which these policies are realised. Agency and professional responsibility are not fixed capacities but rather an achievement resulting from the interplay of individual efforts and capabilities within contextual and structural factors in concrete situations [71], while responsibility implicitly contains a moral dimension. Thus, cultivating professional agency and responsibility in the teaching profession is central to understanding how educational policies are translated into contextually relevant teaching practices [72]. Important and all as teacher agency and professional responsibility may be, the days of ‘heroic’ performance are long since passed, thus there needs to be a significantly stronger sense of collective agency, collaborative professionalism, that takes professional responsibility seriously, while this too entails calling out systemic failures and inadequacies in terms of necessary and sustained support for teacher learning, and ongoing tailored 21st century ‘formation’ [73].
\nAnother important factor in building sustainable teacher capacity is teacher professional identity and how it is inextricably linked to their chosen disciplines. The attempts by policy makers around the globe to progress the skills and competency agenda has been thwarted in some respects due to the lack of connection to subject discipline and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) [74]. Skills cannot be learned in a content free zone. If teachers are to build their pedagogical repertoire for 21st century education they need to be supported and encouraged to broaden their horizons sufficiently to merge skill development and PCK in their practice [75]. However, if the rate of educational change persists without adequate resourcing and support, there is a serious danger of teacher burnout and attrition from the profession. We must learn from the sins of the past where rapid and radical reform did not achieve their intended outcomes [59]. There needs to be a systemic recognition by policy makers that we do not have to invent the future out of nothing, as well as increasing power asymmetries due to the expansion in influence of international agencies with their own agendas. Furthermore, teachers who are at the coal face of reform need to challenge the rhetoric surrounding the novelty of 21st century skills and competences. Seminal thinkers like Dewey and Freire have espoused the educational virtues of democratic and citizenship education, critical thinking and collaboration for decades. There is no denying that teacher capacity and competency to foster these skills are important agenda items. If we are to succeed in building this capacity and embedding these skills across the continuum of education, we need to approach it differently than heretofore in an incremental and non-threatening way that is achievable and sustainable. Slowing the process of change sufficiently to enable capacity to be enhanced incrementally is necessary; capacity building can only occur from where teachers’ expertise is rather than where it ought to be. There needs to be recognition also that the intellectual capacities of teachers vary considerably also from one jurisdiction to another, while this is already reflected in PISA results—particularly in Finland and Signapore [76]. While public partnerships have considerable potential to enhance teacher capacities, vigilance too is necessary in order to maintain schooling as a public good, a state responsibility that eschews profit in favour of society. Maintaining education as a public good to avoid the for profit sector dominating the agenda is essential. Moreover, making structural changes to the school year is also essential for educational reform to be more than a mere aspiration. Elongating the school year to facilitate sustained teacher learning at the site of the practice [77] and during the working day is a possible solution that, though a challenge to the profession will be necessary to consider.
\nAssessment is probably one of the most important aspects of the education process and has often been described as “the tail that wags the curriculum dog” [78]. Any attempts to embed key skills and competencies across the continuum of education must include a more holistic approach to assessment. This is easier said than done. Approaches to the assessment of skills and competencies will require more teacher and school-based assessment and less dependence on high stakes terminal exams. However, the controversy surrounding the examination process in many developed countries during COVID-19 crisis demonstrates the complex nature of assessment and the tension between transparency and fairness on the one hand and teacher autonomy and professional judgement on the other.
\nIt is abundantly evident from the brief analysis and foray into aspects of building teacher capacity that the agenda is ambitious. As indicated in the introduction, even in the most developed economies, past experience indicates that this is an enormous challenge. When viewed from the perspective of cultures and contexts that continue to struggle with ‘basic’ education, the challenges appear as Sisyphean, and serves to disenfranchise, and demoralise rather than enhance teachers sense of agency and responsibility, and the quality of teaching and learning. Such a considerable educational change agenda is open to the accusation of policy elites talking among themselves. Unless and until the voices of teachers, learners, their parents and communities become part of that reform conversation in a meaningful and sustained manner, hope will drain away. There is no Valhalla, no ‘promised land’ to which teachers and their learners may easily migrate. Rather, they have to build and pave the way to that future. Without the support and resources necessary to match the ambition, professional agency, and professional responsibility are likely to decline rather than enjoy enhancement, and pedagogical repertoires more likely to become retrenched as Governments exert pressures to improve performance, resulting in impoverishment of teaching and learning, expanding disparities in learning outcomes, sustainability agendas shredded, to the detriment of the attractiveness of the teaching profession in many context where it is critically necessary. Policy-makers too have a responsibility to do more than merely enunciate lofty ambitions. These need to be matched by transformation strategies that are tailored to evident needs with resources that are equal to the challenge if even partial sustainability is to be achieved, the teaching profession enhanced, and the quality of teaching and learning improved. For too long, educational ‘change agents’ have been content to settle for less. While the influence of international agencies, their policy rhetorics, have grown more numerous, and demanding, no matter how laudable their advocacy, this does little for the capacities of teachers per se. Unless more effective means of bridging the worlds of policy makers and practitioners are crafted, sustainable reforms will continue to remain aspirations, more likely to frustrate teacher morale and self-efficacy rather than enhance their sense of responsibility and capacities to transform the teaching learning process.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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