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",isbn:"978-1-83962-547-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-546-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-548-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e5ba02fedd7c87f0ab66414f3b07de0c",bookSignature:" John P. Tiefenbacher",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10765.jpg",keywords:"Managing Urbanization, Managing Development, Managing Resource Use, Drought Management, Flood Management, Water Quality Monitoring, Air Quality Monitoring, Ecological Monitoring, Modeling Extreme Natural Events, Ecological Restoration, Restoring Environmental Flows, Environmental Management Perspectives",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 12th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 28th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"17 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A geospatial scholar working at the interface of natural and human systems, collaborating internationally on innovative studies about hazards and environmental challenges. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published more than 200 papers on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73876/images/system/73876.jfif",biography:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher (Ph.D., Rutgers, 1992) is a professor of Geography at Texas State University. His research has focused on various aspects of hazards and environmental management. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine. More recently his work pertains to spatial adaptation to climate change, spatial responses in wine growing regions to climate change, the geographies of viticulture and wine, artificial intelligence and machine learning to predict patterns of natural processes and hazards, historical ethnic enclaves in American cities and regions, and environmental adaptations of 19th century European immigrants to North America's landscapes.",institutionString:"Texas State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Texas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The potential petroleum resources gradually decline, while global oil consumption continues to increase. Traditional Automobiles have to face an unprecedented impact and challenges. On the other hand, with the traditional automobile production sharply increasing, environmental impact becomes more apparent. The emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases and global warming [1] come into our view. Alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) are gradually becoming an inevitable choice for all countries to innovate the automobile industry. For instance, in the United States, the sales volume of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is expected to account for 12% of that of all registered vehicles in 2025. As an energy-efficient, low-carbon and environment friendly traffic tool, AFVs are expected to become increasingly popular in the future.
Most national research institutions and automobile manufacturers have increased R&D investment in the AFV technology to replace traditional vehicles, forming the trend of different technologies developed in parallel. Some of the technologies have achieved significant success in commercial fields [2], [3]. In the United States, Germany, and Japan, GM, Ford, Volkswagen, BMW, Toyota, Honda, and other major automobile manufacturers have adopted different new technology development strategies, based on the situation of the nation and the company, and successfully developed a number of concept AFVs and utility vehicles. AFVs are usually classified into hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), electric vehicles (EVs), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs).
Some countries, e.g., Japan, have been committed to the hybrid vehicles and have developed a lot of well-known models, e.g., the Toyota “Prius.” Some other countries, e.g., Germany, have unique technology in the pure electric vehicles, fuel cell electric vehicles, and so on. BMW i3 with carbon fiber body is the lightest electric car on the market.
The world’s major automobile production countries have policies to promote the development of AFVs to cope with difficulties and opportunities. By 2015, the United States raised the goal to one million plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Tax incentives have been implemented. The EU will issue €7 billion loan to support energy-efficient vehicles. The German government raised million BEV and PHEV goals by 2020. Japan in 2009 proposed a “carbon revolution” program, in which development of electric vehicles is one of the core. In China, basic research and the establishment of public service platform are listed as the focus of development. “Three vertical and three horizontal” development layout is presented to promote the AFV industries.
AFV electric drive systems include the energy storage systems (battery and/or ultracapacitor), electronic controller, power converters, motors, and so on. The electronic controller is divided into three functional units: sensors, circuits, and processors. In driving and regenerative processes, the energy flow between the energy source and the motor is adjusted by the power converter.
The electric drive system itself as a whole is closely linked with the energy subsystem, which is the core technology of electric vehicles. The main function of electric drive system is to transfer energy from storage system to wheels, which is used for overcoming rolling resistance, air resistance, acceleration resistance, and climbing resistance. When braking, the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy back to the energy storage system. AFVs can choose single or dual motor drives. AFVs can also employ in-wheel motors. Now, low-power electric vehicles on the market almost all employ single-motor power systems with simple structure. However, high-power electric vehicles such as electric buses generally use dual motor powered system. AC drives can be divided into induction motor drive system and synchronous motor drive system. Synchronous motor drive systems can be classified as permanent magnet synchronous motor drive system (PMSM Drives) and switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive system. Currently, the commercial application of power systems for electric vehicles is divided into three categories: the DC motor drive system, induction motor drive system, and permanent magnet synchronous motor drive system. Representative products include “Peugeot 106 EV” (DC motor), “General EVI” (induction motor), and “Honda EV Plus” (permanent magnet synchronous motor), respectively. With the development of power electronics, micro-electronics, and control technology, the digital AC drive systems (IM Drives and PMSM Drives) are widely applied in commercial AFVs.
A 3-phase 4-pole induction motor and an electronics module with 72 IGBTs are adopted by the famous electric car Tesla Model S. The efficiency of the battery pack, power electronics modules, and motor system can reach 85–95%. It weighs only 70 pounds, can generate large torque at very low speed, and the max motor speed could be 13,000 rpm, which cannot be done by the internal combustion engine.
At present, there are still disadvantages in the electric drive system. First, the long charging times, which usually exceed 30 minutes [4] for a full charge, as well as the range limitation of EVs due to the available battery technologies, are still challenging problems.
Short driving distance, greatly limits the application and development of electric vehicles. In electric vehicles, the power supply did no progress a lot. Effective use of the vehicle power supply energy is an urgent problem. Torque of the drive motor, speed control accuracy, and efficiency optimization requires improvement over the entire range.
The motor runs under bad conditions, e.g., the vehicle engine vibration and high-temperature environment. Therefore, the motor must be adapted to environmental conditions: reliable, stable, and safe operation. Due to space limitations, high-density, compact, and lightweight motors are in need.
The objectives of this chapter are to analyse some new electric drive design requirements raised by dynamic driving cycles of AFVs; to introduce some novel ideas about integration modeling from the energy storage system (ESS) to motor and power electronic device design for ESS lifetime extension and to delineate a few latest control strategies of AFV traction motors related to sensorless drives and flux weakening control. The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the basic concepts of structure and main components of electric drives in AFVs. Integration of modeling and novel design of the DC active power filter for ESS lifetime extension are given in section 3. In section 4, advanced motor control strategies with respect to sensorless drives and flux-weakening regions are explained. Finally conclusions of this chapter are drawn in section 5.
During the AFV running, the load profile consists of high current peaks and steep valleys due to the repetitive starting, acceleration, and braking in the urban driving cycle. Thus, the battery alone faces several challenges: 1) huge addition to the battery numbers to meet the peak power demand; 2) severe adverse effect on battery life because of frequent charge or discharge operations; 3) extra difficulty on battery thermal management in high-power-load situation [5].
The ultracapacitor has much higher power density, longer cycle life, lower temperature sensitivity, higher efficiencies, but lower energy density, which makes it an attractive pairing for batteries [6], [7].
The configuration of hybrid energy storage system(HESS)-based electric vehicle
The topology of hybrid energy storage system is shown in Figure 1. Ultracapacitor and DC/DC converter are in series connection, with battery parallelly connected to the DC bus [8].
Hori [9], [10] adopted a heuristic control approach based on vehicle speed by taking into account ultracapacitors’ energy utilization efficiency. Wang and Deng, et al. [8] adopted an optimization method for power distribution with the objective of minimum battery energy loss as the optimization goal. Ortuzar and Moreno [11] adopted heuristic algorithm based on two main rules and optimized algorithm obtained from a neural network as the energy management algorithms, respectively.
In a series HEV (SHEV), the internal combustion engine (ICE) is the main power source that converts the original energy in gasoline to mechanical power. The electric motor is actuated by the electricity generated by the generator or electricity stored in the battery, or both. The vehicle speed does not affect the engine speed because the engine and the wheels are decoupled. Thus, the engine can operate at its optimum speed to achieve the best fuel economy and be placed more flexibly.
A parallel hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) adds a mechanical link (such as a clutch, belts, pulleys, and gears) between the engine and the final drive, so the engine can drive the wheels directly. The mechanical coupling adjusts the torque from the engine and the motor depending on the operation mode. The parallel hybrid electric vehicle has two propulsion devices, which can be used in motor-alone mode, combined power mode, engine-alone mode, power split mode, stationary charging mode, regenerative braking mode.
The series–parallel HEV can be operated as a series or parallel HEV. In comparison to a series HEV, the engine is coupled to the final drive through a mechanism, so the engine can deliver power to the final drive directly. In comparison to a parallel HEV, the extra mechanical output of the engine can be converted to electricity directly using the generator. The more complicated configuration brings out more flexible control strategy, better optimization of fuel economy and driveability, as well as higher cost.
The fuel cell powered hybrid drive train [12], [13] mainly contains a fuel cell system, a proton power system (PPS), an electric motor and accordingly motor control unit (MCU), a vehicle control unit (VCU), and a power converter between the fuel cell stack and the proton power system. After the accelerator, the braking pedal or other operating signals provide the power or torque command, the motor output power or torque is controlled by the VCU, as well as the energy flows between the fuel cell stack, the proton power system, and the drive train.
Among different types of electric drives, there are four major types of motors that are viable for EVs: DC motors, induction motors, switched reluctance motor, and permanent magnet brushless motor. They possess fundamentally different machine topologies. Basically, they are classified into two main groups, the brushed and the brushless, and each group can be further classified into different subgroups.
DC Motors are widely applied in EVs, because of the orthogonal disposition of field and armature. Simple control is the advantage of DC Motors. The permanent magnet DC Motors allow a significant reduction due to the efficient use of radial space. Due to the low permeability of the permanent magnet DC Motors, armature reaction decreases under normal circumstances, the commutation has been greatly improved. However, their commutator and brushes make operation not very reliable and maintenance is difficult.
Induction motors as a brushless drive are widely used for electric vehicles, because of their low cost, high reliability, and easy maintenance. However, the induction motor performance is quite limited, such as the variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) control. The main reason is due to the dynamic model of the nonlinearities. Recently, the induction motor has seen a greater progress in the design method, and the power density is increased. On the other hand, efficiency-optimizing-control (EOC) approaches have been developed for the EV induction drives, which can reduce the consumed energy and increase the regenerative energy. Moreover, the program of changing the pole pair number has been developed to significantly extend the constant power region.
SRMs with simple structure have been recognized as potential traction motors for EVs [14], low manufacturing cost, and outstanding torque speed characteristics. However, design and control are difficult and, in addition, acoustic-noise is still a problem. Now, fuzzy sliding mode control has been developed for the control of nonlinear systems and minimization of chattering. In addition, vibration cancellation technique for the SRM has been proposed to reduce the vibration mode and acoustic noise.
Permanent magnet brushless motors (PMBLMs) are becoming increasingly attractive and can directly compete with the induction drives for EVs. The permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) and brushless DC motor (BLDCM) are two main representatives. The advantages of PMBLMs are high efficiency, high power density, and high reliability. The key problem is the high cost due to PM materials. In recent years, the new class of PMBLMs has applied hybrid field excitations.
An integral part of the electric vehicle comprises DC-AC inverters and DC-DC converters, used as an application for EV and HEV motor drives.
Owing to the advent of intelligent vehicle systems, the demand of DC power for automotive electronic equipment is continuously increasing. A DC-DC converter possesses the function of converting the input DC voltage to another output DC voltage with different levels. A high conversion efficiency can be usually guaranteed [15]. Normally, DC-DC converters are switching regulators with operations at high frequency. MOSFETs and IGBTs are used as switches. The size of the MOSFETs or IGBTs is drastically reduced at high-frequency operation. The switches are turned ON and OFF by pulse-width modulation (PWM) technique.
The applications of DC-DC converters have been implemented in AFVs. Bidirectional DC-DC converters are applied for battery charging, regenerative braking, and backup power. Unidirectional DC-DC converters are also used in DC motor drives and electric traction.
A bidirectional DC-DC converter as seen in Figure 2 can be divided into three main blocks. The primary side (low-voltage side) usually consists of a buck or boost-type converter and the secondary side is usually half or full-bridge arrangement.
Full-bridge bidirectional DC-DC converter
The DC–AC converter (inverter) has been the main choice in power electronics, because of its circuit simplicity and rugged control scheme. In order to expand the motor speed and torque region, usually high modulated frequency and high output current are permitted for the motor controlled by the inverter for AFV applications. Inverters improve the voltage utilization, reduce current harmonic contents, and create modulated sinusoidal voltage by sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) or space vector PWM (SVPWM) control methods. Three-phase two-level inverter, known as six switches inverter, shown in Figure 3, is widely used. This topology has the merits of low cost, easy control, and high reliability.
A common inverter topology
Converters can be classified into two main categories: hard-switched and soft-switched for DC-DC converters and inverters. Soft-switching is a technology in which zero-voltage switching (ZVS) and/or zero-current switching (ZCS) of the switches are achieved mostly using the parasitic and/or additional components. Soft-switching reduces switching stresses (high voltage and current peaks) on the power devices during the turn-on and turn-off transients, which results in oversizing the safe operating area (SOA). Switching losses decrease for overlap size reduction of voltage and current. Severe di/dt and dv/dt, which produce electromagnetic interference (EMI), are also limited effectively [16].
For the driving system, the high-power converter module is used. Converters control the high electric power. Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are used in the high-power modules as the switching devices. Other power electronics modules control the middle and low power, in which metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) are used as the switching devices. The majority of devices used in power electronics are enhancement transistors, respectively, n-channel-enhancement power MOSFETs and IGBTs [17].
The main problem of the high-power modules is high electric power loss, which requires the liquid cooling system. For the future, power switching devices, very low on-resistance, and high-temperature operation are expected to simplify the cooling system of the converter. Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Nitride (GaN) devices are possible candidates. For the middle- and low-power modules, lower breakdown voltage is required. For these applications, high-frequency operation is expected, which leads to small capacitors and reactors.
The motor control unit (MCU) has main components:Electronic controller
The electronic controller consists of hardware circuit and control software. The hardware circuit mainly contains microprocessor and its minimum system, the detection circuit of motor current, voltage, speed, temperature, all kinds of hardware protection circuit, and the communication circuit (CAN Bus) with the external control unit like the vehicle controller and battery management system to exchange data. The control software realizes corresponding control algorithm depending on different types of motors. For instance, the strategies of flux weakening control, id=0 control and MTPA control are widely used in PMSM control software.
Driver
It converts the motor control signal which comes from microcontroller to PWM signal, which drives the power converter and implements the isolation of power signal and control signal.
Power converter
The power converter controls the motor current. The power devices that are widely used in electric vehicles contain the gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO), MOSFET, IGBT, and smart power module, etc.
During the development process, several key technologies have to be analyzed, such as the design of power circuits, heat sink, and the control strategies development as well as kinds of hardware and software protection functions.
In the past decade, plenty of literature has focused on the operation performance, parameter optimization, and control strategies of components in AFV electric drives. These researchers mostly use DC power supplies or electronic loads to simulate input/output characteristics of components, and meanwhile realistic influence between components (e.g., battery and traction motor) is seldom considered. To the author’s best knowledge, there are no publications that regard the electric drive system as a whole for the systematic research on multidomain (dynamics, electromagnetics, electrochemistry, etc.) coupling mechanism.
The electric motors are required to operate in complicated conditions of frequent start/stop and acceleration/deceleration. High torque is needed at low speeds or when running uphill, while low torque is needed at high speeds. In the meantime, speed adjusting range should be very wide. This is significantly different from the industry applications where usually rated conditions are assigned to the electric motors. Therefore, the transient performance requirements for the AFV electric motors are very high and, further, are transferred to high transient requirements on the ESS through three-phase inverter. Additionally, the switching frequency of switching devices (e.g., IGBT) is high up to several or tens of kHz, the switching commutation time is extremely short, and the disturbance currents including diode recovery current exist, so the uncertain high-frequency transient chaotic currents should be produced across the ESS. The phenomenon will do harm to the stability and even lifetime of the ESS. Detailed descriptions can be found in section 3.2.1.
On the other hand, the ESS (battery for specific) AC impedance (including ohmic resistance, polarization resistance, capacitive reactance, Warburg impedance, and so on) characteristics will have impact on the transient performance of traction motors. The AC impedance characteristics of the battery determine the battery output power capability (supposing the electrochemical potential is a constant) and further influence the transient output power capability of the traction motor via the inverter. Consequently, the motor transient performance could be somehow restricted.
Thus, this section is aimed at importing new definitions of electric drive unified mathematical expressions for systematic exploration of transient multidomain coupling mechanism from dynamics-electromagnetics-electrochemistry based on the ESS, traction motor, inverter, and DC-DC converter in the AFV electric drive system. Multiple subjects could be melted including energy storage, electric machine, and power electronics. The entire electric drive can be regarded as a whole without separating relationships between components, and a unified and general mathematic expression is capable of identifying specific numeric relations between transient requirements and parameters of components. In addition, the systematic-, circuit-, and component-class parameter optimization aimed at efficiency improvement in electric drives of alternative fuel vehicles could be achieved.
Circuit topology of the electric drive system
Considering comprehensiveness, an ESS including a battery and ultracapacitor is studied. The electric drive with only the battery is analyzed similarly and more easily. The circuit topology of the studied electric drive system in AFV is shown in Figure 4. The EV traction motor is a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) and the three-phase inverter is comprised of six IGBTs. The UC and battery are connected to the low-voltage (LV) and high-voltage (HV) sides respectively of the bidirectional DC-DC converter, which is constructed in a half-bridge topology.
Individual transient mathematical models (including the PMSM, inverter, DC-DC converter, ultracapacitor, and lithium-ion battery) of all components are built first. For instance, the switching state function is introduced to set up a nonlinear model of the inverter and then it is transferred to a linear model with help of the large-signal disturbance method. The lithium-ion battery is modeled using the scheme combining with the equivalent circuit and electrochemical factor-assisted electrical parameter adaptive-adjusting.
The speed ω and torque T of the traction motor are chosen as unified inputs for the integrated systematic model. The individual model is transformed into expressions by ω(t) and T(t). Thus, the multidomain models are related to each other using the unified inputs.
The important variables in all individual models can be finally expressed by ω(s) and T(s), where s is a Laplace operator. The time-domain mathematical descriptions for these variables could also be acquired using combination of inverse Laplace transformation and some additional mathematical methods (e.g., residues method). Therefore, the multidomain coupling transient model for the AFV electric drives can be derived and complete frequency- and time-domain expressions of all variables as well.
The output A-phase voltage of the inverter can be expressed as its Fourier series expansions, as follows:
where
Regardless of the unbalanced currents problem, the nonsinusoidal phase currents can be depicted as follows:
The DC bus current can be considered as sum of currents through three bridges in the inverter. Meanwhile, one bridge’s contribution is composed of the currents from upper and lower branches. Consequently, the DC bus current is obtained as:
where the subscript 1 represents the upper branch, and 2 represents the lower branch.
As an instance, the upper and lower currents for the Phase-A bridge are described as:
where the coefficients are
Substituting equation (4) and similar expressions for the other two phases into (3), the DC bus current can be obtained in the form of Fourier series as:
Finally, after combining similar terms and sequent calculation, the DC bus current expression is simplified to:
The operation principle of the proposed DC active power filter (APF) is delineated in Figure 5. The motor controller calculates the synchronous electrical angle and synchronous frequency of phase currents after acquiring rotor position and current/voltage signals. Thus, the fundamental frequency and the fundamental phase for the Fourier Transform of the DC bus current are determined with respect to the theoretical analysis in section 3.2.1. It has to be noted that every Fourier Transform decomposition period could give its information to the current allocation of the next period. So it is available to be predicted that the resulted low-frequency components (closely related to the PMSM speed) cannot change in such a short time. The high-frequency components are derived from the difference of the real-time samplings of the DC bus current and low-frequency components calculated in the previous processing period.
Operation principle of the proposed APF strategy with help of motor information.
In the peak power demand process (e.g., acceleration, uphill), the UC is commanded as a large power provider. Thus, the low-frequency components from the DC bus current should be shared reasonably by the UC and battery considering their respective power density. In this paper, the current directly from the UC is considered as a control variable; thereafter, the output current reference
The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT) are expressed as the following two equations, respectively:
In order to speed up the computation, the normal FFT is used. The FFT calculation is finally transformed to only two computations by using the following expressions:
where
To minimize the side lobes, the Blackman-Harris Window as a generalization of the Hamming family, is given by:
Therefore, the improved FFT expression with the Blackman-Harris Window can be shown as follows based on equations (9) and (10):
With use of the improved FFT, the high-frequency and low-frequency components can be decomposed from the load demand, for the power distribution to UC and battery, as shown in Figure 5.
The concept of vector control was first proposed by Siemens’ F. Blaschke in the early 1970s, which is also named as field-oriented control (FOC). In this method, the stator current of a three-phase AC motor is transformed into two orthogonal components [18]. One component can control the magnetic flux; the other can control the torque.
In a typical FOC block diagram for a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), the control system first transforms the command speed or torque into the corresponding current command
For the FOC system, the most important thing is to realize the Clarke and Park transformation. It is these transformations that connect the three-phase coordinate system to the
FOC is used to control the AC synchronous and induction motors by transforming their dynamic structure into that of DC machines. Unfortunately, the scheme requires many electronic components such as sensors, amplifiers, or multipliers which increase the cost and more calculations are needed to realize the control strategy. This situation is changed due to the availability of microelectronics, with the cost of control hardware being no longer a major consideration [19].
Direct torque control (DTC) is a method that controls the torque (and thus finally the speed) of three-phase AC electric motors. The key point of this control is to select stator voltage vectors according to the differences between the references of torque and stator flux linkage and their actual values estimated on basis of the measured voltage and current of the motor [20], [21].
In a PMSM drive with DTC, the
Without the current controller followed by a pulse-width modulation (PWM) comparator, and not using the parameters of the motor, except the stator resistance, the DTC owns the advantages of less parameter dependence and fast torque response when compared with the torque control via PWM current control. But torque and flux linkage ripples are always the main disadvantage of the DTC.
Due to the characteristic of getting rid of sensors and reduction of cost and systematic complexity, the sensorless drives for AFV motors have attracted great interest of the auto industry. In a sensorless drive, the motor speed could be accurately estimated through some sophisticated observer and some other electrical parameters (currents, voltages, or flux) as well. Sliding mode control has been widely used for motor control systems because of its insensitive characteristics to disturbances of motor parameters. With the same property, sliding mode observers (SMOs) have been adopted by researchers and the industry in the last decade applied to the motor drives for precise estimation of speed and flux. It is more robust to the operating conditions and systematic uncertainties. However, it has to be noted that imperfect implementation of the switching leads to chattering, which is a major drawback of SMO. Thus the following section will introduce a new fixed-boundary-layer sliding mode observer for AFV motor drives, considering reduction of chattering and guaranteeing estimation precision in a wide speed range.
The induction motor is studied as an example for the explanation of the proposed sliding mode observer. Its mathematical model could be described in the rotating d-q frame [22] as follows.
Let
In this study, the three-phase stator currents are the only required measures, and these are transformed from the three-phase reference frame to a diphasic reference frame, and then to the frame of the rotating field (d-q) as follows:
where
Assume that system (13) has the outputs
where
The coefficients
Then, the theorem that the sliding mode observer can exponentially converge will be proved. Assume that the observation error of
To prove the convergence of
and the differential of the Lyapunov function can be delineated as:
Consequently,
We set
A Lyapunov function
given
Therefore, the convergence of
As mentioned above, both
The reference, experimental, and estimated values of rotor speed of the electric motor are compared in Figure 6. To test the robustness of the observer, +100% resistance change is considered and the -50% load torque and +100% stator leakage inductance changes as well. We can see that the actual speed tracks the reference trajectory well using the proposed controller, and no distinct speed differences between estimation and measurement occurred. Because of small inaccuracy due to the current harmonics, differences between the estimated and measured speed at low speeds seem a little bit bigger than those at high speeds. However, the situation is also acceptable in real operation.
Comparison between references and estimated speeds using FBLSM observer
Rotor flux comparison is also studied, given the flux reference. Unlike the rotor speed results, estimated rotor flux is not precisely approaching the reference (see Figure 7), which is however close to actual results. The “actual value” shown in Figure 7 for comparison is obtained from normal flux calculation method through measured voltages and currents and could be considered as actual flux due to proof of incomputable applications. It is clear that the estimated flux with +200% resistance, 50% load torque, or +200% stator leakage inductance is not influenced by these disturbances dramatically.
Comparison between references and estimated rotor flux using FBLSM observer
In AFVs, the traction motor has a very wide speed range, which needs flux-weakening control strategy to make the motor work at high speeds.
Figure 8 illustrates the characteristics of a permanent magnet synchronous motor used in AFVs. All the operation ranges can be divided into three parts: constant torque, constant power, and high-speed region. When the rated speed is not reached, the PMSM works in the constant-torque region, exerting a constant torque (rated torque). Once the speed reaches the rated motor speed, the torque begins to drop proportionally compared with speed, leading to a constant output power. The constant-power region ends when the following high-speed region starts. Then with the square of the speed, the motor torque drops proportionally [23].
Characteristic curve of PMSM
Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) fed by PWM inverters are widely used for industrial applications, especially servo drive applications, which always work in rated condition. But in traction and spindle drives, higher speed is needed [24]. When in constant-power region, the motor is always controlled by the flux-weakening control method.
In the constant torque region, the stator voltage increase as the internal EMF of the motor rises in proportion to the motor speed. However, when the speed rises to rated speed, the voltage limit of the associated frequency converter is reached. The internal voltage must now be adjusted to be compatible with the applied converter voltage. However, since the permanent magnets inherently provide the equivalent of a constant field excitation, the internal EMF of the machine continues to increase as speed increases. So the air gap flux should be weakened by the demagnetizing effect due to the d-axis armature reaction, which is called flux weakening [25].
id−iq plane
On the
Region I (
Region II (
Region III (
Figure 10(a) illustrates the block diagram of the novel flux-weakening control based on nonlinear current compensation. Part 1 is the torque controller in the constant torque region. The current command
(a) The block diagram of the novel flux-weakening control based on nonlinear current compensation. (b) d-axis current modification
The proposed flux-weakening controller includes Parts 2 and 3. The proposed flux-weakening control algorithm uses the output reference voltage of the synchronous PI current regulator to identify the onset of the flux weakening. As the speed of the IPMSM increases, the output of the current regulator approaches to the boundary of the pulse-width modulator. With the reduced margin of the voltage, the performance of the current regulator gets worse and finally loses its controllability. As shown in Figure 10(b), the controller ensures the margin of the voltage by compensating the d-axis current toward the negative direction to prevent saturation of the current regulators. But at the low-speed region, the output voltage of the current regulator is usually less than
In this chapter, some fundamentals of the electric drives in alternative fuel vehicles are first introduced including application background and existing challenges. Then the multidomain transient unified modeling of AFV electric drives is newly defined at aim of efficiency improvement and ESS lifetime extension. The active power filter (APF) in the DC system is proposed for the elimination of ESS chaotic currents. The sensorless drive for the traction motor using a fixed boundary layer sliding mode observer is described in detail, as well as the flux-weakening controller using nonlinear current compensation, in order to enhance traction motor control precision and dynamic performance. The definitions and strategies discussed in this chapter may contribute to research and development of brand-new electric drives applied in EVs or HEVs.
The author would like to thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China for the support under Grant 51277121.
In the modern information society, it has become possible to develop new business models that utilize ICT (information and communication technology) in various industrial fields, industries, and business sizes and types.
\nBusiness development using ICT involves more than the typical industries from the past. In the creation of new businesses, it can be applied to a wide range of fields including SMEs (small and medium enterprises) and VEs (venture enterprises) [1].
\nFor example, in the manufacturing industry, an inventory management system is introduced to manage product inventory and determine optimal inventory numbers; while, in the distribution industry, a sales management system is introduced to receive orders and deliver products.
\nWith the introduction of ICT into other fields, there is support for design and drafting by CAD (computer aided design). In addition, the introduction of CIM (computer integrated manufacturing) at production sites can manage the entire range of production activities. With the introduction of CALS (commerce at light speed) in the product life cycle, information, from product design and manufacture to settlement, is shared between the customer side and sales side. Further, companies in the finance, education, and service industries, for example, are developing new businesses using cutting-edge ICT.
\nWith the advent of the information society, crowdsourcing is attracting attention as one of the new business models that utilize ICT. Crowdsourcing uses a crowdsourcing platform, typically a web site on the Internet, to allow business persons to place orders for an unspecified number of individuals and recruit contractors. In this way, crowdsourcing is creating new forms of work ordering and employment.
\nIn sum, in the modern information society, crowdsourcing is a new business model that links a business person (orderer) and a worker (contractor) through a website. In this paper, we will outline this new business model for the information society, and discuss the current state of crowdsourcing, which has elements that promise major changes in the nature of employment and lifestyle in the future.
\nCrowdsourcing is a coined word meaning “outsourcing works to an unspecified person (Crowd)” [2]. As such, it is “a mechanism to access an unspecified number of individuals or companies via the Internet to procure the necessary human resources” (Figure 1) [3].
\nCrowdsourcing participants and structures. Source: created by author from Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIAC) (2014), impact on society brought about by rapid evolution of ICT, “Information communication white paper 2014 edition”, MIAC.
In other words, through crowdsourcing, business persons use ICT, and through crowdsourcing platforms (websites) of crowdsourcing site business person (orderer), to a large number of general unspecified people (worker, contractor) it is the business consignment (outsourcing) of procuring workers from the outside by conducting business orders of the company and recruiting of contractors in the business.
\nThe respective crowdsourcing relationships between the business person (orderer) and worker (contractor), the crowdsourcing platform of the website (broker), and the flow of business orders, are as follows.
The business person uses crowdsourcing in operations where it is difficult for the company alone to respond to a given need, or in operations where external ordering is most efficient.
The workers cover a wide range, from individuals without special skills to specialists with well-defined expertise.
The business person inputs the work content and order acceptance conditions (work period, work time limit, remuneration, salary, fee, etc.) to the crowdsourcing platform of the website.
The worker confirms the work content in the crowdsourcing platform and applies for the specific work.
For each task, matching between the business operator and worker is performed, the worker is determined, and a business contract is concluded.
The worker is paid a fee after delivering deliverables to the business person.
In the crowdsourcing site business person, the crowdsourcing platform (website) carries out management operations such as defining work content and work location, recruitment management (such as compensation), ordering management, contract management, payment management, and performance and evaluation management.
\nCrowdsourcing contractors (workers) do not have to work at the business person’s facility or at a location near the business person. In other words, workers can work anywhere with Internet access: urban areas, rural areas, sparsely populated areas, islands, overseas, etc. Workers can perform work anytime, anywhere, regardless of the business person’s location.
\nIn a 2014 survey involving Freelancers Union, a group for freelancers (workers) in the United States, and Elance-oDesk, a crowdsourcing company, the following elements were identified: “(1) independent contractor: work for a specific project or contract; those who hold a contract”, “(2) moonlighter: those who hold a side job from late at night to early morning while holding a regular job”, “(3) diversified worker: those who have multiple income sources”, “(4) temporary worker: specified by non-regular employment; those who work with their employers”, “(5) business owner: have five or fewer employees and work themselves as workers and businesses” [4, 5, 6].
\nThe percentage of each element type was: (1) independent contractor (40%), (2) moonlighter (27%), (3) diversified worker (18%), (4) temporary worker (10%), (5) business owner (5%). There are many ratios of independent contractor and moonlighter.
\nIn recent years, one of the information system configurations that has attracted attention in organizations such as companies is cloud computing, which may on the surface appear similar to crowdsourcing, but is in fact fundamentally different’.
\nCrowdsourcing outsources work to unspecified people through the Internet; whereas, in cloud computing, computer resources such as software and data related to computer management and use are employed as needed, by means of the Internet [7, 8].
\nCloud computing can be roughly divided into (1) SaaS (Software as a Service), (2) PaaS (Platform as a Service), and (3) IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service), according to the types of functions and resources to be provided.
SaaS is an Internet-based service that enables remote control of application software having a specific function. SaaS services include online storage and office software that can be used with a web browser.
PaaS is a service that enables remote control of the software execution environment via the Internet. PaaS service allows a subscriber to remotely operate an environment in which an OS or middleware has been installed on a computer.
IaaS enables remote control of the virtualized computer itself via the Internet. In IaaS service, users prepare, install, and operate all software, such as the OS.
Thus, the “cloud” in cloud computing is a symbol representing a cloud on the other side of a network in a system configuration diagram; whereas, the “crowd” in crowdsourcing refers to an unspecified crowd of people meeting on the Internet platform. “Cloud sourcing”, meanwhile, is a specific form of outsourcing in which companies, etc. outsource operations to external vendors and workers.
\nThrough crowdsourcing, one can rapidly secure workers in-house, such as for software development, including “writing of text”, “design of logo and illustration”, “programming of the Web and application”; as well as pursue recruitment initiatives based on a specific plan. It is possible to procure and process workers from outside the company in a short time and at a low cost; workers, for example, with specialized skills that are difficult to perform, or a group of workers.
\nIn addition, in crowdsourcing, operations are outsourced widely to professionals and non-professionals. Thus, crowdsourcing is more than the outsourcing of highly specialized tasks demanding specialized skills. Crowdsourcing covers a wide range of projects, including the outsourcing of simple tasks such as data entry and information gathering.
\nAmong the typical crowdsourced task categories are: “Explanation”, “Graphics”, “DTP (Desk Top Publishing)”, “Web Design/Coding”, “Content Writing”, “Editing of Video/Image”, “CMS (Content Management System)”, “Blog Homepage”, “Application Development”, “Web Skills”, “Middleware”, “Smart Phone Site Development”, “Software Development Language”, “Environment/Framework”, “Data Base”, “System Development Technique”, “Source Code Management”, “Incident Management”, “Cloud OS (Operating System)”, “Social Media”, “3D (Three Dimensions) Technology”, “Testing/Operation and Support”, “Qualification Skills”, “Language/Interpretation/Translation”, and “Lawyers”; all of which typically involve specialized work or work requiring special skills.
\nIn addition, among the categories requiring no experience in crowdsourcing, or involving comparatively simple work, are: “Writing (Catch Phrase/Copy Writing, Name Recruitment/Naming, Blog Writing, Review, Article/Content Creation, Document Creation, Editing/Proofreading, Sales Copy/Sales Letter, E-book Production, Mail Magazine Agent/DM (Direct Mail) Creation/Other Writing)”, “Task/Work (Data Creation/Input, Question/Question/Testing Test, Internal Job/Light Work, Various Agency/Call, Photo/Video, Data Classification/Categorization, Other Tasks/Work)”, “Office Work/Business Support/Survey (Site Operation/Support, Business Support, Interview, Mystery Shopper, Masking Investigation, Inquiry Response, Email Correspondence, Telephone Support, Sorting of Documents, Business Card Arrangement, Bookkeeping Charges, Secretary Behalf, Easy Investigation, such as the work of other support)”; all of which are typically involved in various fields and industries.
\nThus far, in Japan, the main form of employment of human resources has involved a business entity, such as a company, which bears the primary burden of risk, and engages full-time employees through the conclusion of employment contracts between a business person (orderer/enterprise) and a worker (contractor/individual).
\nIn the information society, however, a wide variety of temporary staffing agencies, worker dispatch companies, job placement agencies, business contractors, etc., have emerged, due to changes in the social environment surrounding businesses, changes in individual needs, and changes in personal lifestyles.
\nTraditionally, depending on the details of the employment contract between the employer and the worker, full-time employees, contract employees, temporary employees, part-time workers, and part-timers (for whom, in each case, the burden of risk in the employment contract rests on the company, intermediary, agent, etc.) are the typical worker profiles.
\nHowever, with the introduction of crowdsourcing, business activities are widely outsourced (ordering) to a large number of generally unspecified individuals. Crowdsourcing thus does not typically involve the execution of work after closing an employment contract between a business person and a worker; but rather the execution of work based on a business contract between a business person and the worker (the risk burden is on the individual).
\nOne result is that, for the modern business person, how to effectively utilize the knowledge resources of specialists outside the organization (out-house group) has become one of the sources of competitiveness in business. Businesses must not depend on themselves alone in the creation of new products and services, using only their own resources and technologies (in-house group). Instead, they must establish core competencies in their areas of activity, and differentiate themselves from other companies.
\nBusinesses use specialists and special skills contractors outside the organization, while also carrying out simple operations such as “work with no experience”, “work with low expertise”, “fine work that can be divided”, etc.; thereby making effective use of external resources. In other words, it has become necessary for business persons to outsource their work “when it is necessary”, “without direct work”, and “with little effort”, from their own organization.
\nTherefore, as a result of the arrival of today’s information society, the practical use of ICT is a premise of successful business activity. Unlike in the past, it is often necessary for businesses to make effective use of resources outside the organization, not only in the case of large companies that utilize BPO (business process outsourcing) for most of their operations, but also for SMEs and VEs. To establish their competitive advantage, they must often use resources outside the organization as labor options, for tasks beyond their core competencies.
\nOne of the success factors of modern business is how to make the best use of cheap external labor, and to establish a competitive advantage, each of which is facilitated by crowdsourcing.
\nIn addition, using crowdsourcing, the business person obtains advance information on the prospective worker’s quality of work, which is disclosed in advance, through the crowdsourcing platform, enabling him/her to order work after a full and detailed evaluation, including dialog if necessary.
\nCrowdsourcing modalities can be classified in various ways, and as yet no clear delineation has been made. Thus, here, for practical purposes, they have been roughly classified, based on elements such as the work content and compensation assigned in placing an order, into three types: (1) platform, (2) reward, and (3) order [9].
\nHereafter, we will discuss crowdsourcing in these terms.
\nCrowdsourcing organization in the US,
Platform type crowdsourcing is based on the specific forms of crowdsourcing platform that are provided for workers, and is also referred to as the business classification type of crowdsourcing. The platforms can be classified into three types: (a) integrated platform, (b) sector specific platform, and (c) research and development platform.
\nIn information system development, crowdsourcing work may include things such as “basic design”, “detailed design”, “programming”, “unit test”, “connection test”, and “system test”. Other information system fields include “website creation”, “Web design”, “EC (Electronic Commerce) site and net shop construction”, “application and smart phone development”, “hardware design and development”, and “project and maintenance, operation management”.
\nIn manufacturing, etc. crowdsourcing may for example include “design work”, such as designs and patterns plans and layout creation. In addition, in business writing, etc. there is “copy writing” which aims at advertising copy that is easy and interesting for the user to read, and “Web writing”, involving the generation of website text.
\nIn the integrated platform type, there is a wide range of work, including “photograph and video shooting”, “data input”, “questionnaire”, “interview and question”, “answering machine”, “various agents”, “check and inspection, investigation”, “office work and secretarial”, “accounting and finance”, and “human resources and payroll”, etc.
\nAs described above, in the integrated type, a business person and worker collaborate in the execution of various orders by handling a wide range of work types.
\nIn the fields of logos, banners, and illustrations, crowdsourced work may include “logo creation”, “banner creation”, “illustration creation”, and “game illustration creation”; while other printed matter and DTP design fields include work such as “leaflet creation”, “business card creation”, “brochure creation”, “poster creation”, and “packing and package design”.
\nThe character, icon, and animation fields include work such as “recruitment of character design”, “manga and animation production”, “icon creation”, and “goods production and novelty”. In addition, the map, signboard, and infographic fields include work such as “map making and guide map creation”, “signboard design”, and “infographics”. The POP (Point Of Purchase), menu, and seal fields include work such as “seal and label design” and “POP design”.
\nIn the sector specific type, there are operations that limit the types of jobs to specific and often specialized fields such as “binding, book design” and “design and production of CD (Compact Disc) and DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) jackets”. As described above, the sector specific type is a system in which a business person and a worker receive and place orders of limited operations by handling specialized operations.
\nBusiness persons use crowdsourcing to address a wide range of issues around the world, in order to respond to their own management, and other, challenges. As a worker (specialist in research, engineering, etc.), it is possible to address various issues, regardless of the time or place.
\nIn the research and development (R&D) platform type, when an enterprise does not have an R&D department, or wishes to accelerate R&D, the company can broadcast its technical issues worldwide and make a broad search outside its own technological and developmental capabilities. In R and D type work, not only researchers at universities and research institutes, but also general inventors and researchers at companies, make technical proposals for the tasks on offer.
\nThe R&D platform type improves the speed of solving technical issues in the enterprise, and facilitates the technical proposals of researchers and engineers. As described above, the R&D platform type involves a business person and workers receive and submit a technical proposal by handling the work of problem solution and proposal.
\nIn payment type crowdsourcing, a worker receives compensation as an economic reward. The payment types can be classified into four groups: (a) gift payment, (b) point payment, (c) payment-agency payment, and (d) cash payment.
\nThe gift payment worker receives a reward as an economic compensation, such as an Amazon gift or an iTunes gift. Amazon gifts can be used to purchase products that are handled by
Point payment workers receive, as economic compensation, rewards from various services at points such as PeX Japan (Japan’s largest point exchange website), PointExchange Japan (Currently, RealPay), T-POINT Japan (Strategic Comprehensive Alliance, Yahoo! JAPAN, etc.), etc. The points can be used for electronic money, gifts, miles, goods, and various other point types.
\nA payment-agency payment worker receives, as financial compensation, a reward through one of the world’s leading payment-agency companies such as Paypal (Singapore), Alipay (China), Pay-easy (Japan), Linepay (Japan), Google pay (US), R pay (Japan), etc. A credit card is required to use the payment-agency method.
\nCash payment workers receive compensation directly by bank transfer, with cash as financial compensation.
\nOrder payment crowdsourcing is a distinct work order structure. The order types can be classified into four groups: (a) micro task payment (fixed salary), (b) contest competition payment (fixed salary), (c) project payment (fixed salary), and (d) project payment (hourly salary).
\nMicro task payment crowdsourcing consigns small units of work at a low price, such as data entry by workers, or questionnaires, explanatory text creation, and list creation. In this order type, the work content is subdivided, and a supplier is determined for each sub-unit.
\nContest competition payment crowdsourcing recruits work in a competitive format, such as design, naming, or catch phrase creation, and chooses from among the best. In this order type, a large number of works, ideas, plans, etc., are collected, and the best are selected from among them.
\nIn project payment crowdsourcing the supplier is selected in response to a proposal from a worker, for work such as application development or website creation. In this order type, information on the quality of the worker is obtained in advance, and the work is ordered based on judgments of skills, evaluations, comments, etc. In addition, business estimates are solicited and bid for (price, delivery and content, etc.), on the basis of which the supplier is determined.
\nIn this order type, crowdsourcing provides time management software for the respective worker’s PC, and pays rewards on a time conversion basis for work done. In this case, the worker is paid regardless of whether there are deliverables or not.
\nThe relationship between a business person (orderer) and a worker (contractor) in crowdsourcing is typically restricted to exchange via a website (crowdsourcing platform) on the Internet. Crowdsourcing is not a business model that involves work requests to specific regions or individuals, because it is based on work orders for an unspecified number of people or a recruitment of contractors.
\nWith the crowdsourcing system, workers can view and confirm the work content from the projects (work information) provided to the crowdsourcing platform, and then select the work of their choosing, performing it in their own chosen place and time, and with considerable latitude in terms of how much work they choose to do. Then, the worker obtains an “Amazon gift voucher”, “iTunes gift”, “PeX”, “Point Exchange”, “T-POINT”, “cash”, etc., as remuneration for the work.
\nThe crowdsourcing platform (website) thus intervenes between the business person (orderer) and worker (contractor). The platform lists the information, work content, and working conditions, as defined by the business person, and provides them directly and widely to prospective workers.
\nIn addition, the business evaluation of the workers related to the project is performed by the business operator who has placed an order and comments on the crowdsourcing platform. The worker’s work history and work contents are screened.
\nTherefore, we see the emergence of a new kind of business model, wherein the business person can preliminarily evaluate a prospective worker’s work quality, select the worker most suitable for the work content and cost, and efficiently place the work order.
\nHitherto, in the relationship between a business person (orderer) and worker (contractor), it has been difficult to make such preliminary evaluations before outsourcing the task. However, with the use of crowdsourcing, information about the work quality of the prospective worker (crowdsourcing experienced) can be obtained in advance via the crowdsourcing platform.
\nThe business person can thus place an order for a task, having determined the skills, evaluations, reviews, and the like, of the prospective worker, based on the prior information. Therefore, it is possible to reduce the risk of mismatching based on insufficient preliminary evaluation along conventional lines.
\nThe main functions of the crowdsourcing platform are: (1) contact and reporting, (2) business item matching, (3) contract progress and settlement management, (4) business follow-up, (5) business scouting, and (6) administrator management [11]. In each function, matching between a business person and a worker is performed before placing an order for work or recruiting a contractor.
\nIn this function, the platform sends an email from the business person to a registered email address, regarding information such as business content and order acceptance conditions. Also, in the text, information can be distributed quickly and efficiently using a fixed format.
\nThis function allows the worker themself to search for work and apply directly for the desired work content. In addition, when the business person places an order for work, it is possible to quickly search for a worker who wants to receive a work order, and to order the work quickly and efficiently.
\nThis function performs progress management and settlement management of the project item after the contract has been concluded between a business person (orderer) and worker (contractor). In addition, the payment of compensation to workers can be managed quickly and efficiently through the intermediation of the crowdsourcing platform.
\nThis function allows the business person and worker to mutually confirm the work content ordered and the work evaluation. Also, both the business person and worker can quickly and efficiently confirm the necessary information.
\nThis function allows the business person to approach the worker directly by referring to information such as the worker’s public profile and task evaluation. In addition, the business person can rapidly and efficiently initiate operations by directly approaching workers.
\nThis function can set a fee for prepayment or additional payment of compensation to the worker. In addition, the function enables stable cash management in terms of the constructed business model, including the management of stable funds on the part of both business person and worker.
\nThus, once again, crowdsourcing using ICT enables a business model that achieves optimal and rapid matching between a business person (orderer) and worker (contractor), which has traditionally been difficult to achieve.
\nBy using crowdsourcing to carry out work, a business person can (1) assign tasks to workers in a timely and appropriate manner, (2) experts and special skills immediately it is possible to order work from the owned worker, (3) if necessary, secure a large number of workers inexpensively. In addition, crowdsourcing makes it possible to quickly and inexpensively evaluate the labor force outside the organization by judging its expertise and skills; and to easily utilize this labor force.
\nFor example, in the case of ordering work by crowdsourcing, it is possible to match the business person (orderer) and worker (contractor) in a minimum of 15 minutes, in a timely and appropriate manner. Also, in terms of price, it is possible to place an order with a conventional business person at a cost of one tenth to one half. Furthermore, in the case of assigning work to specialists or highly skilled workers, it is possible to use split ordering, while checking the quality of workers online. Therefore, business persons can achieve significant cost reductions in their business operations [9].
\nTraditionally, business persons “outsource work”, “adopt recruitment of mid-career labor”, “search for work consignment workers”, “conclude employment contract with workers”, and “time spent on that”, etc.; all of which typically involve significant costs before the start of operations. In addition, after contracting with the worker, the business person must factor in “expenses for time spent in fulfilling the contract (coordination costs)”, as well as “expenses to ensure that the contracted worker properly executes the contract content (motivation costs)”. However, crowdsourcing enables business persons to execute operations without these cost problems, and thereby enhance their competitive advantage.
\nAt the same time, the worker can scrutinize the work information, such as “work place”, “work content”, “work amount”, “work time”, “work experience required”, “special skills required”, “remuneration”, etc.; and can themselves control the amount of work directly. For example, full-time homemakers can pursue domestic work and hobbies of interest during intervals of daily work, such as housework, childcare and nursing care, while also receiving outsourced orders for tasks demanding their particular skills. Thus, various forms of crowdsourcing have been developed in response to the needs of both business persons (orderers) and workers (contractors); and currently, many companies provide crowdsourcing services throughout the world, including Japan.
\nIn crowdsourcing, business persons provide business services such as:
“System development, design, writing, photograph and video photography, data entry, questionnaire, interview, answering machine, various agency, check, office work, secretary, etc.”, which describe a wide range of operations without limiting the field;
“Brochure, catalog, flyer, poster, company information, business card, postcard, logo mark production, etc.”;
“Announce the company’s business issues to the world via the website, and seek outside third parties for planning, technology, and development capabilities not possessed by the company.” In addition, there are start-up initiatives such as “a business person that develops a single-focus enterprise” and “a business person that develops a multi-focus enterprise”.
Crowdsourcing platforms are typically characterized by the work they handle. Thus, a matrix diagram may be configured based on the “work content”, “remuneration type, etc.” ordered by the crowdsourcing platform. In the matrix chart, the vertical direction (Y-axis) ranges from “Many Items Business” to “Specific Business”, and the horizontal direction (X-axis) from “Low Specialization Business, Simple Business” to “High Specialization Business, High Skill Business”. In this way, the diagram can be utilized to locate the full range of crowdsourcing business types [12] (Figures 2 and 3).
\nPositioning strategy for Japanese crowdsourcing companies. Source: created by author.
Positioning strategy for other countries crowdsourcing companies. Source: created by author.
There are five major crowdsourcing platform sectors locatable in the matrix: “(1) Many items business type (general function type)”, “(2) Many items business type + high specialization business type (multifunctional type: advanced expertise type)”, “(3) Specific business type + high specialization business type (specific function type: advanced functions type)”, “(4) Many items business type + low specialization business type (multifunctional type: low expertise type)”, “(5) Specific work type + low specialty work type (specific functions type: low functions type)”.
\nThe crowdsourcing platforms in this service sector are located at the top center of the matrix chart (Figures 2 and 3). These platforms differentiate their services from those of other companies by positioning themselves in terms of a “General Function Type”. Work types range from “highly skilled work + specialization work” such as programming, writing, translation, web design, etc., to “low skill work + low specialization work” such as simple text creation and data entry provide a wide range of operations.
\nMajor crowdsourcing platforms of this type include “Lancers” and “Cloud Works” in Japan; “Elance” and “oDesk” in the US; “Freelancer” in Australia; and “Witmart” in China.
\nThe crowdsourcing platforms in this service sector are located at the top right of the matrix chart (Figures 2 and 3). The platforms differentiate their services as “High Specialization + Multifunctional “; and typically offer “many items work” and “work that requires highly specialized skills”, for services that combine unique product and service development and existing services.
\nMajor crowdsourcing platforms here include “Dmet idea” (realization of various ideas) and “Wemake” (cardboard furniture using open design) in Japan; “InnoCentive” (expert solutions) in the US; “eYeka” (Ideas competition) in France; and “Chaordix” (question and recruitment of ideas) in Canada.
\nThe platforms in this field are located at the bottom right of the matrix chart (Figures 2 and 3), and differentiate their services as “High Specialization + Specific Function”, offering “highly specialized work” and “work that requires highly specialized skills”; for example, professional photo and video production, real-time interpretation through mobile terminals, order creation of logos and designs in a competitive manner, external blogger requests for company blog writing.
\nMajor crowdsourcing platforms here include “Conyac” (translation), “Voip!” (photograph and video shooting), and “MUGENUP” (illustration production) in Japan; “SmartShoot” (photography, video photography), “99 designs” (design competition), “Directly” (customer care), “Babelverse” (interpretation), “LawPivot” (lawyer), “Bugcrowd” (bug detection), “Assembly” (collaborative development application), and “GoodBlogs” (blog writing) in the US; and “sribu” (design contest) in Indonesia.
\nThe platforms in this service sector are located at the top left of the matrix chart (Figures 2 and 3), and differentiate their services as “Low Specialization + Multifunctional”, offering “many items work” and “low specialization, low skills work”, from simple housework and agency services to office work such as online questionnaires and data entry, and the provision of free-market buying and selling.
\nMajor crowdsourcing platforms here include “coconala” (free market), “nanapi works” (article writing), and “shufti” (office work) in Japan; “TaskRabbit” (housework/use agency), “Zaarly” (housework/use agent), and “Amazon Mechanical Turk” (input work/questionnaire) in the US; and “Scoopshot” (photography service) in Finland.
\nThe platforms in this service area are located at the lower left of the matrix chart (Figures 2 and 3), and differentiate their services as “Low Specialization + Specific Functions”, offering “specialized in specific work” and “low specialization, low skills work” such as mental support for women, training and creation of employment for IT skills, and advertisement with markers.
\nMajor crowdsourcing platforms here include “Bears” (support for women’s love), “Sansan” (business card management) in Japan; and “Samasource” (IT skills training and employment opportunities for poor women and young people), “Wrapify” (drivers who want to earn advertising revenue with their own cars), “Good Blogs” (blog writing), and “Collective Bias” (influencer marketing) in the US.
\nIn the crowdsourcing business model, the following are the main advantages and disadvantages to (1) the business person (orderer) who outsources the work and (2) the worker (contractor) who accepts the work [13, 14, 15, 16].
\nFirst, business persons can use crowdsourcing to rapidly and efficiently search for optimal workers. Hitherto, hiring outside the organization (employee recruitment) required time-consuming procedures such as recruitment advertisement, resume submission, interviewing, hiring, a trial period, and regular hiring. In addition, it was impossible to properly judge the quality (such as ability and conduct) of the human resources until sometime after employment. However, through crowdsourcing, the business person can obtain information on the evaluations, reputation, etc. of prospective workers in advance, and can quickly outsource the work according to the work content.
\nSecond, business persons can reduce the cost of doing business by using crowdsourcing. Hitherto, employment involving full-time employees incurred costs (personnel expenses such as salary and social insurance expenses) regardless of how much business was actually conducted; and for business persons, the costs for full-time employees were incurred for everything from simple, labor-intensive operations to highly skilled, complex operations.
\nThird, traditionally, it was necessary to allocate personnel depending on the type of industry, in preparation for major changes in the volume of work, such as upsurges in business activity or activity that typically occurred suddenly and only at the end of the month. However, ideally, business persons should access human resources as needed, and this is enabled by crowdsourcing.
\nFinally, business persons can use collaborative sourcing to collaborate with other business entities. Hitherto, hiring full-time employees has been in charge of business (projects), performing duties as individual business within an organization or as group business. However, with crowdsourcing, business persons can divide the work into several sub-tasks, and order only part(s) of the total work content from respective workers. And in the case of many work-orders, it is possible to perform effective and efficient operations by leaving some or all of the work in a specific field of expertise to crowdsourced workers.
\nFirst, business persons must ensure information security when using crowdsourcing. In crowdsourcing, a business person consigns work to a worker outside the organization (business order); and in the assignment of work, successful operation may require the disclosure of confidential company information, such as ideas, plans, business schemes, and know-how, as well as proprietary customer information, to the crowdsourced workers. Therefore, confidential information may be leaked through the workers. Thus, when outsourcing work to a worker, it is necessary to decide, before generating an order, how to securely handle the relevant confidential or personal information.
\nSecond, business persons must evaluate and manage work quality, intermediately through the crowdsourcing platform. The business person must, for example, confirm that the task is performed on time and with the expected content. Workers, meanwhile, need not worry about the outcome of the delivered work in continuous outsourcing based on past performance and evaluations. This problem is compounded by the fact that, in practice, a business person will have 10 or more simultaneous work orders in progress, making it difficult to ensure assignment to specific workers. Thus, as it is difficult to assign work based on past results, it is typically necessary to confirm each new worker’s skills, past work content, and evaluations.
\nFinally, the business person incurs a fee for using crowdsourcing, as levied by the Internet website (crowdsourcing platform) that mediates between them and the worker. Crowdsourcing platforms typically have specialized areas such as system development, design, image processing, data entry, etc., with varying fees. Therefore, it is important for business persons to make a careful selection of the optimal crowdsourcing platform for their needs.
\nFirst, workers can use crowdsourcing to make efficient use of their time. Workers can manage the start, end, and rest time for each task, and effectively develop and apply time management skills. Thus, for example, housewives can take advantage of the gaps in housework and parenting; students, the gaps in their class schedule; and company employees, the gaps in their regular employment schedule. In addition, workers can receive orders for tasks that can be completed in a short amount of time, and works for recruiting ideas.
\nSecond, workers can use crowdsourcing to freely determine their working conditions. Workers can work anywhere, regardless of the place of work or building. Hitherto, in the employment of full-time employees, it was necessary to carry out work in a determinate location, time zone, schedule, building, etc. However, in crowdsourcing, workers can work anytime and anywhere (urban, rural, depopulated areas, islands, overseas, and regions, sites, buildings, places, etc., the location does not matter.) as long as they have an Internet environment.
\nThird, workers can freely choose desirable work content, such as their favorite type of tasks, work that they specialize in, and work requiring skills they possess. In the past, the hiring of full-time employees had to be carried out in a group based on work orders from superiors to subordinates in the organization. With crowdsourcing, however, workers can be selective in their choice of tasks, choosing those with favorable content or of especial interest, those that make use of sophisticated skills, enjoyable tasks, and tasks well-suited to their abilities.
\nFinally, workers can use crowdsourcing to avoid troublesome human relationships. In crowdsourcing, email is the primary form of communication between the business person and worker; and since workers do not have to meet the employer directly in order to carry out their work, no extra communication is required. Therefore, troublesome relationships can be avoided, and it is not necessary to have in-person interactions, secure space for them, and pay the transportation cost to get there.
\nFirst, generally, crowdsourced compensation is relatively less than that of full-time employees. One of the advantages of crowdsourcing for businesses is that they can place orders at a lower cost than the cost of conventional full-time employees. Also, though a multifaceted order may be required, the work can typically be subdivided, making it possible to order only a part(s) of the larger project. Therefore, even highly skilled jobs often have relatively low rewards, and workers must compensate by increasing the number of tasks they take on, in order to achieve their financial goals.
\nSecond, workers must confirm the character and integrity of the respective business person through the mediation of the crowdsourcing platform, with communication between the business person and worker basically conducted by email. Workers may thus be hampered in their evaluation, because there is no in-person meeting. In addition, some business persons may, for example, “demand work that is not included in the contract”, “become silent while the project is in progress”, or “try to avoid paying compensation.” Therefore, when actually receiving an order for work, it is necessary for the worker to confirm the order content, rules, etc., and to confirm the integrity of the business person in advance, based on the latter’s work-order history.
\nThird, workers must ensure that their use of the platform is safe and secure. In recent years, advanced cyber-attacks have become a major threat, and attacks from malicious third parties targeting specific organizations are being conducted. If the response to such advanced cyber-attacks is neglected, there is a possibility that “the confidential information of workers and business is leaked”, “a fictitious order is placed”, and/or “untraceable damage occurs”. Therefore, when using a crowdsourcing platform, it is necessary for workers to confirm in advance the relevant BCP (business continuity planning), etc. for any possible failure or trouble in the information system.
\nIn today’s information-oriented society, the size of the crowdsourcing market in order for businesses (large enterprises, small and medium enterprises, venture companies, general incorporated associations, NPO corporations, etc.) to establish a competitive advantage in various business fields Are increasing [17, 18, 19].
\nThe size of the Japanese crowdsourcing market is 4.4 billion yen in fiscal 2011, 10.66 billion yen in fiscal 2012 (up 242.3% year-on-year), 21.5 billion yen in fiscal 2013 (up 201.7% year-on-year), and 40.8 billion yen expected in fiscal 2014 (189.8% year-on-year) FY2015 forecast of yen 65.0 billion (up 159.3% year-on-year), FY2016 forecast of yen 95.0 billion (up 146.1% year-on-year), FY2017 forecast of yen 135.0 billion (up 142.1% year-on-year), FY2018 forecast of 1820 It has grown rapidly to 100 million yen (up 134.8% from the previous year) [17, 18, 19].
\nA feature of the Japanese crowdsourcing market is that crowdsourcing services are mainly focused on the Japanese market. This is because in the Japanese market, business communication between operators and workers via crowdsourcing platforms is conducted only in Japanese.
\nCurrently, crowdsourcing market in the Japanese culture is limited, and saturation is expected in the near future, and permanent growth of the Japanese market cannot be expected. Therefore, it is necessary to disseminate the Japanese market in the future to unexplored business fields and required workers.
\nIn addition, the Japanese crowdsourcing market can be expected to gain new market growth potential by responding to the global market, including multilingual crowdsourcing platforms.
\nOn the other hand, the scale of the overseas crowdsourcing market has grown to Yen 13.1 billion in 2009, Yen 17.4 billion in 2010 (up 132.8% from the previous year), and Yen 28.9 billion in 2011 (up 166.1% from the previous year) [17, 18, 19].
\nThe overseas market size data is the total order amount of work for 15 member companies of
A feature of the overseas crowdsourcing market is that business communication between operators and workers via the crowdsourcing platform is basically conducted in English. In addition, the crowdsourcing platform on the Internet can be used “anytime”, “anywhere”, “anyone”, and “anyone” as long as there is an Internet environment.
\nTherefore, the crowdsourcing platform is large in size for the global market including the Japanese market. The crowdsourcing platform users are operators and workers around the world. In addition, there are many workers, and it offers high growth potential by providing various services with cheap rewards [20, 21, 22].
\nThe Crowdsourcing Strategy in the information society has the following three corporate strategies [23, 24].
\nThe first strategy is the crowdsourcing platform’s corporate strategy that provides crowdsourcing services to both business persons (orderers) and workers (contractors).
\nAs mentioned earlier, the crowdsourcing platform understands the characteristics of the information society (necessary information can be used “anytime”, “anywhere”, “anyone”, “anyone”), and its business purpose and business plan. A business plan must be formulated based on (business design). And the crowdsourcing platform needs to develop its business by selecting its best position from the five positioning.
\nIn other words, in the crowdsourcing platform, if the business design or business plan formulated by the company is wrong, it will handle non-proprietary fields (specialties), and both business persons (orderers) and workers (contractors). Therefore, the service content with poor quality will be provided.
\nAs mentioned above, the crowdsourcing platform must formulate a business design by understanding the characteristics of the information society (necessary information can be used “anytime”, “anywhere”, “anyone”, “anyone”.).
\nAnd the crowdsourcing platform needs to develop its business by selecting its best position from the five positioning ((1) many items business type (general function type), (2) many items business type + high specialization business type (multifunctional type: advanced expertise type), (3) specific business type + high specialization business type (specific function type: advanced functions type), (4) many items business type + low specialization business type (multifunctional type: low expertise type), (5) specified work type + low specialty work type (specified functions type: low functions type)).
\nIn other words, if the business design and business plan formulated by the company is misunderstood, the crowdsourcing platform will handle non-professional fields (specialties) and both business persons (orderers) and workers (contractors) Will provide poor quality service content.
\nIn other words, in the crowdsourcing platform, if the business design or business plan formulated by the company is wrong, it will handle non-proprietary fields (specialties), and both business persons (orderers) and workers (contractors) therefore, the service content with poor quality will be provided.
\nThe second strategy perspective is the business strategy of business persons (orderers) who use the crowdsourcing service provided by the crowdsourcing platform.
\nBusiness persons need to develop a business plan (business plan) based on their business purpose and business plan (business design), and then develop a business using crowdsourcing services.
\nBusiness persons understand the characteristics of the information society, and perform all operations within the company (“Sales”, “Accounting”, “Human Resources”, “General Affairs”, “Information System”, “Development”, “Research”, “Production”, “Public Relations”, etc.). On the other hand, actively utilize the cheap labor force outside the company.
\nThe third strategy perspective is a corporate strategy that corresponds to work style reforms for both business persons (orderers) and workers (contractors).
\nJapan has various labor environment issues such as “declining birthrate and aging population, decreasing labor force population due to low birth rate”, “health adverse effects due to long working hours, and restrictions on working style due to childbirth, childcare, and nursing care”.
\nIn particular, gaps in the work environment and restrictions on work styles affect the quality of work and detract from the work of workers.
\nThe working environment in Japan is longer and less productive than overseas. In this situation, Japan will fall into a negative spiral, where productivity will not increase despite long working hours.
\nAnd business persons use crowdsourcing services to establish a competitive corporate environment for rival companies.
\nThe third strategy perspective is a corporate strategy that corresponds to work style reforms for both business persons (orderers) and workers (contractors) [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
\nIn order to improve the working environment, the Japanese government is advocating “work style reform”. Japan’s work style reforms are not implemented for either business persons (orderers) and workers (contractors).
\nWork style reform is an initiative that promotes “workers happiness and growth” and “improvement of productivity and creativity of business persons” together with business persons and workers. For both business persons and workers, one of the approaches to work style reform is the use of crowdsourcing services.
\nIn today’s information society, crowdsourcing attracts attention as a new business model that connects unknown business person (orderer) and an unspecified number of worker (contractor) through Internet websites.
\nCrowdsourcing seeks to reform traditional employment by providing work that utilizes ICT. In conventional Japanese human resources employment, workers were mainly employed as permanent employees who entered into employment contracts with companies; or as part-time, temporary, or seasonal workers. In each case, they were required to work at a designated work place and time.
\nHowever, with crowdsourcing, business persons generally carry out business operations by contracting with a large number of outside individuals. As long as there is an Internet environment, workers can now work anywhere and anytime; in urban areas, rural areas, sparsely populated areas, islands, overseas, etc.
\nIn addition, the use of crowdsourcing has changed the lifestyles of workers. For example, new jobs are provided to residents in depopulated areas and islands, and to people who are raising children, pregnant women, students, and freeters (part-time workers), etc. It also provides a new style of working. Further, it is possible to create new jobs for people who have high skills but cannot make use of their skills in marriage retirement, or due to temporal circumstances.
\nCrowdsourcing creates new opportunities for professionals and non-professionals alike, and can offer inexpensive services that previously required high compensation. In sum, the spread of crowdsourcing has created new options for how individuals work and live. In the future, it will be possible to explore new ways of connecting business persons and workers through crowdsourcing.
\nThis work was supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) (B) Grant Number 17H03327 and JSPS KAKENHI (B) Grant Number JP19H01532.
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