\r\n\tIn this book, the different factors of liquefaction, the field methods and laboratory tests to identify a potentially liquefiable soil aim to be reviewed; in addition with history cases (ground behavior during the occurrence of an earthquake, state of stress, deformation, shear strength, flow, etc.). \r\n\tA very important aspect of this topic is the presentation of the different constructive techniques used to ground improvement (vibrocompaction, dynamic compaction, jet grouting, chemical injection, replacement, etc.), placing special emphasis on those constructive methods used to solve problems on structures already located in areas of low relative density with liquefaction potential, where the installation of monitoring and control equipment is also required (tiltmeters, piezometers, topographic points, seismographs, pressure cells, etc.).
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c75dbeaa24ba42eda9cd78838bb22f8",bookSignature:"D.Sc. Oscar Andrés Cuanalo Campos",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8411.jpg",keywords:"Geological Fabric, Soil Profile, Exploration and Field Test, Index Properties, Soil Classification, State of Stresses, Deformations, Differential Settlements, Subsidence, Displacements, Vibrocompaction, Dynamic Compaction, Ground Deformation and Movement, Vibration, Water Pressure, Structural Stresses",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 2nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 23rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 21st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 8th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"215419",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Oscar Andrés",middleName:null,surname:"Cuanalo Campos",slug:"oscar-andres-cuanalo-campos",fullName:"Oscar Andrés Cuanalo Campos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215419/images/system/215419.png",biography:"Dr. Oscar Cuanalo is a Civil engineer graduated from Benemerita Autonomous University of Puebla (BUAP), Master in Engineering (Soil Mechanics) from National Autonomous University of Mexico (1993). Thesis “Experimental study of clay-concrete interfaces”, Doctor of Science from College of Construction Central University of Las Villas Cuba (2004), Thesis “Methodology to select stabilizing construction works for landslides”. Member of the European Geosciences Union and Mexican Society of Geotechnical Engineering.\nHe’s been Professor-Researcher and Secretary of Research and Postgraduate BUAP. Geotechnical Consultant at Geometric Correction of Metropolitan Cathedral and the Subway of México city; he’s worked in deep foundations projects, tunnels, dams, soil improvement (subexcavation and injection). He has written several books of landslides, published articles and participated in conferences around the world. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is a technique that used to recover trapped oil left in reservoirs after primary and secondary recovery methods. Although, EOR is a challenging process where a variety of parameters play an important role such as harsh environments; EOR processes are applied worldwide in most reservoirs to retrieve additional amounts of oil which it cannot be recovered during secondary recovery by waterflood or gas injection.
Due to the expected increase in energy consumption worldwide which is assumed to exceed 50% by the end of 2030, different path of renewable resources has been proposed to meet this growth and energy demand. Primary and secondary oil recovery which is considered as predominate energy resource produce only 15–30% of the oil original in place (OOIP) [1] and the percentage of the recovered oil is mainly depend on the compressibility of the fluids and reservoir initial pressure. More than 50% of the reserved oil subsequent to the OOIP will be trapped which in some cases is amenable to tertiary or enhance-oil-recovery process [2]. The difficulty of oil recovery was due to the chemical equilibrium between the crude oil, formation water and the rock structure and characteristic. The distribution of the oil and water within the porous rock is depend on the contact between the rock surface and the two fluids or in the other hand is depend on the rock wetting properties.
EOR stages encompass a variety of processes, including miscible flooding processes, chemical flooding process, thermal flooding processes, and microbial flooding processes. Water flooding is one of the EOR mechanisms where injected water with certain specification was used to maintain reservoir pressure and improve reservoir sweep efficiency. In order to improve the oil recovery and increasing production efficiency, water flooded was recently used in most of the reservoirs where it was initially used to support the reservoir pressure and maintain it above the oil bubble pressure and take the advantage of the viscous forces into displacement of the oil by the water. Injection of water with different composition within the initial formation, water can disturb the established reservoir chemical equilibrium and results in improved oil recovery. To evaluate the usage of smart water as EOR fluid a well chemical understanding of the most important parameters dictating the wetting properties of oil reservoir is highly needed. Low salinity water injection (LSWI) is one of the emerging improved oil recovery techniques for boosting the oil recovery from waterfloods [3]. The LSWI technique received increasing attention in the oil industry and has the potential of being cost effective compared to other EOR techniques because of its simplicity, higher oil recovery performance, and environmental friendly when compared with conventional high salinity water flooding and other EOR approaches. The main concerns with using LSWI are water sourcing and water disposal. The successful EOR approach using LSWI has been related to several factors linked to the composition of injected brine such as fine clay minerals migration, interfacial tension reduction, wettability alteration, controlling pH, and emulsion formation. The effect of low salinity water flooding has been shown at laboratory-scale and to a limited extent at field-scale using both sandstone and carbonate rocks. The modification of the injected brine composition was proved that it could improve the oil recovery factor of conventional water flooding up to 38% [4].
Several studies have been heighted that the salinity of the connate water is the main factor controlling the higher oil recovery where the salinity of the injected water must be much lower than the salinity of the connate water. Investigator found that an improved in oil recovery by using low salinity water injection only happen when clay sandstone minerals is existed along with the crude oil. The interpretation for this phenomenon was linked to permeability reduction caused by the fine migration leading to increasing in more pressure drop and higher oil production, since most observations reviled that pressure drop was strictly tied to incremental recovery [5]. Which is not the case with the carbonates rock since carbonate rock reservoir where it may contain clays minerals, but these minerals as regularly is trapped within the rock matrix and not considerably exaggerated by the injected fluid.
Furthermore, the interaction between the negatively polar crude oil and positively charged carbonates is much higher than the sandstone rocks [6] therefore, the wettability alteration mechanism in the case of carbonate rock is more complicated compare with the silica and clay due to the various contributions including fine migration, pH [7], and salinity effect [8, 9]. Change in wettability in carbonate rock from oil wet to water wet or mix wet can lead to an incremental improve in oil recovery. Høgnesen et al. [10] concluded that any modification in the composition of the injected water can altered the rock wettability. Additionally, the effect of sulfate ions within the injected water in wettability iteration have been investigated by Høgnesen et al. [10] where their results show that increasing the concentration of sulfate ion at high temperature modify the wettability in carbonates, and result in higher oil recovery. Moreover, Webb et al. [11] conducted a study that compared oil recovery from a North Sea carbonate core samples using sulfate-free brine, with seawater contains sulfate. Their results displayed that the seawater contains sulfate ions has ability to modify the wettability of the carbonate system to water wet state.
Generally, few studies regarding the effect of wettability alteration for carbonate rocks have been established so far and this was mainly due to incomplete understanding of complex chemical interactions between rock, oil and brine. Experimental and modeling studies are still progressing to gain more insight into the mechanism underlying the effect of LSWI on oil recovery. Therefore, this work presents a numerical simulation study to evaluate production potential of naturally fractured reservoirs under low salinity water flooding. The simulation model based on hybrid approach of using permeability tensor and discrete fracture approaches. The governing equations use for the simulation are expanded using finite element technique.
2. Background
Low salinity water flooding is one of the incremental oil recovery techniques which inject low salinity water to alter the wettability or assist at fine migration from the reservoir to increase the oil production and reduce the residual oil saturation. The mobility and migration of the reservoir fines mainly depends on the salinity of the water flood where injection of the low salinity water enhances the fines migration. Migrate particles can clog pore throats and act as fluid flow hindrance and results in reduction of the permeability in the clogged throats. Where in the oil and gas recovery practices these phenomena is intentionally avoided as it damages the permeability and hence reduction in permeability translates into reduction in productivity from reservoir wells. Meanwhile, by inducing damage to the permeability of the reservoir in water swept zones; less permeable water zone to a high permeability oil zone will be occuring. The process of decreasing the fluid mobility in one zone is known as mobility control process. As result of low salinity water flooding; fine mobilization and its accumulation on pore throats can be identified by an increase in the pressure drop.
Studies have confirmed a pronounced effect of LSWI on oil recovery in both secondary and tertiary modes of injection. The importance of LWSI enhanced because it can be integrated with other EOR method such as chemical or miscible gas flooding. Bernard [12] the relative effectiveness of fresh and salt waters in flooding oil from cores containing clays investigated the effect of Dang et al. [13] evaluated the merits of combining CO2 with LSW injection (CO2-LSWAG) on the EOR through modeling, optimization and uncertainty assessment. They found that CO2-LSWAG.
Different mechanisms have been suggested regarding the effect of LSWI on sandstone rocks including fines migration, pH, multi-ion exchange (MIE), salting-in, and wettability alteration [14]. The wettability alteration process underlies the low salinity effect as the decrease in salinity increases the size of the double layer between the clay and the oil interface, which leads to organic material release [15].
Furthermore, the behavior of low salinity waterflooding can be summarized as follows [5]: (1) more oil can be produced if the brine salinity of the injected water is lower than the initial brine salinity in the core (2) reducing the initial brine salinity of the injected water during the stage enhance the pressure drop, (3) pressure drops reduced due to reducing of the core permeability due to presence of fine migration [16], (4) existence of connate water is beneficial to enhance the effect of low salinity water [17].
In addition, the effect of the salinity of the cannot water on the oil recovery have been presented Sharma et al. [18] where they concluded that oil recovery increased significantly with the salinity of the connate brine. In addition, the performance of waterfloods is strongly affected by the composition of the crude oil and its ability to wet the rock surfaces, the salinity of the connate brine in the reservoir, and the height above the oil/water contact. This contribution was also supported by McGuire et al. [4].
Although the mechanism for the effect of law salinity water flooding is benign different from each other the main concept is to improved oil recovery.
In this study, we simulate low salinity water flooding under geomechnical effects. The simulation based on finite element technique, hybrid approach of permeability tensor and discrete fracture. The low salinity effect is taken under wettability changes during the simulation process.
3. Reservoir model development
This study presents a novel three dimensional poroelastic numerical model for simulation multiphase fluid flow in naturally fractured basement reservoirs. A hybrid approach is used in the simulation of fluid flow. In this approach small fractures are considered as part of matrix and flow is simulated by using single continuum approach. While flow through long fractures is simulated using a discrete fracture approach. The reservoir is divided into a number of grid blocks. Grid based full permeability tensors for short to medium fractures are calculated using Darcy’s diffusivity equation. Cubic law is to simulate flow through long fractures that cuts through different grid blocks.
4. Methodology
4.1. Grid based full permeability tensors
A fractured porous medium composed of matrix with nonzero permeability and fractures with high permeability based on the fracture aperture [19]. In this medium, the fluid flows through matrix and fractures with transfer between these two structures. In which, each point in the matrix can be assigned a bulk permeability km, while each point in the fractures can be assigned keff.
In order to calculate the effective permeability tensors which represents an average permeability for the two structures, 3D cube is used to represent the matrix and fractures porous media (Figure 1) [17].
Figure 1.
3D cube used for permeability tensor calculations.
The fractured porous media is bounded in an impermeable cover with boundary conditions for pressures (P1 and P2).
The boundary conditions are: p(x = 0) = p1, p(x = L) = p2, J. n = 0 and v = 0 on s1
The seepage velocity calculated based on the flow rate integration over fracture surfaces and matrix porous media and by using total volume of the block.
v=−kmµ∇pE1
Where μ the fluid viscosity and Δp is the pressure change. The continuity equation for local seepage velocity in the matrix read as:
∇.v=0E2
The hydraulic properties of fracture can be can be characterized by fracture transmissivity (aperture) and main flow rate is set parallel and normal to fracture plane. The flow rate J in fractures is usually defined by unit width of fracture and can be expressed by:
J=−keffµ∇spE3
In case of the flow is parallel to fracture plane, the seepage velocity normal to the fracture induces a pressure drop expressed by:
v=−1µ∇pE4
The effective fracture permeability of fracture can be describes by its aperture b as (in case the fractures are empty):
keff=−b312E5
The mass conservation equation for the flow in a fracture is:
∇s.J=−→v+−→v.nE6
Where n the unit vector is normal to fracture plane, v¯+ is the seepage velocity in the matrix on the side of n and v¯ is the seepage velocity on the opposite side.
This transport equation is implemented with the above-mentioned boundary conditions to calculate the permeability tensors.
Therefore, the total seepage velocity over the block is obtained by integrating the flow rates over fracture surfaces and matrix porous media. Then the results divided by the total block volume to calculate the block effective permeability tensor.
vx=1γ{∫γm−vxdv+∫sf−Jxds}=−keffµ∂p∂xE7
Where, sf is the surface for all fractures and γ is the matrix volume.
4.2. Simulation of low salinity water flooding
Darcy’s law and continuity equations are governed two phase fluid flow system through fractures and matrix porous media [18].
The Darcy’s law is expressed as:
ϕsπuπs=kijkrπμπ−pπ+pπgiπ=w,nwE8
Continuity equation for wetting phase incorporating the effective overburden, maximum, and minimum stresses can be expressed as follow:
Where, ϕ is the porosity of the media, sπ is the saturation for each phase, uπs is the relative velocity vector between fluid phase and solid phase, kij is the permeability tensor, krπ is the relative permeability for each fluid phase π, μπ, ρπ and ,pπ are dynamic viscosity, density of fluid, and fluid pressure for each phase respectively, gi is the gravity acceleration vector, βπ is the fluid formation volume factor, Km is the bulk modulus of solid grain, D is the elastic stiffness matrix, and Qπ represents external sources or sinks.
The effect of low salinity has been taken on wettability changes which affect the relative permeability curve. Therefore, the salt concentration at each grid block has been calculated using Eq. (10) and the calculated saturations from Eqs. (9) and (10).
Where C is concentration of a relevant solute in water, Sw is water saturation, fw is water fractional flow, and Qt is total flow rate.
The changes of oil and water relative permeability and capillary pressure are calculated using Eqs. (11)–(13).
krw=F1krwL+1−F1krwHE13
kro=F1kroL+1−F1kroHE14
Pcow=F2PcowL+1−F2PcowHE15
Where F1 and F2 are functions of the salt concentration, krw is the water relative permeability and kro is the oil relative permeability, Pcow is oil–water capillary pressure. The subscripts H and L are standing for high salinity and low salinity respectively.
The end point saturations are calculated by using the following equations:
Swco=F1SwcoL+1−F1SwcoHE16
Swcr=F1SwcrL+1−F1SwcrHE17
Swmax=F1SwmaxL+1−F1SwmaxHE18
Sowcr=F1SowcrL+1−F1SowcrHE19
Where F1 and F2 are functions of the salt concentration, Swco is the connate water saturation, Swcr is the critical water saturation, Swmax is the maximum water saturation and Sowcr is the critical oil saturation in water. The subscripts H and L are standing for high salinity and low salinity curves, respectively.
5. Validation of the model using 3D reservoir with a single fracture
In this case, a simple 3D reservoir with one fracture is used for validating the numerical model. The reservoir is built by using a commercial black oil reservoir simulator (CMG IMEX). The model dimensions are (10 m × 10 m × 5 m). The reservoir model includes 15 horizontal layers. Of these 15 horizontal layers, the 8th layer from the top is embedded as a fracture layer with different rock properties. The mesh is refined around the fracture layer as shown in Figure 2. The matrix and fracture permeability are set at 0.01 md and 2 Darcy respectively. Linear relative permeability curve, one injector and one producer are used for the simulation of fluid flow.
Figure 2.
Reservoir fracture model used in CMG to validate the developed two phase fluid flow numerical model.
Figure 3a and b show the water saturation profile obtained from CMG and two phase finite element numerical model, respectively. As can be seen from the figures, at the beginning of the injection, water moves fast inside the fracture due to its high permeability compared to the matrix permeability. With the pass of time (approximately a day), the water saturation starts to increase gradually inside the matrix elements. These figures show that the finite element numerical model is able to predict the same water saturation profile as that of CMG black oil reservoir simulator but with greater accuracy.
Figure 3.
Water saturation profile after one day of water injection (a) CMG 3D model with one fracture introduced at eighth layer. (b) 3D model with one fracture introduced at the middle of the reservoir model used with the developed multiphase numerical model.
6. Fracture characterization
In this study, object based simulation technique is used to generate subsurface discrete fracture maps [20]. In this model, fractures are treated as objects and placed in the domain stochastically. The number of generated fractures is controlled by fracture intensity (0.1 m−1) and fractal dimension parameters. The fractures are treated as objects with varying in radius, dip and azimuth angles.
6.1. Fracture intensity
The fracture intensity is an important parameter to give an indication about the probability of fractures occurrence in a discrete fracture model [21]. The fracture intensity is defined as the number of fractures per unit bulk volume. To calculate the fracture intensity, the reservoir is divided into a number of grid blocks and fractures that cut each block are defined. Then, the number of these fractures is divided by the bulk volume of the corresponding grid block. Fracture intensity map is extracted from geological interpretations of reservoirs. Fracture intensity is expressed as:
FractureIntensity=∑i=1NAreaVolumeE20
Where, N is the total number of fractures that intersect the corresponding grid block.
6.2. Fracture dip and azimuth
Each fracture in a discrete fracture model is defined by its properties which include fracture azimuth angle, dip angle, center point (x, y and z) and radius. Fracture azimuth is defined by the angle formed between the fractures plan and the geographic north. These angles are inferred from core and Fullbore Formation Micro imager (FMI) data. Fracture dip is the angle between the fracture plane and horizontal plane (see Figure 4) and inferred from the geological interpretations (e.g. dip of the geological formation). In object based simulation, the fractures azimuth angles are characterized by the Gaussian distribution while dip angles are assumed to be followed by normal distribution.
Figure 4.
Description of the plane in which the fracture lies. The ellipse represents a fracture with (α is the fracture azimuth angle and β is the dip angle).
7. Results and discussion
The case study has been taken from a fractured reservoir located in United Arab Emirates. The studied reservoir (4500 m x 4500 m x 300 m) contains more than 14,000 long to short fractures. The reservoir has been divided into grid blocks (100 m × 100 m × 50 m) and fractured intersected with each block are determined. The fractures with length (l < 40 m) have been accounted for effective permeability tensors and long fractures (l > 40 m) are discretized explicitly in the reservoir domain for fluid flow simulation (Figures 5 and 6).
Figure 5.
2D view of fracture network for the studied reservoir.
Figure 6.
3D view of fracture network for the studied reservoir.
The area of the reservoir is 20 km2 and the average porosity is 5% and OOIP is 1000 MM barrel. The reservoir PVT is collected from PVT report and the initial oil formation volume factor that has been used during the simulation runs was 1.25 rb/STB. The relative permeability curve and capillary pressure used are presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Relative permeability and capillary pressure curves used in simulation of fluid flow.
Low salinity water flooding is applied on the studied reservoir to maintain the reservoir pressure and for testing wells production profile under water injection scenario. The fractured reservoir thickness is divided into three zones. The first zone is from 800 to 1100 m is the main production zone. The second zone is from 1100 to 1200 m is a separation between the injection and production zones and the third zone is from 1200 to 1400 m is the injection zone.
Four injectors were selected in the studied reservoir and are distributed as five spots to displace oil around 12 producers. All the injection wells are vertical and the amount of water injected in each well was 4500 bbls/d. water is injected into the bottom region while the oil was produced from the basement top section.
The reservoir model was a two phase model, containing only oil and water for simplifications. The initial connate water salinity was set to 750 kg/m3 total dissolved salts (TDS) approximately the same salinity as regular seawater, and Brine salt content is 0.25 fraction (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and SO42− concentration was observed.).
Figure 8 shows wells water production rate. Well #W_8 has the highest water production rate because of the location of this well is bounded by the four injectors. Well #W_5 has the lowest water production rate because of the location of this well is far from the inaction area. Figure 9 is showing the water cut at the producers, while Figure 10 is showing the water production rate for all producers. As shown from Figure 7, well #W_8 has highest oil production rate owing to the sweep efficiency in the area surrounded by well #W_8 is very high. Figure 11 shows the water saturation profile after 5 months and 5 years of water injection respectively.
Figure 8.
Oil production rate for wells in the studied fractured reservoir.
Figure 9.
Water cut for wells in the studied fractured reservoir.
Figure 10.
Water production rate for wells in the studied fractured reservoir.
Figure 11.
Water saturation profile after five months and 5 years of water injection respectively.
Figure 12 shows the comparison between the cumulative oil production under conventional and low salinity water flooding for the same fractured reservoir. The presented results at Figure 12 show that low salinity water flooding process increases he recovery factor after 13 years of water injection by 1.4% which proves that this type of fractures reservoir requires a comprehensive study on how to increase the recovery factor by understanding the mechanisms behind the production process.
Figure 12.
Cumulative oil production rate under conventional and low salinity water flooding.
8. Conclusion
In this study, we made a comprehensive review on low salinity water flooding and the factors controlling the oil recovery. In addition, simulation of low salinity water flooding performed on a fractured reservoir located in Arab region. The simulation was based on a finite element technique a hybrid mode of using permeability tensors for low and short fractures and discretization of long fractures explicitly inside the reservoir domain. In which, the presented technique eliminate the use of dual porosity model as this technique does not consider fluid distribution within the matrix blocks during the simulation period and only can be applied for small number of large scale interconnected fractures. The simulation of low salinity water flooding in this study strongly based on wettability change. The results show that the recovery increases significantly by using injected brine volume.
\n',keywords:"enhance oil recovery, low salinity water injection, naturally fractured reservoir",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57310.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57310.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57310",totalDownloads:1342,totalViews:463,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 26th 2017",dateReviewed:"September 27th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"February 7th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Due to the increase of the activities in the oil industries, higher interest has been given to enhance the recover the trapped oil and produce more oil from the matured reservoirs. Worldwide, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is implemented in most reservoirs to recover additional amounts of oil that are not recovered during secondary recovery by water flood or gas injection. Recently, a numerous techniques such as thermal, miscible, immiscible and chemical has proposed to enhanced oil recovery and to increase the producible oil from oil reservoirs. The suitability and the success of a specific EOR process are highly sensitive to reservoir and fluid characteristics, recovery efficiency, availability of injected fluids, and costs. One of the common techniques which have been proposed recently is low salinity water flooding where the sea water with a controlled salinity and salt content is used to alter the rock wettability or enhance the fine migration and resulted in higher oil production. This study aims to investigate the possibility of using low salinity water flooding in naturally fractured reservoirs. The wettability changes are taking into account in terms of oil/water relative, saturation and capillary pressure as these parameters play a key role during the simulation of brine injection. The results show that the oil recovery significantly increases specially for water wet reservoirs as the reason behind is the decreasing water production after the breakthrough of the low saline brines.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57310",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57310",book:{slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering"},signatures:"Reda Abdel Azim, Sara Faiz, Shaik Rahman, Ahmed Elbagir and\nNour Al Obaidi",authors:[{id:"218418",title:"Dr.",name:"Reda",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelazim",fullName:"Reda Abdelazim",slug:"reda-abdelazim",email:"reda.abdelazim@aurak.ac.ae",position:null,institution:null},{id:"219791",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Faiz",fullName:"Sara Faiz",slug:"sara-faiz",email:"sara.faiz@aurak.ac.ae",position:null,institution:null},{id:"219792",title:"MSc.",name:"Nour",middleName:null,surname:"Al Obaidi",fullName:"Nour Al Obaidi",slug:"nour-al-obaidi",email:"nour.alobaidi@aurak.ac.ae",position:null,institution:null},{id:"219793",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al Bagir",fullName:"Ahmed Al Bagir",slug:"ahmed-al-bagir",email:"ahmed.elbagir@aurak.ac.ae",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Reservoir model development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Grid based full permeability tensors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Simulation of low salinity water flooding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Validation of the model using 3D reservoir with a single fracture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Fracture characterization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.1. Fracture intensity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.2. Fracture dip and azimuth",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lu T, Li Z, Li S, Wang P, Wang Z. Enhanced heavy oil recovery after solution gas drive by water flooding. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. 2016;137:113-124'},{id:"B2",body:'Sheng J. Critical review of low-salinity waterflooding. 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SPE Journal. 2000;5(03):293-300'},{id:"B19",body:'Abdelazim R, Rahman SS. Estimation of permeability of naturally fractured reservoirs by pressure transient analysis: An innovative reservoir characterization and flow simulation. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. 2016;145:404-422'},{id:"B20",body:'Doonechaly NG, Rahman S, Cinar Y. A new finite-element numerical model for analyzing transient pressure response of naturally-fractured reservoirs. In: SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Society of Petroleum Engineers. September 2013'},{id:"B21",body:'Tran NH, Chen Z, Rahman SS. Integrated conditional global optimisation for discrete fracture network modelling. Computers & Geosciences. 2006;32(1):17-27'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Reda Abdel Azim",address:"reda.abdelazim@aurak.ac.ae",affiliation:'
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, American University of Ras al-Khaimah, UAE
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, American University of Ras al-Khaimah, UAE
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nour Al Obaidi",address:null,affiliation:'
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, American University of Ras al-Khaimah, UAE
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1. Introduction
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Pectin is the major constituent of all plants and makes up approximately two-third of the dry mass of plant primary cell walls. It provides structural integrity, strength, and flexibility to the cell wall and acts as barrier to the external environment [1]. Pectin is also a natural component of all omnivorous diet and is an important source of dietary fiber. Due to the resistant in digestive system and lack of pectin digestive enzymes, human beings are not able to digest pectin directly but microorganism present in large intestine can easily assimilate the pectin and convert it into soluble fibers. These oligosaccharides promote beneficial microbiota in gut and also help in lipid and fat metabolism, glycemic regulation, etc. [2]. Being complex and highly diverse in structure, role of pectin is not only limited to the biological and physiological functions, but it has tremendous potential and contributes substantially in other applications ranging from food processing to pharmaceuticals. Pectin is a water-soluble fiber and used in various food as emulsifier, stabilizer, gelling, and thickening agent.
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Commercial pectins are extracted from citrus and apple fruit. On the basis of dry mass, apple pomace contains 10–15% pectin, whereas citrus peel possesses 20–30% pectin. However, pectin has also been extracted in higher amount from several other fruits and their by-products, such as sunflower head, mango peal, soybean hull [3], passion fruit peel [4], sugar beet pulp [5], Akebia trifoliata peel [6], peach pomace [7], banana peel [8], chickpea husk [9], and many more [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Table 1 summarizes the different types of pectin extracted from various horticultural crops. But detection and extraction of pectin in higher concentration is not sufficient to qualify that fruit as a source of commercial pectin because of the structural variation and modification in side-chain sugars, and also that pectin from different sources has different gelling properties.
Pectin is a highly complex plant cell wall polysaccharide that plays a significant role in plant growth and development. It is predominantly present in fruits and vegetables and constitutes approximately 35–40% of the primary cell wall in all the dicot plants [24]. The composition and structure of pectin is influenced by the developmental stages of plants [25, 26]. Structural analysis of pectin revealed that it is a polymer comprised of chain-like configuration of approximately 100–1000 saccharide units; therefore, it does not possess a defined structure. In general, pectin is illustrated as a heteropolysaccharide of three components namely, homogalacturonan (HG), rhamnogalacturonan-I (RGI), and rhamnogalacturonan-II (RGII) [28, 29]. The Backbone structure may branch with other neutral sugar chains such as arabinan, xylogalacturonan (XGA), arabinogalactan I (AG-I), and arabinogalactan II (AG-II).
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Homogalacturonan (HG) is a polymer of galacturonic acid (GalA), in which Gal A residues are linked together by α-1-4 glycosidic bond and the number of GalA residues in HG may vary from 72 to 100% depending on the source of pectin [30]. For instance, the HG backbone of cashew apple pectin, C. maxima pectin, sunflower pectin, citrus pectin, comprises of 69.9–85%, 71–75%, 77–85%, 80–95%, GalA residues, respectively. Amaranth pectin contains more than 80% GalA residues in HG backbone structure. Furthermore, it was also observed that HG may be methoxy-esterified at C-6 and/or O-acetylated at the O-2 and/or O-3. Some exception has also been reported in the detailed structural analysis of HG region of pectin such as C-3 substitution of the galacturonic acids of HG with xylose in pea, apple, carrot, duck weed, etc. [31], and C-2 or C-3 with apiose in duck weeds (Lemna minor) [32]. HG is susceptible to both mechanical and enzymatic deesterification and degradation.
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Rhamnogalacturonan I represents approximately 20–35% of the pectin polysaccharides. It is the highly branched and heterogeneous polysaccharide which is characterized as repeating units of α-(1 → 2)-linked rhamnose and α-(1 → 4)-linked GalA residues. It can be O-acetylated at O-2 and/or O-3 positions of GalA residues [33, 34]. Pectin from citrus peels, mung bean, kidney bean, apple fruit, and flax hypocotyls has been reported 100% methyl esterified in the RGI region [35, 36]. The composition of RGI varies in pectin extracted from different sources. In sugar beet pectin, 80 repeating units of [→2] –α-L-Rha-(1–4)- α-D-GalA-(1→) comprised the backbone of rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), whereas citrus pectin contains only 15–40 repeating units [37]. The polymeric side chains of galactans and arabinans are substituted at the O-4 position of RG-I backbone. Arabinogalactan I (AG-I) and arabinogalactan II (AG-II) are also reported to be present as polymeric side chains [38, 39, 40]. The side chains are often referred to as “hairs” and believed to play an important role in pectin functionality. The loss of side chains may increase the solubility of the pectin [41]. PGI is prone to enzymatic depolymerization. However, protease and acid-catalyzed cleavage of RGI has also been reported [28, 42, 43].
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The highly conserved polysaccharide of pectin is rhamnogalacturonan II which constitutes about 10% of the pectin polymer [44]. This polysaccharide is made up of (1 → 4)-linked-α-D-GalA units containing 12 monosaccharide such as apiose, acetic acid, 3-deoxy-manno-2-octulosonic acid (KDO), and 3-deoxy-lyxo-2-heptulosaric acid (DHA) as side chains [30, 39]. GalA present in backbone of rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) may be methyl esterified at the C-6 position. The percentage of esterified GalA and acetylated groups in HG chain is termed as the DE and DAc, respectively. It is proposed that in the early developmental stages of plants, highly esterified pectin is formed that undergoes some deesterification in the cell wall or middle lamella. In general, tissue pectin ranges from 60 to 90% DE [45]. Both the DE and the DAc of pectin may vary depending on the method of extraction and plant origin [30, 46]. The functional properties of the pectin are determined by the amount and the distribution of esterified GalA residues in the linear backbone. Presence and distribution of esterified and nonmethylated GalA in pectin define the charge on pectin molecules. Based on their degree of esterification (DE), pectins are classified as high methoxy pectins (HMP) or low methoxy pectins (LMP). DE values of HM pectin range from 60 to 75%, whereas pectin with 20–40% of DE is referred as LM pectin. It was also observed that solubility, viscosity, and gelation properties of pectin are correlated and highly dependent on structural features [47, 48]. Pectin and monovalent salts of pectins are generally soluble in water but di- and trivalent ions are insoluble. The solubility of pectin in water increases with decrease in polymer size and increase in methoxy contents. Pectin powder gets hydrated very fast in water and forms clumps. The solubility of these clumps is very slow. As the pectin molecules come in contact with water, deesterification and depolymerization of pectins start spontaneously. The rate of decomposition of pectin depends on pH and temperature of the solution. As the pH of the solution decreased, with elevated temperature, ionization of carboxylate groups also reduced, which suppresses the hydration and repulsion between the polysaccharide molecules and results in the association of molecules in the form of gels. During thermal processing, solubilization of pectin is affected by β-elimination which depolymerized the pectin molecule and reduced its chain length. Small polymers have poor affinity with cell wall framework and solubilize easily. However, preheating, as well as reduced moisture contents in thermal processing, adversely affects the solubility of pectin in water [49, 50].
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3. Pectin as food emulsifier
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Food additives that are used in food processing to blend two immiscible liquids to produce a desirable product are known as food emulsifier or emulgent. These additives act as surface-active agents on the border of immiscible layers and reduce oil crystallization and prevent water separation. Emulsifiers are used in large number of food products such as ice creams, low-fat spreads, yoghurts, margarine, salad dressings, salty spreads, bakery products, and many other creamy sauces, to keep them in stable emulsion [27]. Emulsifiers increase the whip-ability of batters, enhance mouthfeel of the products, and improve texture and shape of the dough. Moreover, emulsions also help to encapsulate the bioactives [51]. Based on the disperse phase, there are two types of emulsion: oil in water (O/W) and water in oil (W/O). Milk, mayonnaise, dressings, and various beverages are some examples of O/W emulsion, whereas butter and margarine are the typical examples of W/O emulsion. Progress in hydrocolloid chemistry has resulted in the development of multitype emulsion such as O/W/O and O/W/O type emulsion (Figure 1). These emulsions are very important for fat reduction or encapsulation of bioactives and are used in preparation and stabilization of various low-fat creams, seasoning, and flavoring of sauces [52].
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Figure 1.
Types of emulsions.
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Commonly used emulsifiers in food processing are (i) small-molecular surfactant such as lectithins, derivatives of mono- and diglycerides prepared by mixing edible oils with glycerin or ethylene oxide, fatty acid derivatives such as glycol esters, sorbitan esters, polysorbates and (ii) macromolecular emulsifiers that include proteins and plant-based polymers such as soy polysaccharide, guar gum, modified starch, pectin, etc. [53]. As far as the properties of food emulsifier are concern, a good emulsifier should be low in molecular weight, capable to reduce the surface tension rapidly at interface, and should be soluble in continuous phase [54]. Research on food additives revealed the adverse effect of synthetic food additives on human being. Chassaing et al. found that polysorbate 80(P80) or carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) had adverse effects on gut microbiota and their continuous use triggered the weight gain and metabolic syndrome after 12 weeks of administration in mouse [55]. A recent research carried out on mice shows that regular use of P80 and CMC triggers low-grade intestinal inflammation which may ultimately lead to the development of colon cancer [56]. Therefore, safety issues with the synthetic food additives and consumer’s demand for all natural food ingredients have necessitated the use of plant-based emulsifiers and stabilizers in food.
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Pectin is a natural hydrocolloid which exhibits wide spectrum of functional properties. Because of the gelling ability of pectin, it is used as viscosity enhancer. During emulsification process, pectin molecules adsorb at the fine oil droplets from at O/W interface and protect the droplet from coalescing with adjacent drops (short-term stability). The quality of emulsifier is defined by its ability to provide long-term stability against flocculation and coalescence [27]. Figure 2 depicts the stages in long-term emulsion formation using pectin as emulgent. When the viscosity of the continuous phase is increased, the movements of oil droplets become restricted which improves the shelf life of emulsion [57]. In the past decade, some pectin has also been reported to exhibit surface active behavior in oil-water interface and thereby stabilizing the fine oil droplets in emulsion [42, 58]. These functions of pectin are determined by its source, structural modification during processing, distribution of functional groups in pectin backbone, and also by various extrinsic factors such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, cosolute concentration, etc. The emulsification or surface active properties of pectin, i.e., formation of fine oil droplets, are mainly contributed due to the high hydrophobicity of protein residue present in pectin [46, 59] and also by hydrophobic nature of acetyl, methyl, and feruloyl esters [42, 60], whereas emulsion-stabilizing ability is attributed to the carbohydrate moieties and their conformational features [61].
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Figure 2.
Emulsion formation and stabilization using polymer as emulgent.
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3.1 Mechanism of emulsion formation and stabilization
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The mechanism of emulsion formation is shown in Figure 3. Different models explain the emulsion formation as covalently bound protein moieties in pectin are adsorbed onto the oil-water interface [46], form anchor points at the interface, and reduce the interfacial tension while the charged carbohydrate units extend into the aqueous phase [62] and stabilize by steric and viscosity effects in the aqueous phase(Figure 3a). Now, it is a well-established fact that pectin from different source shows variability in structure and protein contents. Leroux et al. identified many anchor points in sugar beet pectin (SBP) molecules [46], and proposed a loop-and-tail model (Figure 3b). According to the authors, only a limited amount of protein is adsorbed at the oil surface and acts as main moiety in the stabilization of the emulsion. This model was further confirmed by Siew and others [62]. The study was carried out to measure the thickness of the adsorbed SBP on oil-water interface layer, proposed a multilayer adsorption model (Figure 3c). Electrostatic interactions between the positively charged protein moiety and the negatively charged carbohydrate moiety were also reported.
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Figure 3.
Different models showing pectin adsorption at oil/water interface during emulsion formation.
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Pectin O/W emulsion is generally stabilized through steric and electrostatic interaction. The carbohydrate moieties and neutral sugar side chains of RG I region of pectin confer the stability to the pectin emulsions through steric properties of the adsorbed polymers, when pectin is used as monoemulsifiers. In addition, pectin reversible association with galactan/arabinogalactan prior to emulsification also improves the emulsion stability [42, 63]. Electrostatic stabilization of emulsion is ascribed to sugar moieties and structural features of the HG units of pectin. If the pH of dispersion medium is above 3.5, nonmethylated carboxylic group of HG region gets ionized and confers charge on the pectin surface. Interaction of an ionic surfactant with oil droplets results in electrostatic stabilization [64]. Pectin viscosity also plays an important role in controlling the emulsion stability. HG region-rich pectin shows higher intrinsic viscosity ([η]); therefore, HG and RG ratio of pectin and molecular interactions that improve the intrinsic viscosity ([η]) of pectin solution also contributes in shelf life of emulsion [65, 66]. It has also observed that structural features of pectin such as pectin protein content, molecular mass, and presence of ferulic acid, and acetyl group in carbohydrate moieties of pectin also affect pectin’s emulsifying and emulsion stabilization properties [15]. Williams et al. showed that ferulic acid-rich pectin did not show significant difference in emulsifying ability of pectin when compared with pectin poor in ferulic acid [67]. Digestion of sugar beet pectin(SBP) with acidic proteases resulted in formation of larger size of oil droplet, lower creaming stability, and loss of emulsifying activity of SBP which confirms that protein contents of SBP play an important role in emulsifying ability of the polymer [42]. Nevertheless, in other research, it was also found that protein-rich fractions of SBP did not necessarily displayed better emulsifying ability; therefore, it was concluded that both protein with carbohydrate moiety together help in controlling emulsifying ability of SBP. Castellani et al. further suggest that both the carbohydrate and protein moieties function together as unit and affect the hydrophilic-hydrophobic equilibrium of the SBP molecule [68]. Therefore, when SBP is digested with proteases or other enzyme, a single moiety may function differently. Furthermore, it was also proposed that protein folding may also mask the hydrophobic effect of protein and thus affect the overall properties of the polymers [69].
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Molecular weight of pectin has also been reported to affect the emulsifying capacity of pectin. Pectin with low molecular weight was more efficient in stabilizing small emulsion droplets than high-molecular weight pectin. However, very small size of citrus pectin had negative effect on emulsion-stabilizing ability of pectin. It could be due to the poor steric stabilization of depolymerized polymer [59].
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3.2 Pectin-containing emulsion-based food
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Emulsion-based food products can be defined as a network of pectin-protein molecules entrapping the oil droplet in between. Nowadays, a large number of pectin- and polysaccharide-based emulsified low-fat dairy products, meat products, spreads or desserts, bakery products, sauces, etc., are available in market. Low-fat and low-cholesterol mayonnaise, low-fat cottage cheese, low-fat drinking yogurt, and flavored oil-containing acidified milk drinks are the few examples of pectin-based emulsified products. These products are prepared by replacing full-fat milk from skimmed milk, emulsified oil, and whey proteins [70, 71]. A low-fat cheese was prepared using skimmed milk and water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) emulsified canola oil. Different emulsifiers such as amidated low-methoxyl pectins (LMP), gum arabic (GA), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and combinations of GA-CMC or GA-LMP were used to stabilize the emulsion. Textural characteristics and sensory evaluation of low-fat cheese show that polymers used to stabilize the emulsion affected both microcrystalline structure and organoleptic properties. The cheese prepared using GA and LMP was almost similar in textural characteristics to the full-fat milk cheese [72]. In another study, Liu et al. compared the textural and structural features and sensory quality of full-fat and low-fat cheese analogs prepared with or without the incorporation of pectin [71]. Microstructure analysis using scanning electron microscopy revealed that full-fat cheese was denser and contained higher concentration of fat globules than low-fat cheese made with or without pectin. Comparison within the low-fat cheese analogs showed clear difference in their hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and adhesiveness. Addition of pectin had positive effect on textural and sensory attribute and scored better in mouthfeel also.
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Low-fat (Lf) mayonnaise was prepared by partial replacement of egg yolk and incorporation of pectin as emulsifier [73, 74]. Pectin weak gel, pectin microencapsulation, and whey protein isolate were used in preparation of low-fat (Lf) mayonnaise. Physicochemical and sensory properties of Lf mayonnaise were compared with full-fat (Ff) mayonnaise; Lf mayonnaise had low energy and more water contents than Ff. Textural features and rheological properties of the Lf and Ff mayonnaise were similar and both displayed thixotropic shear thinning behavior and categorized as weak gels. Moreover, Lf mayonnaise prepared using pectin had better acceptability than whey protein incorporation [75]. Emulsified oil is used as an effective delivery system of active compound in functional foods, and also serves as milk fat replacer in fat-free dairy products. To improve the nutritional value of food, low-fat dairy products are produced, whereas saturated milk fat is generally replaced with emulsified-unsaturated vegetable oils [76].
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In recent year, pectin in combination with inulin has been reported to prepare low-fat meat batter. Méndez-Zamora et al. studied the effect of substitution of animal fat with different formulations of pectin and inulin on chemical composition, textural, and sensory properties of frankfurter sausages [77]. Finding of the research showed that fracturability, gumminess, and chewiness of the low-fat sauces were slightly lower than those of the control. However, addition of 15% inulin improves the sensory properties. In a similar work, replacement of pork back fat with 15% pectin and 15% inulin was found effective in maintaining the physicochemical properties and emulsion stability of the low-fat meat batter [78].
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4. Pectin as gelling agent
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The use of pectin in food products as a gelling agent is a long tradition. Later on, it was discovered that pectin forms different types of viscoelastic solution under suitable conditions. This property of pectin is commercially exploited in preparation of jams, jellies, and marmalades. Rheological behaviors of pectin depend on pectin source, its degree of methylation, distribution of nonmethylated GalA unit on pectin backbone, and degree of acetylation, and also on various extrinsic factors such as temperature, pH, concentration, and presence of divalent ions. At a constant pH, the setting time of pectin increases with decreasing DM and degree of blockiness (DB) in the absence of bivalent ions [79]. Therefore, on the basis of gelling process, pectin is classified as rapid, medium, and slow set pectin [80].
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Gelling process of pectin and its stabilization follows different mechanisms for different types of pectin. HMP form gels in a narrow pH range (2.0–3.5) in the presence of sucrose at a concentration higher than 55% w/v in medium. During the gelatin process of HMP, junction zones are formed due to the cross-linking of two or more pectin molecules. These junctions are stabilized by weak molecular interaction such as hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds between polar and nonpolar methyl-esterified groups and require high sugar concentration and low pH [81]. These gels are thermally reversible. LMP can form gel over a wide pH range (2.0–6.0) independent of sucrose, but requires divalent ion, such as calcium [82, 83]. LMP follow the eggbox model for its gelation, where positively charged calcium ions (Ca2+) are entrapped in between the negatively charged carboxylic group of pectin. The zigzag network of Ca2+ ion and GalA molecules looks like eggbox, and therefore, model is named as eggbox model [80]. These gels are stabilized by electrostatic bonds. In the presence of Ca2+, calcium bridges are formed with pectin molecules that make the solution more viscous. At the higher pH, the ionic strength of the solution is increased and thus more Ca2+ is needed for gelation. In case of highly acetylated pectin such as sugar beet, acetyl groups cause steric hindrances and interfere with the Ca2+ ion and GalA bond formation, thus preventing gel formation. Kuuva et al. [84] reported that enzymatic modification in pectin structure, i.e., removal of acetyl groups using α-arabinofuranosidase (α-Afases) and acetyl esterase enzymes, can improve the gelling property of acetylated pectin.
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HMP are generally used in preparation of standard jams where sugar contents are above 55%, high-quality, tender confectionary jellies, fruit pastes, etc. LMP do not require sugar for its gelatin and therefore preferred choice for the production of low-calorie food products such as milk desserts, jams, jellies, and preserves, [28, 85]. LM pectins are more stable in low pH and high temperature conditions as compare to HM pectins and can be stored for more than a year.
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5. Pectin in food packaging
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Food packaging is one of the fastest growing segments of food industry. Traditionally, packaging system was limited to the containers and packaging material to transport the food items from manufacturer to the retail market and then to the consumers. Such type of packaging was unable to contribute in the extension of the shelf life and maintenance of the quality of the products. Due to the globalization of food market and increasing demand of shelf-stable processed food that retains the natural properties of food, the need of functional/active packaging material is increasing. To meet the industrial demand, a number of polymers are being synthesized and used in food packaging because of their flexibility, versatility, and cost effectiveness. Although, synthetic materials are able to fulfill all the industrial needs and keep food fresh and safe by protecting them from abiotic factors such as moisture, heat, oxygen, unpleasant odor, and biotic components such as micro- and macroorganisms. But, disposal of nonbiodegradable packaging material is a serious problem which poses a threat to the environment. Therefore, more research has been focused on the development of biodegradable packaging for food packaging applications using poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs), starch, etc. [86]. Among all the natural polymers, polysaccharides are gaining more attention as they are versatile in nature and easily available in relatively low cost.
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A variety of natural polysaccharides, such as pectin, chitosan derivatives, alginate, cellulose, seaweed extract, and starch are usually used in the preparation of edible films and coatings [87]. Pectin is one of the most significant renewable natural polymers which are the main component of all the biomass and ubiquitous in nature. Being flexible in nature, pectin and its derivatives are used in many biodegradable packaging materials that serve as moisture, oil, and aroma barrier, reduce respiration rate and oxidation of food [88]. Pectin along with food grade emulsifiers is also used in the preparation of edible films. These films are used in fresh and minimally processed, fruits and vegetables, foods and food products as pectin is the main component of the omnivorous diet and can be metabolized. Edible coating protects the nutritional properties of the food and also saves highly perishable food from the enzymatic browning, off-flavor development, aroma loss, retards lipid migration, and reduces pathogen attack during storage.
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At low pH, LM pectins are cross-linked with calcium cations and form hard gels. These gels have highly stable structure and act as water barriers. Because of these properties, LM pectin films are used as edible coatings [88, 89]. Extension of shelf life of avocado fruits was also reported to over a month at 10°C by using edible pectin films. It was found that when avocados were coated with edible pectin films and stored at 10°C, rate of oxygen absorption and rate of respiration decreased which results in delaying of texture and color change of fruits [90]. Oms-Oliu et al. used calcium chloride and sunflower oil cross-linked with LM pectin films onto fresh-cut melon to see the effect on extension of shelf life of cut fruits [91]. It was observed that edible pectin films maintained the initial firmness, decrease the wounding stress of fresh-cut fruits, and prevent the dehydration during storage up to 15 days at 4°C but could not reduce the microbial growth onto the fresh melon. It has been observed that to reduce the respiration rate and to prevent the off-flavor development, different pectin and emulsifier formations are required for different fruits. Edible coating film formulation consisted on pectin, sorbitol, and bee wax was successfully used by Moalemiyan et al. to keep the fresh-cut mangoes in original state for over 2 weeks [92]. Whereas in a similar study, pectin coating containing sucrose and calcium lactate was able to prevent the fruits’ respiration rate and maintain sensory properties in fresh melon fruits for up to 14 days storage at 5°C. In a similar study [93], pectin edible coating solution containing pectin (3%), glycerol (2.5%), polyvinyl alcohol (1.25%), and citric acid (1%) was prepared and applied on sapota fruits by dipping method and uncoated sapota fruits were used as control. Both the treated and control fruits were stored at 30 ± 3°C. Physicochemical parameters namely, weight, color, firmness, acidity, TSS, pH, and ascorbic acid contents of both the coated and control fruits were measured at regular interval up to 11th day of the storage at 30 ± 3°C. Reduced rate of change in weight loss and other parameters were reported in pectin-coated sapota as compared to control fruits and it was observed that pectin film formulation was able to maintain good quality attributes and extend the shelf life of pectin-coated sapota fruits up to 11 days of storage at room temperature, whereas control fruits were edible up to 6 days. Furthermore, it was also observed that sapota fruits dipped in sodium alginate containing 2% pectin solution for 2 min were more effective in maintaining the organoleptic properties up to 30 days of refrigerated storage as compared to sapota fruits dipped for 4 min and untreated sapota fruits [94]. Bayarri et al. developed antimicrobial films using lysozyme and LM pectin complex. The main purpose of the study was to control the release of lysozyme in packaged food and to target lysozyme-sensitive bacteria such as Bacillus and Clostridium. It was observed that in the presence of fungal pectinase, due to the dissociation of pectin linkage, lysozyme activity of films increased remarkably. Many food-contaminating bacteria are pectinase producing and such type of films may be used to control food contaminants. These results have opened new avenues for custom-made biodegradable film [95].
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In last few years, some researchers have focused on pectin-based coating containing edible essential to improve the antimicrobial properties and to enhance the efficiency of the pectin films. Edible coating formulation containing sodium alginate and pectin (PE) enriched with eugenol (Eug) and citral (Cit) essential oil at different concentrations was used to increase the shelf life of strawberries. Physical and organoleptic parameters of coated fruits stored at 10°C for 14 days show that formulation containing PE 2% + Eug 0.1%; PE 2% + Cit 0.15% was more suitable than sodium alginate-based formulations [96]. Pectin coating containing lemon and orange peel essential oils was reported to increase the shelf life and quality attributes of the strawberry fruits up to 12 days when stored at 5°C. It was also observed that fruits coated with pectin + 1% orange essence showed less weight loss and soluble solids as compare to their control during the storage [97]. Sanchís et al. studied the combined effect of edible pectin coating with active modified atmospheric packaging on fresh-cut “Rojo Brillante” persimmon. Persimmon fruit slices were coated by dipping in the pectin-based emulsion or in water as control. Both the treated and control slices were packed under 5 kPa O2 (MAP) or under ambient atmosphere for up to 9 days at 5°C. Various parameters, such as package gas composition, color and firmness of slice, polyphenol oxidase activity, were measured during storage. It was observed that edible coating along with MAP significantly reduced the CO2 emission and O2 consumption in the packaged fruits. Furthermore, coating was also effective in controlling microbial growth and reducing enzymatic browning and maintains good sensory parameters up to 10 days on storage [98].
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Drying is the traditional and oldest method of fruit and vegetable preservation. It decreases the enzymatic activity, reduces the moisture contents, and protects the food from microbial attack. However, drying results in loss of nutrients, vitamins, heat-labile enzymes, modifies the texture, color, and organoleptic quality of dried fruits and vegetables and therefore diminishes the market value also. Pretreatment of food products with pectin coatings containing other bioactive compound such as ascorbic acid, CaCl2, edible gum, etc., before drying or blanching has been proposed as an effective method to preserve the nutritional as well as organoleptic quality of dried food [99]. Recent researches have shown that application of pectin coating could protect the moisture and vitamin C loss in pretreated papaya slice and osmotic dehydrated pineapple. In one of the research [100], pineapple slice was pretreated with pectin coating formulation containing (50%)/calcium lactate (4%)/ascorbic acid (2%) solutions and then dried by hot-air-drying method. Physicochemical analysis of dried product showed less reduction in vitamin C contents as compared to untreated pineapple slice. In a similar work, pectin coating supplement with vitamin C (1%) was used for precoating of papaya slice. It was found that incorporation of vitamin C did not affect the drying process. However, significant increase in vitamin C content was observed in final product [101].
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Frying is a method of cooking that causes changes in chemical and physical parameters of food and enhances the taste. However, high temperature vaporizes the water of food and affects the nutritional properties due to protein denaturation and starch gelatinization. The oil uptake during frying is affected by various parameters such as type of oil used, frying temperature and duration, product moisture content, shape, porosity, prefrying treatment, etc. [102]. Surface area and pretreatment of products are the major factors that determine the oil absorbed. Edible coating has also been used successfully, to reduce the oil uptake during frying in various deep-fried products. Reduction in oil uptake and improvement of texture and quality of potato slices was reported by Daraei Garmakhany et al. in 2008. Authors found that coating of potato slices with pectin, guar, and CMC solutions can reduce the oil uptake when compared with nontreated potato chips [103]. Similar results were also obtained by Khalil, where a combination of pectin or sodium alginate with calcium chlorides significantly reduces the oil uptake of French fries. Coating formulation of 0.5% calcium chloride and 5% pectin was most effective in reducing the oil uptake [104]. Kizito et al. used different edible coatings (pectin, carboxy methyl cellulose, agar, and chitosan) at a concentration of 1–2% for pretreatment of potato chips, followed by deep frying of chips. Fried chips were analyzed biochemically and organoleptically to investigate the quality attributes of the products. It was revealed that all the coating polymers were successful in reducing the oil uptake but pectin was most effective and reduced oil uptake up to 12.93%, followed by CMC (11.71%), chitosan (8.28%), and agar (5.25%) and significantly improved moisture retention of strips (p < 0.05) [105].
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6. Conclusion
\n
The application of natural polymers in food industry is increasing day by day. Researchers are focusing more and more toward the pectin because of the ease-of-availability, structural flexibility, and versatile composition. Pectin can be sourced from a number of easily available horticulture crops (Table 1). Pectin is a hydrocolloid which is used as a food emulsifier, gelling agent, thickener, and stabilizer. It is the preferred choice of most of the food processors as fat or sugar replacer in low-calorie foods. In the recent years, increasing demand of ready-to-serve foods, fresh-cut fruits, and vegetable has opened a new market for edible films. Being biodegradable and recyclable, a lot of research is being done on pectin-based edible film formulations. These films reduce the exchange of moisture, gases, lipids, and volatiles between food and environment, and also serve as protective barrier for microorganisms.
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Even though a lot of information is available regarding pectin structure and many pectin-based products are available in market, role of many carbohydrate moieties and their effect on various function of pectin are not yet well defined. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the structural-function relationship of pectin and its interactions for developing functional food products.
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Acknowledgments
\n
The authors thank Director, CSIR-CFTRI for the encouragement.
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Conflict of interest
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The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n
\n',keywords:"pectin, pectin oligosaccharide, food emulsifier, edible films, functional food, food stabilizer, emulsified food",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65793.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65793.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65793",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65793",totalDownloads:1798,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:4,dateSubmitted:"October 31st 2018",dateReviewed:"December 20th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 22nd 2019",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Pectin is a branched heteropolysaccharide consisting of long-chain galacturonan segments and other neutral sugars such as rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, and xylose. It forms a matrix with celluloses and hemicelluloses and contributes to the cell structure. Due to the presence of several sugar moieties and different levels of methyl esterification, pectin does not have defined molecular weight like other polysaccharides. Pectin has wide applications. It is used as emulsifier, gelling agent, thickener, stabilizer, and fat or sugar replacer in low-calorie foods. Pectin and pectin-derived oligosaccharides can also be used as an important ingredient in functional foods. In recent past, a new application envisaged for pectin polymers as edible films or coating. These films act as natural barrier for exchange of moisture, gases, lipids, and volatiles between food and environment, and protect fruits and vegetable from microbial contamination. The degree of esterification of pectin and other structural modifications defines the functional properties. Herein, various functional properties of pectin in relation to food processing and packaging are discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65793",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65793",signatures:"Thiraviam Vanitha and Mahejibin Khan",book:{id:"8504",title:"Pectins",subtitle:"Extraction, Purification, Characterization and Applications",fullTitle:"Pectins - Extraction, Purification, Characterization and Applications",slug:"pectins-extraction-purification-characterization-and-applications",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Martin Masuelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8504.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99994",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:"Alberto",surname:"Masuelli",slug:"martin-masuelli",fullName:"Martin Masuelli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pectin structure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Pectin as food emulsifier",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Mechanism of emulsion formation and stabilization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Pectin-containing emulsion-based food",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Pectin as gelling agent",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Pectin in food packaging",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Talbott LD, Ray PM. Molecular size and separability features of pea cell wall polysaccharides. Plant Physiology. 1992;92:357-368. DOI: 10.1104/pp.98.1.357'},{id:"B2",body:'Khan M, Ekambaram N, Umesh-Kumar S. Potential application of pectinase in developing functional foods. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology. 2013;4:21-34. 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Fat reduction in the formulation of frankfurter sausages using inulin and pectin. Food Science and Technology (Campinas). 2015;35:25-31. DOI: 10.1590/1678-457X.6417'},{id:"B78",body:'Silva-Vazquez R, Flores-Giron E, Quintero-Ramos A, Hume ME, Mendez-Zamora G. Effect of inulin and pectin on physicochemical characteristics and emulsion stability of meat batters. Cyta – Journal of Food. 2018;16:306-310. DOI: 10.1080/19476337.2017.1403490'},{id:"B79",body:'Löfgren C, Guillotin S, Evenbratt H, Schols HA, Hermansson AM. Effects of calcium, pH, and blockiness on kinetic rheological behavior and microstructure of HM pectin gels. Biomacromolecules. 2005;6(2):646-652. DOI: 10.1021/bm049619+'},{id:"B80",body:'Williams PA. Renewable Resources for Functional Polymers and Biomaterials: Polysaccharides, Proteins and Polyesters. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry; 2011. DOI: 10.1039/9781849733519'},{id:"B81",body:'McClements DJ. Food Emulsions: Principles, Practice, and Techniques. 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Properties of lysozyme/low methoxyl (LM) pectin complexes for antimicrobial edible food packaging. Journal of Food Engineering. 2014;131:18-25. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.01.013'},{id:"B96",body:'Guerreiro AC, Gago CML, Faleiro ML, Miguel MGC, Antunes MDC. The use of polysaccharide-based edible coatings enriched with essential oils to improve shelf-life of strawberries. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2015;110:51-60. DOI: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2015.06.019'},{id:"B97",body:'Abdi S, Roein Z, Erfanimoghadam J, Aziznia S. Application of pectin coating containing essential oil for increasing quality of strawberry fruit. Journal of Postharvest Technology. 2017;5(4):83-94'},{id:"B98",body:'Sanchís E, Ghidelli C, Sheth CC, Mateos M, Palou L, Pérez-Gago MB. Integration of antimicrobial pectin-based edible coating and active modified atmosphere packaging to preserve the quality and microbial safety of fresh-cut persimmon (Diospyros kaki Thunb. cv. Rojo Brillante). 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DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1994.tb08132.x'},{id:"B103",body:'Daraei Garmakhany A, Mirzaei HO, Kashani Nejad M, Maghsudlo Y. Study of oil uptake and some quality attributes of potato chips affected by hydrocolloids. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2008;110:1045-1049. DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.200700255'},{id:"B104",body:'Khalil AH. Quality of french fried potatoes as influenced by coating with hydrocolloids. Food Chemistry. 1999;66:201-206. DOI: 10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00045-X'},{id:"B105",body:'Kizito KF, Abdel-Aal MH, Ragab MH, Youssef MM. Quality attributes of French fries as affected by different coatings, frozen storage and frying conditions. Journal of Agricultural Science and Botany. 2017;1(1):23-29'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Thiraviam Vanitha",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Fruits and Vegetable Technology, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, India
CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute-Resource Centre, India
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It runs an unpredictable course. Main reason of stress in vitiligo patients is the presence of two colors on the skin surface. The aim of the treatment is to achieve normal skin color. Depigmentation is considered when repigmentation is not possible or the patient is willing to accept that repigmentation is not possible and opt for irreversible depigmentation. The only agent approved for depigmentation is monobenzyl ether of hydroquinone or monobenzone for patients with more than 50% of body surface area affected with vitiligo. The scope of this chapter is to describe modality of depigmentation and its risks and benefits.",signatures:"Sanjeev Mulekar, Madhulika Mhatre and Swapnil Mulekar",authors:[{id:"36806",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjeev",surname:"Mulekar",fullName:"Sanjeev Mulekar",slug:"sanjeev-mulekar",email:"mulekar@gmail.com"},{id:"281813",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhulika",surname:"Mhatre",fullName:"Madhulika Mhatre",slug:"madhulika-mhatre",email:"dr.madhulika@hotmail.com"},{id:"288283",title:"MSc.",name:"Swapnil",surname:"Mulekar",fullName:"Swapnil Mulekar",slug:"swapnil-mulekar",email:"smulekar@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Depigmentation",slug:"depigmentation",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/48837/images/system/48837.png",biography:'CURRICULUM VITAE PROFESSOR DR. PANAGIOTIS TSIKOURAS OBSTETRICIAN-GYNECOLOGIST\nDEMOCRITUS UNIVERSITY OF THRACE ,GREECE\n\nI was born in Didymoteicho on June 2-6, 1962.\nI am married with two children, one son and one daughter.\nI speak fluently German and English language. I graduated from the 1st High School of Didymoteicho in 1980.In the same year, after successfully passing the Hellenic entrance exams, I enrolled in the Department of Economics of the Aristotle University inThessaloniki.1980-1981 German Language Preparation at the following Schools berlitz schule in Freiburg Germany, neue sprachschule in Freiburg Germany, goethe institut Freiburg Germany Vorkurs University Heidelberg.During the period 1981-1982 preparation for University in a German University at Studienkolleg University of Heidelberg.\n Enrollment in medical university of Freiburg October 1982 after successful exams at Freiburg University School of Medicine in Germany.\nIn November 1988, after 6 years of study, I received my Bachelor of Medicine degree.\n I completed my Phd and received the diploma of thesis in Freiburg University School of Medicine on November 9, 1989 with a degree of (very good) cum laude. \n From December 1988 to December 1989 I worked as a specialized physician in Radiological and Nuclear Medicine at the Freiburg Diakonie-Karlsruhe-Germany University Hospital \n From 01.01.1990 to 31.03.1993 I worked as a specialized physician in Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University Obstetrics-Gynecology Clinic of the University of Göttingen From 01.04.1993 to 01.02.1995 completing my specialty in Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University Midwifery-Gynecology Clinic of Aschaffenburg-Würzburg University Hospital. On 22 February 1995, after successful exams, I received the title of Special Obstetrician-Gynecologist. Munich - Professor DR.kröner\n During the period 22/02/1995 - 30/08/1995 after receiving my specialty I worked as (Consultant in the Obstetrics-Gynecology Clinic of the University Hospital of Aschaffenburg-Würzburg, Germany.\nDuring this time, along with my basic clinical service, I worked with rotation in the Departments-Laboratories: Gynecologic Oncology-Andrology-Gynecological Urology-Mastology and Doppler-Ultrasound \nI served in the military service from September 1996 to September 1997 in the Air Force.From 30.10.1995 to 30-12-1995 I served as a specialized assistant in the Gynecological Clinic of 251 GN. Aviation.\nAlso, during my military service I volunteered \n(01-01-1996 to 27-08-1996) for the Midwifery-Gynecological Clinic of Didymoteich Hospital as a specialized external physician.\nFrom 27-09-1996 to 16.11.1999 I worked first as a medical doctor at the Rural medical health center Soufli and then as Consultant at the department of obstetrics and gynecology of DUTH Clinic. \nI have participated as a Surgeon and as an assistant in a large number of Obstetric and Gynecological surgeries, I also train in Obstetrics and Surgery Gynecology Consultant doctor in the department of Obstetrics-Gynecology Clinic of DUTH and participated in the education of 5 and 6 year medical students.From 07-07-1997 to 16.11.1999 I was the Head of the department of the Family Planning Center of the DUTH \nOn 16th-11th-1999 (an Lecturer in Obstetrics-Gynecology at the School of Medicine of the DUTH From 17.11.1999 to 2003 I worked as a Lecturer in Obstetrics-Gynecology Clinic of DUTH. \nOn the 16th-12th, 2003 I became Assistant Professor of Obstetrics-Gynecology at the School of Medicine of the DUTH after positive election of all univerity members From 24.06.2004 to 18.03.2008 I worked as an Assistant Professor at Obstetrics - Gynecology Clinic of DUTHFrom 01-5th 2006 until 31-10th 2006 I subspecialized at the University of Würzburg Medical School (Klinikum Aschaffenburg-Akademisches Lehrkrankehaus der Universität Würzburg) in the subjects of Rectal Minor Pelvic Surgery-Breast Surgery and Gynecologic Surgery as well as in Gynecology approach and treatment of climacteric and menopausal disorders with active participation in research protocols of the above clinic.On 19-3-2008, I became an Assistant Professor of Obstetrics-Gynecology at the School of Medicine of the DUTH. after positive election of all univerity membersFrom 19-3rd 2008. Until 29.04.2013 I worked as an Assistant Professor in Obstetrics-Gynecology Clinic of DUTH. From 01-8th 2011 to 31-01-2012 Clinikum Aschaffenburg-Teaching Hospital at the University of Würzburg Medical School and I subspecialized for a second time in the subjects of Minor Pelvic Risk Surgery and Active Breast Surgery as well as in Pediatric Surgery research protocols of the above clinic.From 30.04.2013 I became Associate Professor of Obstetrics-Gynecology at the School of Medicine of DUTH after positive election of all Univerity members and I have been working till now as an Associate Professor of Obstetrics-GynecologyFrom 22.02.2019 I became Professor of Obstetrics-Gynecology at the School of Medicine of DUTH after positive election of all univerity members\n My Clinical and Surgical activity covers the entire spectrum of Obstetrics-Gynecology (Perinatal-Fetal Medicine, Surgical Gynecology, Breast Surgery, Gynecological Oncology and Gynecological Endoscopy).\nI have been in charge of the Departments of Obstetrics, Outpatient Medicine,Participation in Obstetrics Gynecology courses\nManosmed University (Mastology association of northen and southern\nMediterranean mobile university of mastology) Academic year 2017-2018\n\nRESEARCH - COPYRIGHT ACTIVITY\nDoctoral Thesis on "Verbesserung der aussagekraft der enzymdiagnostik be lebererkrankungen mit hilfe der 5 - nucleotidase und glutamatdehydrogenase"\nParticipation in European research on the position of modern Greek women and, consequently, European contraception.\nParticipation in research concerning The role of inflammatory cytokines and fibronectin in vaginal and cervical secretions \nParticipation in a multicenter research program by the Greek Obstetrics and Gynecology Society to conduct Pan-Hellenic Caesarean section research to record data regarding this intervention.\nParticipation in EurOSA ,HRT role in pre-and postmenopausal women\nParticipation in a research program at the University of Würzburg Medical School, Aschaffenburg University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, on "Techniques for cleaning lymph nodes in gynecological cancer surgery". Participation in a research program at the Aschaffenburg University Hospital Medical School, University of Würzburg Medical School, entitled "Methods and complications in the application of remedial techniques to surgical patients".\nInternational and Greek Conferences as well as Publications in valid International and Greek \nScientific Journals.\n\n5 CHAPTERS IN GREEK BOOKS \n14 CHAPTERS IN INTERNATIONAL BOOKS \nWriting a monograph for the needs of the chosen course entitled "Child Adolescent Gynecology" Writing a monograph "Pregnancy in rheumatic diseases". \n220 presentations (oral or poster) in international congresses and \n200 presentations (oral or poster) in national congresses\nINTERNATIONAL PUBLICATIONS \nResearch Gate Library 222 Publications, \nScopus Research Library 146 Publications \nPubmed Research Library 129 Publications\nConference papers: 12 Papers\nReviewer in international journals 4000 Papers',institutionString:"Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini",institution:null},{id:"229224",title:"Ms.",name:"Theodora",surname:"Deftereou",slug:"theodora-deftereou",fullName:"Theodora Deftereou",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"229225",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Chalkidou",slug:"anna-chalkidou",fullName:"Anna Chalkidou",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"229226",title:"Ms.",name:"Xanthoula",surname:"Anthoulaki",slug:"xanthoula-anthoulaki",fullName:"Xanthoula Anthoulaki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"229230",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefanos",surname:"Zervoudis",slug:"stefanos-zervoudis",fullName:"Stefanos Zervoudis",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"229232",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Iatrakis",slug:"georgios-iatrakis",fullName:"Georgios Iatrakis",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"229233",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Galazios",slug:"georgios-galazios",fullName:"Georgios Galazios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"282011",title:"Dr.",name:"Fotis",surname:"Gasparos",slug:"fotis-gasparos",fullName:"Fotis Gasparos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"282012",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgia",surname:"Saradi",slug:"georgia-saradi",fullName:"Georgia Saradi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"282013",title:"Mrs.",name:"Anastasia",surname:"Bothou",slug:"anastasia-bothou",fullName:"Anastasia Bothou",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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