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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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It gives tremendous impact on the design of autonomous intelligent systems. The purpose of this book is to introduce Hybrid Algorithms, Techniques, and Implementations of Fuzzy Logic. The book consists of thirteen chapters highlighting models and principles of fuzzy logic and issues on its techniques and implementations. The intended readers of this book are engineers, researchers, and graduate students interested in fuzzy logic systems.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0393-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5686-4",doi:"10.5772/2663",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"fuzzy-logic-algorithms-techniques-and-implementations",numberOfPages:296,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"116c1be2754eb60e90b4ad3642546291",bookSignature:"Elmer P. 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For their prevention, treatment and reduction of their negative impact, it is necessary to understand their etiological context and to know their particularities of manifestation. Considering the relatively high rate of some complications of denture and overdenture treatment, knowing them is essential for ensuring a treatment that corresponds to the medical standards of care and patients’ needs and expectations.
All medical treatments should be approached with a holistic perspective in mind, due to the fact that there are numerous factors which, through interacting each other, have an impact on the final medical outcome. Understanding the problem and its realistic possible approaches, but also considering its treatment limitations and performing an analysis that evaluates the medium and long-term prognosis ensures the highest premises for obtaining a good result.
The previous also applies to the treatment of edentulism using dentures or overdentures. Some of the key aspects that might help understand better the denture and overdenture complications, as they define the etiological context, are mentioned in Table 1.
Context | \n\t\t\tGeneral medical and social factors | \n\t\t\tMedical and social perception of edentulism Demographics of edentulism | \n\t\t
Denture and overdenture treatment factors | \n\t\t\tTreatment difficulty Treatment options overview Maintenance therapy Technical and biomechanical considerations Previous dental treatments | \n\t\t|
Edentulous patient factors | \n\t\t\tOral health status Systemic health status and medication use Age Health risk factors Patient need and preferences | \n\t\t
Context of denture and overdenture complications – key factors
Edentulism is defined as the loss of all permanent teeth. Tooth loss is an outcome of a complex interaction between disease entities (e.g., caries and periodontal disease) and non-disease entities (e.g. economy, oral healthcare system, access to dental services, dental awareness, cultural tradition, education) [1]. Continuing exposure to risk factors after onset of edentulism (e.g., poor oral hygiene, smoking, deficient dental treatment) can have an etiological role in the occurrence of complication.
Edentulism is a chronic, severe, irreversible medical condition and is described as the final marker of disease burden for oral health [2,3]. It is common for elderly people, but it is not regarded any more as an inevitable phenomenon that comes with age [4].
Edentulism has several deleterious consequences on oral health (e.g., residual ridge resorption, impaired masticatory function, trouble speaking), general health (deficient nutritional status, increased risk for certain systemic diseases), mental and social well-being (dissatisfaction with appearance, avoidance of social contacts) and on quality of life [1,2,4]. The previous have impact on prosthetic treatment to be performed.
Thus, the current perception on edentulism is as non-fatal sequelae of diseases and injuries, which still represents a tremendous global health care burden [5,6]. It can be considered a physical impairment, because important body parts have been lost, a disability, because it associates functional limitations or a handicap, as it sometimes limits or prevents normal life or work activities [1,2,7-9].
Considering the impact and demographics of the edentulism, the health care barriers that older people face, the Active Ageing approach of the World Health Organization (keeping older people socially engaged and productive), intensive measures and new regulations regarding caring for the elderly population are needed. Consequently, implementation of gerodontology, as a new dental specialty, may be appropriate [10].
According to the current reports and predictions, edentulism is and will continue to represent a common disease for the elderly people segment.
There is a tendency for reduction of the edentulism prevalence, through the reduction of tooth loss. Thus, in the United States in the period of 1999-2004, the prevalence of tooth retention in seniors (65 years and older) significantly increased from 17.9 teeth to 18.9 teeth and the prevalence of edentulism significantly decreased from approximately 34% to 27% [11]. This phenomenon can be justified through the progress made in the dental field, the emphasis on prevention measures, improved access to dental care services and mass education for approaching a healthy behavior [4]. But, despite these efforts, complete edentulism continues to have a high prevalence, aspect associated mainly to the aging population phenomenon through growth of the life expectancy and thus the number of elderly people and the number of edentulous patients [12,13].
Estimates show that edentulism is found in 2.3% of the world’s population regardless of age, respectively in 7-69% of adult populations internationally [5,14]. Considerably high disparities are noted between different countries, different regions, due to the important impact of the socio-economical and behavioral factors.
The prognoses show that edentulism is decreasing, but most probably will continue to be a condition with a significant prevalence, especially in elderly’s people, which is estimated to be a growing category in the global population [15]. Douglas estimates that in the United States the population with one or two edentulous jaws will increase from 34 million in 1991 to 38 million in 2020 [1,12]. Felton considers that most probably the necessity for complete denture therapy will not disappear over the next 4 or 5 decades, and the economic conditions may even lead to a growing need [1,6].
Edentulism is generally regarded as a clinical condition with a high degree of treatment difficulty, often being hard to achieve optimal functional parameters. The complexity of the edentulous condition derives from the extensive oral changes, both anatomical and functional, that sometimes require preprosthetic surgical intervention in order to optimize the biomechanical conditions, which are superimposed on general alterations (related to age, systemic disease, and psychosocial status). In order to support the differentiation of cases according to their treatment difficulty degree, the ACP (American College of Prosthodontists) has put together the Prosthodontic Diagnostic Index (PDI) Classification System for the complete edentulism [16]. Higher complexity of edentulism condition increase the risk of treatment complication (e.g., in cases with severe ridge resorption ill-fitting dentures are more frequently noticed), and complications can also contribute to increasing the degree of treatment difficulty (e.g., wearing unstable dentures accelerate the ridge resorption rate).
Complete denture used to be the only treatment option for the complete edentulism. Nowadays, this is still the most frequently used treatment option, but there can be seen a growing trend towards using implant prosthetic restorations fixed or removable. Each treatment option has the risk of specific complications, dependent on their manufacturing particularities and bio-mechanical features.
Dentures can have both local and systemic complications, such as gingival hyperplasia, denture stomatitis, loss of denture retention, fracture of the denture and functional impairment, mastication deficiencies having a negative impact on the nutritional status. Some patients cannot tolerate the dentures, aspect that can be connected to psychological factors, to patients’ needs and expectations, but also to age, oral conditions, denture deficiencies and doctor-patient relationship.
Root supported overdentures, with or without attachment systems, have the advantage of improved retention and stability, with a positive impact on the oral functions and the accommodation with the future dentures. Their possible complications include the ones of the conventional dentures and, additionally, some modifications of the supporting teeth or the attachment system used.
Prosthetic implant restorations, either fixed or a removable, are alternatives that provide an improved functional integration and better treatment outcome, but are more complex and require preprosthetic interventions, with additional biological, financial and time costs. Using these treatment options involves the risk for additional complications, with regards to the higher complexity of the treatment –e.g., treatment plan related, surgical complications, technical complications.
Maintenance is very important for the longevity of the treatment, having a positive impact in reducing the frequency and severity of its complications. Both type of procedures, those performed in the dental office, by the dentist and at home, by the patient, are relevant in this respect.
Periodical check-ups are essential, considering that there are some complications with a high prevalence rate both for dentures and implant overdentures (e.g., loss of denture stability due to progressive ridge resorption, denture adjustments and relinings, clip activations) [17]. Additionally, the edentulous patients are often elderly patients, and face access barriers to dental care services, in relation to aspects like lack of finances or transportation difficulties [18,19]. Due to this, it is recommended to keep in mind the possible complications and to take the appropriate preventive measures to limit them at the time the treatment is being planned and performed.
Informing and instructing the patient on how to take proper care of the oral care and prosthetic restorations are important aspects, since complications can be tightly related to this (e.g., the lack of appropriate cleaning of the denture, teeth or implants is associated with a higher risk for denture stomatitis, tooth or implant loss). Since we are frequently dealing with elderly people, who have less manual dexterity, it is recommended to choose simpler treatment option (e.g., if applicable, 2-implant overdentures are more appropriate than 4-implant overdenture [20].
According to the current level of knowledge, treatment with dentures or implant/root overdentures must consider the risk for developing complications in relation to the technical and biomechanical features (e.g., design, attachment components, materials).
There are different types of design for dentures and overdentures, with different possible complications. Thus, using narrow-diameter implants associates a higher risk of implant fracture. Considering the occlusal scheme, there is evidence that patients prefer dentures with lingualized occlusion [21]. Metal or non-metal (glass and polyethylene fibers) inserts are recommended for denture base reinforcement when there is a high risk of denture fracture or when there are more than 2 teeth or implants supporting the denture [22].
Material used for denture/overdenture fabrication associates the risk of developing complications in relation to their physico-chemical properties and their biocompatibility. For example, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), the material mostly used for manufacturing of dentures or overdentures, through its features (porosity, increased wettability, low mechanical strength, monomer release after curing) facilitates the occurrence of complications such as microbial or contact denture stomatitis, fracture of the dentures, artificial teeth discoloration and wear [23].
A key element in order to achieve a predictable outcome is the analysis of the previous dental and prosthetic treatments, by connecting patient’s subjective complaints with prosthetic restoration’s objective deficiencies. This gives important information that could be used for decision making in establishing the particularities of the future prosthetic treatment. For example, complete denture intolerance can be linked to personality traits, to objective patient’s features that enhance the occurrence of functional deficiencies, or to some objective faults of the dentures. Differentiating between these three situations is the basis for selecting the optimal treatment option, with the possibility to prevent the complications that occurred in the past.
The complete edentulism cannot be regarded simply as the loss of teeth. It is accompanied by massive, progressive changes of the oral structures and functional alterations, which associates a high degree of treatment difficulty and the occurrence of specific complications. Impact of edentulism on oral health is mainly manifested in 3 directions: modifier of normal physiology; risk factor for impaired mastication; determinant of oral health [2]. Amongst the sequelae of treatment with complete dentures, as the most commonly used treatment option, there can be mentioned residual ridge resorption, mucosal reactions, burning mouth syndrome, denture stomatitis [24].
Considering the severe changes of the oral status in edentulous patients, the increasing elderly population and the relatively frequent barriers to oral health care of older people (e.g., financial hardship, transportation difficulties), Petersen et al. makes a series of recommendations among which are the incorporation of age related oral health concerns into the promotion of general health, that could ease the development of oral health care for older people [25].
Between oral health and general health there are numerous interactions, that sometimes materializes as local or systemic complications.
The impact of complete edentulism on the general health status is manifested as an increased risk of conditions, such as nutritional deficiencies, inflammatory changes of the gastric mucosa, peptic or duodenal ulcers, obesity, noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, hypertension, heart failure, ischemic heart disease, stroke, aortic valve sclerosis, chronic kidney disease, sleep-disordered breathing, including obstructive sleep apnea [2]. Additionally, functional limitations, mental and social well-being alterations that negatively impact the quality of life are more common in edentulous patients.
The impact of general health status and the medication used on the oral health of the edentulous patient is partially manifested through the occurrence of complications. Nutritional deficiencies increase the risk of occurrence of denture stomatitis, traumatic ulcer and burning mouth syndrome [25]. Patient’s personality and psychological well-being influences treatment satisfaction and tolerance [10]. Decreased manual dexterity has a negative impact on care and maintenance of dentures/overdentures, which leads to negative effects on oral and systemic health [14].
Patient’s age is an important aspect to consider when planning the prosthetic treatment, being linked to particularities of oral and general health status, to specific needs and expectation towards the prosthetic rehabilitation, to particular medical approaches in order to ensure a good long-term prognosis. Prosthetic treatment of the edentulous patient should take into account the current situation, but also the most probable evolution and, if present, the inherent complications (e.g., preventive measures to reduce alveolar ridge resorption are recommended).
Young-elderly edentulous patients generally have more favorable clinical conditions for prosthetic rehabilitation, a better general health status, a faster adaptation to removable prosthesis if chosen and the ability to perform most accurately the necessary the maintenance procedures. They have higher expectations regarding the esthetics and functionality of the prosthetic rehabilitation and don’t easily accept the removable treatment options.
Old-elderly edentulous patients generally register an increased treatment difficulty, as a consequence of numerous factors interacting. In previous ill-fitting complete denture wearers there is a severe ridge resorption [26,27]. The prevalence of co-morbidities is increased, such as physical or mental health problems that have a negative impact on oral health, systemic health, functioning and behavior. Most of the times the elderly people are not regular users of dental services since they overcome physical and psychological access treatment barriers (e.g., the cost of dental care services, transportation problems, doctor’s attitudes-lack of responsiveness to patient’s concerns, the lack of perceived need for care, fear), which are more significant for the functionally dependent elderly then for the independent elderly [28-30]. They have treatment expectations that target first the rehabilitation of the masticatory function, and second the esthetics. They usually prefer more simple medical procedures, that include limited surgical interventions and that demand easy maintenance procedures. The older completely edentulous patients show a more frequent rate of denture intolerance, probably due to less adaptability to new situations.
Demographic changes, namely population ageing and decreasing prevalence of tooth loss, have impact on the edentulous patient profile. There is an increasing of the age when edentulism occurs, aspects that associates an increased treatment difficulty. Considering the latter, additional measures are necessary to ensure adequate oral health for older edentulous patients e.g., access to and financing for dental services, an adequately trained workforce to provide dental care and appropriate education to edentulous individuals [30].
Health risk factors should be assessed since they can explain some of the case particularities and may have a negative impact on the treatment outcome. Among them, there can be mentioned behavioral risk factors (e.g. tobacco and alcohol consumption, obesity related to physical activity and diet), social risk factors (e.g., socio-economical status, social networks and social support, occupational factors, social inequalities), inadequate disease screening practices, exposure to increased stress [31]. Their role is proven both as a cause of complete edentulism and also as a factor that impacts the treatment outcome, being risk factors for some complications.
Health care decisions require integrating the patient’s individual preferences and values, according to the ethical principle of respecting the patient’s autonomy [32]. A good relation and communication between doctor and patient offers the best premises for reaching a consensus regarding the medical decision, with a positive effect on the treatment outcome.
Patient preferences are related to numerous variables, e.g., age, social status, personality type, education. Acknowledging them may be difficult, especially in elderly patients, sometimes in relation to objective reasons, as physical changes that affect the communication (e.g., loss of hearing or visual acuity). Additional efforts should be made in order to understand the patient’s health needs and preferences, since they can have important consequences, such as rejection of the prosthetic treatment or even avoiding addressing for medical treatment.
The classification of denture and overdenture complications can enhance practitioner’s understanding of them, with a positive effect on their management and prognosis.
Denture and overdenture complications can be classified considering their etiology, according to risk factor’s nature and mechanism of action, as described in table 2, or in regarded to some descriptive criteria, as presented in table 3.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
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Classifications of denture and overdenture complications, considering their etiology
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Classifications of denture and overdenture complications, considering descriptive criteria
Some of the most common complications of the completely edentulous patient, treated by dentures or implant/root overdentures will be presented. Aspects related to their etiology, clinical features and management will be covered.
The residual ridge derives from the alveolar process after tooth loss. It registers the most significant changes and it supports the highest pressures during the worn of dentures or implant-retained overdentures. The ridge resorption is manifested as a continuous, cumulative and irreversible process, visible as the decrease of the quantity and quality of the bone [36].
The process of postextractive bone restructuring, after tooth loss, has variable rate and pattern, in relation to general physiological and pathological factors (age, menopause, systemic alterations), local factors (the edentulism and its cause, features of the jaws – volume, density). Also, the rate of bone resorption (the quantity of bone lost in a time period) varies in relation to the moment of tooth loss-it is maximum immediately after it in the first month, high in the first year after the tooth loss and decreases consequently. The pattern of bone resorption registers topographic differences – as for the maxilla and the mandible, for the anterior and posterior regions and in relation to anatomical features. The resorption is maximum at the top of the ridge and is lower at the base of the ridge, in the biostatical areas (maxillary tuberosity, retromolar pad), at the ligaments’ insertion site (frenum) and in the region of the hard palate. The ridge resorption occurs from the top to the basis, and is centripetal in the maxilla and centrifugal in the mandible. The pattern of ridge resorption varies according to the anatomical features and the size of the jaws, e.g., in class II skeletal patients, brachicephals, with mandibular micrognathism the resorption is more severe in the mandible, and in class III skeletal patients, dolicocephals, with mandibular macrognathism the resorption is more severe in the maxilla. Also, ridge resorption is more pronounced in women (probably linked to smaller jaws and lower bone density, related to postmenopause osteoporosis), in patients who lost their teeth due to periodontal disease and in those with high occlusal forces (natural teeth as antagonists, bruxism). Systemic conditions, particularly diabetes mellitus and other metabolic disorders, can accelerate the rhythm of ridge resorption.
The dentures accelerate the rate of ridge resorption, mainly through the pressure exercised by them on the support structures during oral functions. The severity of ridge resorption is connected to the parameters of functional and parafunctional forces of occlusion and to biomechanical aspects related to the prosthesis-the support and stability of the denture, the positioning of artificial teeth, type of occlusion, antagonists (teeth, implants, edentulous), and correctness of the registration of maxillomandibular relationship. The support surface for occlusal forces is reduced in edentulous patients, compared to the dentulous ones, and through progressive ridge resorption, both in high and width, consequently the support surface decreases even more. The magnitude of occlusal forces are generally lower in the edentulous patients, but there are variations related to age, sex, parafunctions as bruxism, stress level, food consistency preferences, and also the correctness of prosthetic rehabilitation. Increased duration of occlusion contacts, as a risk factor for ridge resorption, is related to bruxism, ill-fitting dentures, unstable occlusion and increased vertical dimension of occlusion. Compared to maxillary edentulism, mandibular edentulism has greater risk of registering more severe ridge resorption, due to the decreased denture support surface and related higher magnitude of pressure beared. Also, denture wearing associates the risk of specific complications that favor the occurrence of an accelerated rate of ridge resorption, such as inflammatory lesions of the oral mucosa (e.g., denture stomatitis). Due to these factors, it is considered that ridge resorption is in tight relation with the period of wearing the dentures, but is also influenced by the quality of the treatment.
Ridge resorption implies a decrease in bone volume, as ridges’ height (assessed as reduced, medium and severe resorption), ridge’s width (assessed as wide, medium or thin “knife edge ridge”) and ridge’s surface layout (normal or abnormal morphology, with exostosis). The characteristics of the alveolar ridge influence treatment conduct and have impact on its outcome, e.g., severe ridge resorption (Figure 1) is more frequently associated with denture instability and reduced denture tolerance, difficulties in mounting the artificial teeth and esthetic deficiencies.
Severe ridge resorption, in long-term denture wearers
Associated to ridge resorption particular aspects of the maxillomandibular relationship can be noticed, as lack of parallelism between the ridges direction and anterior or/and posterior inverse ridge relationship (Figure 2). According to their skeletal jaw relations and in relation with the different patterns of jaws resorption, class III skeletal patients have the tendency to register an inverse ridge relationship, and class II skeletal patients an apparently normal relationship.
Inverse ridge relationship, related to skeletal class III and the pattern of bone resorption (centripetal in the maxilla and centrifugal in the mandible)
Through resorption and replacement of the bone with fibrous tissue, a floating ridge, usually named “flabby ridge” is noticed. This aspect is most commonly observed in the edentulous anterior maxilla, being related to the excessive pressure of the mandibular anterior teeth (Combination Syndrome). Flabby ridge can also be seen in other places, like maxillary tuberosity or retromolar pad, being linked to instability of the denture or excessive occlusal trauma.
Severe mandibular ridge resorption is accompanied by reduction of the area of the fixed mucosa, difficulties in acknowledgement of the extension of the denture base (due to the sublingual gland herniation through the mylohyoid muscle and modifications of the muscle and ligaments’ insertion sites, which can get close to the ridge crest) and pain as a result of dental pressure in the mental foramen area and nerve exposure.
Denture wearing associates inherent ridge resorption, manifested as the occurrence of denture instability. Consequently, clinical procedures as relining or rebasing are required for readjustment of the dentures, in order to correspond to patient’s need and to prevent worsening of the edentulous condition.
In edentulous patients, considering the irreversible and progressive character of bone resorption, preventive interventions should be taken towards reduction of resorption rate and its complications. In this respect, addressing the risk factors and correct management of the supporting tissue should be a priority. In order to limit the bone resorption it is recommended to preserve the tooth roots, to use dental implants, to realize immediate prosthetic rehabilitation, especially in cases with tooth lost due to periodontal disease since this conduct favors a more reduced guided bone resorption. Correctness of dentures manufacturing is essential and it should rely on the principles of retention, stability and support, with proper maintenance and on time replacement. Implant overdentures can be used both as a preventive solution, in order to reduce the bone resorption, and as a curative solution, for solving the cases with severe ridge resorption where conventional dentures did not succeed or were not tolerated.
Severe ridge resorption associates decreased denture stability, which is associated with complications such as pain, lesions of the mucosa, reduced denture tolerance, that need to be addressed. The surgical preprosthetic interventions (bone augmentation, frenectomy, excision of hyperplasic lesions, as in figure 3) and non-surgical interventions (tissue conditioning, antifungal medication, improvement of the nutrition) are preparative treatments that aim achieving better conditions for prosthetic rehabilitation. Taking into account edentulous patient’s profile (aged, with systemic co-morbidities), stress related to the fear of surgical interventions and healing parameters (as time needed or remaining scar tissues), the non-surgical or less invasive surgical interventions are preferred. Soft lining materials are indicated since they facilitate the uniformly distribution of the functional stress and can reposition the abused tissues.
The prosthetic treatment of the edentulous patient can be performed using conventional or implant restorations, fixed or removable, with or without preprosthetic interventions, according to the clinical case’s particularities and patient’s needs. Treatment requirements include accurate physiological impression of the oral structures, correct registration of maxillomandibular relationship and teeth mounting and selection of appropriate occlusal scheme, in order to ensure dentures’ stability and esthetic and functional rehabilitation.
Preprosthetic surgical interventions for excision of hyperplastic lesions
Accurate establishment of the peripheral extension of the denture base, considering also the pressures supported by the denture-bearing area, is extremely important, being directly relate to denture’s retention, stability and tolerance. In this respect, the correct 2-phase impression technique (primary and custom tray impression) is essential. In edentulous patients with severe ridge resorption, additional adjunctive procedures may be required as tissue conditioning, supplementary functional impressions or usage of neutral zone impression technique. In displaceable or “flabby ridges”, the selective pressure impression technique (e.g., using a custom tray with a window opening over the mobile tissue) is more recommended, being at equal importance to other aspects as stable posterior occlusion. Thin mandibular “knife edge ridges”, that are accompanied by pain related to denture pressure, needs special treatment conduct, with usage of soft liners, a selective pressure impression technique, preprosthetic surgery (some disagree because ridge reduction implies loss of potential stabilizing zone) and dental implants.
Registration of maxillomandibular relationship is essential for the treatment success. It implies establishing the functional vertical dimension of occlusion, in accordance with minimum speaking space and the freeway space, and respecting the coincidence of maximal intercuspal position and centric relation. The most recommended occlusal schemes for removable prosthesis are the lingualized occlusion, for the bimaxillary complete edentulous patient, in skeletal class II patients or in severe mandibular ridge resorption or the linear occlusion, for mandibular overdentures, in patients with combination syndrome or skeletal class III pattern and severe maxillary ridge resorption.
Mandibular conventional dentures register frequently retention and stability deficiencies, mainly related to ridge resorption. These can be addressed through usage of implant prosthetic restorations, fixed or removable. There are multiple treatment options when considering usage of dental implants, as removable prosthesis (conventional or narrow dental implant overdenture, with different attachment systems as bars, ball, Locator) or fixed restorations (All an four, Fast & Fixed, conventional fixed implant restorations). Current perspective identifies 2 implant overdentures as the minimum standard for mandibular edentulism taking into account performance, patient satisfaction, cost and clinical time [37]. Selecting between them require acknowledgement of case futures and patient’s need and preferences. For example, fixed restorations have better treatment outcome, but have limited usage due to aspects like cost and higher complexity of the interventions required (e.g., sometimes surgical procedures as bone augmentation or sinus lift cannot be avoided).
Traumatic ulcers are small, painful mucosal lesions that most commonly develop in the first days after insertion of a new denture [38].
Denture related hyperplasia is an enlargement of the oral mucosa, appeared in relation to the denture base. There are two main types of denture related hyperplasia, namely denture-related fibrous hyperplasia (epulis fissuratum) and inflammatory papillary hyperplasia.
In inflammatory papillary hyperplasia the hard palatal mucosa has an erythematous aspect, with a pebbly or papillary surface [42]. According to its severity, we can see forms with limited localization or that cover the entire hard palatal mucosa. The previously described two types of denture related hyperplasia can be observed in figure 4.
Denture related hyperplasia
The treatment of inflammatory papillary hyperplasia requires removal of the denture at night, improvement of the oral hygiene and denture hygiene. Antifungal therapy, surgical excision of the hyperplastic tissues and renewal of the denture can be recommended in some cases [42].
Denture stomatitis is a chronic infectious inflammatory disease of the oral mucosa that is in direct contact with the base of the removable prosthesis, either conventional or implant-supported.
Acrylic dentures produce ecological changes that facilitate the accumulation of bacteria and yeasts and thus commensal organism may become pathogenic, denture stomatitis being considered an opportunistic infection [44]. A higher prevalence is noticed in cases with poor denture hygiene with denture plaque accumulation, continuous wear of the dentures (including at night) and in ill-fitting dentures. Other risk factors for denture stomatitis are related to the material characteristics, as their changes in time that favor plaque accumulation and microbial colonization (soft linings materials through their fast deterioration and difficulties of achieving proper hygiene; hard acrylic materials through their increased porosity that occurs in time) or as determining hypersensitivity reactions.
Host related risk factors for denture stomatitis include local factors (reduced salivary flow rate, low salivary pH, poor oral hygiene), general factors (physiological such as age, sex, nutritional status and associated medication) which act towards decreasing the resistance and defense mechanisms of the oral mucosa. The prevalence of denture stomatitis is higher among elderly denture users, women, smokers, alcohol consumers, vitamin A deficiency, diabetes and immune deficiency [44-47]. Changes in the salivary flow rate may be signs of a systemic disease, as in Sjögren or Mikulicz syndromes, or associated to medication use, as diuretics, antihypertensive, antipsychotic, anxiolytic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antihistaminic drugs. Also, incorrect antibiotic therapy, without fungal protection and broad spectrum antibiotics are seen as risk factors.
Denture stomatitis – clinical aspect
Treatment of denture stomatitis consists mainly in adopting strict methods for oral and denture hygiene, with removal of the denture overnight and soaking it in an antiseptic solution, such as chlorhexidine mouthwash. Considering the frequent Candida colonization, antifungal agents, usually as topical application, are recommended either when the yeasts have been isolated or in the absence of a favorable response to the previous interventions [14,44]. Additionally, denture deficiencies and other risk factors should be identified and addressed.
Denture stomatitis – clinical aspect (a); thermography of the oral mucosa (b); thermography of the maxillary denture (c)
Edentulousness and dentures can lead to muscle changes, which are mainly an adaptation to the anatomical and functional changes. These can be encountered to the muscle that define the extension of the denture base and the neutral zone and play a role in the denture stability and retention (lips, cheeks and tongue), to masticatory muscles and to the muscles of facial expression.
Prosthetic treatment deficiencies favor abnormal muscular changes. Increased vertical dimension of occlusion and ill-fitting dentures cause muscle spasms, habitual and involuntary movements. Oversized anterior buccal flange of the maxillary denture associates the overextension of the upper lip, with possible anatomical and functional consequences. Association of posterior artificial tooth wear with over jet or lack of coincidence of maximal intercuspal position and centric relation leads to an abnormal protruded mandibular position, which makes difficult the registration of maxillomandibular relationship (centric relation).
The changes in muscle tonus can be seen as hypertonia or hypotonia. Muscle hypertonia (Figure 7) is more obvious in lower lip orbicularis oris muscle and in tongue muscles, and causes instability of the mandibular denture. It occurs in the edentulous patients in relation to prosthetic factors as ill-fitting dentures, to patient’s individual characteristics as hypodivergent skeletal class II pattern, to parafunctions as bruxism or some systemic conditions. Muscle hypotonia is more frequent for upper lip orbicularis oris muscle and the buccinator muscle, and it occurs related to ageing, to deficient nutritional status and various systemic conditions. Less favorable condition for denture retention and stability, decrease of the efficiency of self-cleaning and reduced visibility of the anterior maxillary teeth in phonation or smiling are some of the effects of muscle hypotonia.
Lower lip orbicularis oris muscle hypertonia, that affects mandibular denture stability\\
The changes in volume of the muscles is usually represented by muscular atrophy, which combined with muscular hypotonia, lead to the characteristic facial aspect of old people, with masseter muscle thickness and loose or sagging skin.
Buccinators, orbicularis oris and tongue muscles define the neutral zone, whose accurate limitation is difficult to identify in severe ridge resorption. Changes in the position of the muscle insertions occur, such as high muscle insertions, even on the ridge top (genioglossus and mentalis muscle), with detached oral mucosa. Considering that position of muscle attachments has a major impact to denture base stability and retention, through changes of the denture bearing area, severe ridge resorption with consecutive muscles changes increase the treatment difficulty degree, especially in the mandible.
Muscle force decreasing leads to decrease in the capacity of performing a voluntary act (such as mastication). This occurs in relation to ageing, paresis, depression, denture instability or pain caused by the dentures. Alterations in jaw movements can occur in relation to deficiencies of the prosthetic restorations, as unstable occlusion, denture instability, increased vertical dimension of occlusion or in bruxism. Muscular spasms are encountered in particular situations as in the jaw-closing muscles, related to an increased vertical dimension of occlusion or for jaw-opening muscles related to a decreased vertical dimension of occlusion.
Neuromuscular coordination and control deficiencies, which occur in relation to age and systemic alterations, can increase treatment difficulty and negatively influence the accommodation with the prosthesis. For example, in Parkinson disease a lack of neuromuscular coordination occurs, which leads to difficulties in registration of maxillomandibular relationship and in the insertion and removal of the denture or the overdenture. Abnormal, involuntary, patterned or stereotyped and purposeless orofacial movements (oral dyskinesia) can occur linked to ill-fitting unstable dentures, oral discomfort, and lack of sensory contacts [2]. Facial nerve paresis includes affected unilateral facial musculature movement with asymmetry of facial expression and functional disorders, taste alterations and salivary changes, all having impact on the prosthetic treatment – difficulties in impression taking and in registration of maxillomandibular relationship, reduced masticatory efficiency with unilateral mastication, increased risk of unstable dentures, aesthetic alterations and denture intolerance.
If muscle changes have been identified, these should be taken into account in planning and performing the prosthodontic treatment. In muscle hypertonia, aspects like positioning the artificial teeth in the neutral zone, correct placement of the occlusal plane and correct occlusal relations are essential. In muscle hypotonia, it is recommended to design the buccal flange of the denture with a convex shape and usage of medium viscosity impression materials, in order to have a correct registration of the extension of the denture base and to use the muscle contractions for denture stabilization. Impression taking technique varies according to case’s particularities – in patients with protruded tongue at rest, wider movement are required during impression taking, comparing to a retracted tongue, in order to adequately register functional movements (Figure 8).
Tongue position at rest – anterior vs. posterior
Extension of denture or overdenture base is limited by the muscle insertions, their encroachment causing, during muscle contraction, movement of the prosthesis. In severe ridge resorption cases, as for those with muscle insertions on the ridge top, preprosthetic surgery for repositioning of muscle and mucosal attachments is indicated [51].
In neuromuscular coordination and control deficiencies, considering the severe functional alterations, conventional dentures usually don’t respond to patient’s need and implant overdenture should be chosen instead. Compared to conventional dentures, implant overdentures provides better functional parameters – exertion of higher masticatory forces promotes better nutrition through the ability to chew harder foods.
Last but not least, manufacturing of a new prosthesis requires an adjustment period for the establishment of the new memory patterns for the masticatory muscles, of about 6 to 8 weeks, aspect that should be mentioned to the patient [52].
The complete edentulism contributes greatly to the facial aspect known as the aged appearance. Prosthetic treatment needs to adequately address this consequence of edentulism, considering the fact that patients’ complaints are frequently related to aesthetic reasons.
Edentulism associates significant anatomical and functional changes that impact the facial appearance. Lip and cheek support is severely altered by tooth loss and bone resorption. A tendency of increasing the facial concavity occurs in relation to the different pattern of bone resorption of the jaws (centripetal in the maxilla and centrifugal in the mandible). In association with the loss of the occlusal contacts, a counter-clockwise rotation of the mandible, with a decreasing height of the lower third of the face, and sometimes a tendency to a more advanced protruded mandibular position occurs. Facial alterations that are directly linked to edentulism can be considered worsening factors of the esthetic appearance, since there are also preexistent changes in relation to other factors.
As a consequence of aging, there are changes related to the evolution of bones and soft tissues (muscles, fat and skin), in addition to noticeable effects of gravity, with effect on facial esthetics [53]. Systemic health, medication use and behavior (e.g., alcohol and tobacco use) can influence the facial appearance. For example, smoking causes changes particularly in the lower and middle third of the face, like hyperpigmentation and accentuated wrinkles-deeper nasolabial folds, upper lip wrinkles, lower lip vermillion wrinkles, lower lid hyperpigmentation [54]. Premature aged appearance occurs in some diseases like Cutis laxa or glomerulonephritis [55,56].
The prosthetic treatment of the edentulous patient addresses positively some of the previous mentioned facial alteration, but can also contribute to an aged appearance through its deficiencies, as in cases with a decreased vertical dimension of occlusion, a reverse smile line or darker, yellow artificial teeth.
Facial appearance of edentulous patient, with severe bone resorption, without dentures
In edentulous patient, shape and vertical proportions of the face are modified compared to the dentate period. Frequently, edentulous patients have a short face morphotype, appeared in relation to the decrease in the facial lower and total height and the counter-clockwise rotation of the mandible.
Profile changes occur as decreasing its convexity compared to the dentate period. This aspect is due to the different pattern of bone resorption of the jaws and sometimes an advanced protruded mandibular position in the absence of stable occlusion. These changes are more obvious in the skeletal class III patients and are termed as pseudo-class III relation or the old man\'s prognathism. Profile changes include also modification of nasolabial angle related to nose tip lowering and loss of upper lip support.
Lips register great changes, as reduction of vermilion height and their volume, color modifications, retraction due to support loss, elongation (upper lip) and shortening (lower lip), straight or reversed lip line and low smile line, and reduced lips dynamics that contribute to a decreased teeth exposure during speaking and smiling, which associated a reduction of emotional display, as happiness or sadness [57].
Facial changes related to ageing mark the facial appearance. Lips and cheeks become less prominent and there can be noticed marked folds and wrinkles, loose or sagging skin, changes in the skin texture and hyperpigmentation. These are mainly connected to muscle changes, as hypotonia, and skin changes, as loss of skin elastic recoil.
The prosthetic treatment has a positive impact on the facial esthetics (Figure 10). Generally, it provides a support for the soft tissue, tries to compensate the tooth loss and bone resorption (through the artificial teeth and anterior buccal maxillary flange), ensures a functional vertical dimension of occlusion and give a natural look through exposure of the teeth during smiling or speaking. Some faulty prosthesis or some changes that occurs in time can have a negative impact on facial esthetic. Unpleasant facial appearance can be linked to errors in anterior artificial tooth mounting (too forward, too backward), shade selection (chosen incorrectly, too light, not matching the patient\'s age), to changes of the artificial teeth over time (through teeth wear the smile line can become reversed, or through aging of the material discolorations can appear). A decreased vertical dimension of occlusion leads to an aged appearance, with deeper perioral folds, and an increased vertical dimension of occlusion associate an unnatural, tensioned look. An overextended buccal flange, encountered more often in the maxillary dentures, leads to an over-supported lip with a tensioned unnatural look. Unstable dentures negatively influence facial appearance through movement while speaking and the facial changes related to protruded mandibular position that many times is associated.
Facial appearance of a recently edentulous patient with and without the dentures
Removable dental prosthesis are described as having a series of complications in relation to the correctness and accuracy of their planning and execution (extension of the denture base, registration of maxillomandibular relationship, mounting of the artificial teeth, occlusal scheme), the technical and biomechanical features of the devices, the properties of the materials used, in conjunction with their evolution in time.
Considering the aims of medical treatments, not properly achieving the prosthodontic treatment goals (denture retention and stability, patient’s satisfaction that is liked to aspects like the degree of esthetic and functional rehabilitations and absence of pain) may be considered treatment complications. Removable prosthesis instability can be caused by incorrect denture execution (e.g., overextended flanges, incorrect mounting of the artificial teeth, unstable occlusion), or can occur in time, as a consequence of bone resorption. This issue must be promptly addressed since it can lead to serious complications, such as the fracture of the prosthesis, abutment loss (teeth, implants) and intolerance of the prosthesis. In order to ensure good removable prosthesis stability, the primary aspect that should be consider is its correct execution, mainly regarding the extension of the denture base and artificial teeth mounting. Secondary, usage of denture adhesives, relinings and placement of dental implants should be considered.
The fracture of the removable prosthesis (Figure 11) is a relatively common complication, having numerous risk factors, such as poor denture design, denture instability, teeth or fixed restorations in the opposite jaw, increased mucosal resiliency, previous fractures, accidents (dropping the denture, associated to reduced dexterity), material properties and changes in time, flexural fatigue or other impact factors. Its management includes identifying the cause and the treatment can range from conventionally repairing procedures to reinforcement of the denture base with metal or non-metal products (as glass and polyethylene fibers or net), to changing the previous denture or even the treatment option [58].
Overdenture fracture at the attachment site
The complications associated to the properties of the material used, mainly polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), are linked to changes that appears during their evolution in time, as discolorations, artificial teeth wear, increased porosity and decrease flexural strength. Considering their functional and aesthetic impact, denture and overdenture treatment should be renewed at approximately every 5 years.
Additionally, signs of combination syndrome can appear when mandibular overdentures (supported or retained by roots or dental implants) are opposed by an edentulous maxilla. In this situation the masticatory field moves anteriorly, favoring the instability of the maxillary denture and the increased bone resorption rate in the anterior maxilla. This iatrogenic effect can be managed by using implants also in the maxilla, aiming to address or prevent this functional consequence and the destructive process of the oral structures [59].
The root overdentures can have teeth related complications, mainly due to primary or recurrent caries, periradicular lesions developed by vital teeth, endodontically lesions developed by endodontically treated teeth due to loss of the restoration sealing the root canal, periodontitis or root fracture [60]. Their management is dependent of the problem type, in most severe forms tooth loss and recurrent failure of prosthodontic treatment occurring. It is important to preserve the roots as a prevention factor for bone resorption and due their positive impact on the oral functioning [61]. Patients’ awareness, instruction and motivation regarding maintaining a proper oral hygiene are essential considering that is the main factor for periodontal disease and caries control. When caries occur, it is important to identify them quickly in order to have high a high success rate for the treatment. Topical fluoridation or coverage with metallic caps can be performed preventively for patients with a high caries risk. For the periodontal disease it is recommended to use Chlorhexidine 0.12% mouthwash twice daily. Also, the removal of the denture overnight and maintenance of proper denture hygiene are recommended. If tooth mobility appears, it can be addressed by reducing the tooth height, which leads to an increase in the crown to root ratio. The risk of root fracture is higher in endodontically treated teeth and when the magnitude of occlusal forces is higher, as in denture instability, bruxism, increased vertical dimension of occlusion, when teeth or fixed prosthesis in the opposite jaw. Preventively, thimble crowns can be used.
For the implant overdenture, the implants complications can be related to the treatment planning (insufficient implant number), implant positioning (surgical complications can appear, such as nerve or blood vessel injuries, penetration of the maxillary sinus or the nasal cavity, hemorrhages or pain) and their evolution (post-insertion infections, compromised survival or implant loss associated deficient osseointegration, peri-implantitis, implant fracture) [62].
Peri-implant soft tissue lesions-clinical aspect
Therefore, treatment planning considering the fundamental principles of removable implant prosthodontics, overdenture design and execution, maintenance procedures, regular check-ups are all essential for prevention or adequate management of treatment complications. Implant problems are differently addressed according to their type and severity, ranging from simple denture adjustments and enhancing the oral hygiene, to denture relinings or replacement of the denture, to inserting new implants. An important aspect to consider is that implant failure is more common in the maxilla than the mandible, consequently being favorable to place more implants in the upper jaw.
Mandibular implant overdenture is generally considered as being a good predictable treatment, its major implant complication, namely implant loss usually occurring in the first year of function [63,64]. Therefore, regular check-ups are absolutely necessary in this period, for an early intervention that ensures the best prognosis. It is recommended that the dentists performs periodically an accurate evaluation of the implants and surrounding soft tissue regarding the peri-implant marginal bone loss, implant mobility, peri-implant soft tissue, peri-implant bleeding, implant sensitivity during function, result of implant percussion test, plaque accumulation. The overdentures must be verified regarding the overdenture base that is in direct contact with the implant, as risk factor for peri-implant soft tissue complications, regarding the occlusion and maxillomandibular relationship whose faults may be related to exerting increased pressure on implants, as risk factor for implant failure, as its stability and hygiene. Other aspects, like the prosthetic treatment on the opposite jaw (an unstable denture as antagonist can produce excessive forces on the implants) and parafunctions should be checked.
Attachment system complications can occur as a consequence of an incorrect treatment planning, improper treatment conduct (e.g., errors during placement of the retentive housing in the overdenture base) or related to their changes that occur in time, during functioning (e.g., loosening or damage). These vary according to the type of attachment system, e.g., bar, ball, Locator. Most frequent attachment system complications, with overdentures, are: decreased prosthesis retention due to deactivation, detachment, damage or loss of the retentive housing; abutment screw loosening or fracture; fracture of the attachment system components (e.g., bar or clip fracture); soft tissue lesions as hyperplasia under the bar or peri-implant mucositis.
The management of attachment system complications varies according to the attachment system used and the complication type. Technical complications are more common for bar than ball attachments, and both of them are more common compared to locator system [65,66]. Usually low severity complications occurs, such as loss of rubber ring and matrix deactivation, which need to be promptly addressed since they cause overdenture instability with possible negative impact on the dental implants. A more severe complication is bar fracture, that requires increased clinical time and expenses to be resolved, considering that usually the overdenture must be replaced. In elderly edentulous patients simpler prosthetic reconstructions, with complications that require decreased time and money are preferred. Thus, if the option of implant overdenture has been selected, the ball attachment system can be more appropriate than the bar attachment system, due to the more simple maintenance procedures and easier replacement of the implant if necessary.
The conventional dentures are the most common treatment option for the edentulous patients, and usually register good results in terms of patient’s satisfaction. Dissatisfaction reasons most claimed by patients are related to denture instability, improper mastication, esthetic deficiency and phonation problems [67]. Denture intolerance is usually connected to subjective factors (the patient’s needs and expectations, psychological type, misconceptions) or objective factors (denture instability, pain, functional deficiencies).
The root or implant overdenture have improved retention that contributes to physical and psychological comfort. According to the current evidence, mandibular implant overdentures provide a higher satisfaction and oral health related quality of life compared to conventional denture, but there is uncertainty about the true magnitude of difference between the two [68].
Dentures and overdentures, the most frequently used treatment options for the complete edentulism, have complications that are related to patient and prostheses features. Patient’s general and local conditions and behavior must be acknowledged as their manifestations, interactions and impact on the prosthetic treatment. Removable implant prosthodontics principles should be well-known and respected during prosthesis execution. The previous, additional to regular check-ups, represent the basis of the prevention removable prosthesis complications.
Denture and overdenture complications are partially similar, differences being related to design particularities, biomechanical aspects and execution procedures. Addressing them depends on their nature and severity, requiring a specific medical conduct. Often simple clinical interventions are needed, but sometimes complex procedures with increased clinical, biological and financial costs must be considered in order to achieve a medical result that corresponds to the current medical standards and patient needs and expectations.
The taxonomy is as follows: Kingdom Monera, phylum Proteobacteria, class gamma subdivision, order
In relation to its metabolism, it is aerobic although it can develop under anaerobic conditions using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor. It is a ubiquitous organism in the environment and also, it can colonize multiple niches and utilize many environmental compounds as energy sources. It is found mainly in water, soil, swamps, coastal marine habitats, as well as in plant and animal tissues as well as in hospitals.
This bacterium is an extremely important pathogen, since it is responsible for a high percentage of nosocomial infections in patients confined in health centers. As an opportunistic human pathogen, it is responsible for infection in immunocompromised patients such as cystic fibrosis, diabetes, cancer, severely burn patients, advanced HIV infections (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, AIDS), bone marrow transplants, surgical wound infections, and catheterized patients, and this is as a consequence of its resistance to antibiotics and disinfectants that kill other environmental bacteria [7]. A broad range of cell-associated and external factors influence multidrug resistance and thus bacterial pathogenicity. In the colonization, survival, and invasion of tissues of bacteria, virulence factors play a crucial pathogenic function. The pili are responsible for adhesion to the epithelium. Exoenzyme S and other adhesins help epithelial cells stick together. Tissue necrosis is caused by the exotoxin A. Phospholipase C is a hemolysin that is thermolabile. Exoenzyme S’s pathogenic involvement is due to its disruption of normal cytoskeletal organization, degradation of immunoglobulin G and A, depolymerization of actin filaments, and contribution to macrophage resistance. At least four proteases produced by
Replace the entirety of this text with the introduction to your chapter. The introduction section should provide a context for your manuscript and should be numbered as first heading. When preparing the introduction, please bear in mind that some readers will not be experts in your field of research.
Prior to 1966, no comprehensive investigation of the aerobic pseudomonads taxonomy had been conducted. It is the work of Stanier and collaborators [10], in which physiological and biochemical features were used to demonstrate the taxonomic basis for the species identification. The genus was amended in 1984 by Palleroni, and five groups were established based on the results of DNA–DNA hybridization and rRNA–DNA hybridization. All five groups were later identified as belonging to the class Proteobacteria, and members of the genus
The genome size of
Studies on the P. aeruginosa transcriptome became possible after the genome was completed [13]. Understanding the lifestyle and pathogenicity of
Although the 16S rRNA gene is the basic tool of the current bacterial classification system, it is known that closely related bacterial species cannot be differentiated based on this gene. Therefore, in the last 10 years, other gene sequences have been used as phylogenetic molecular markers in taxonomic studies, such as atpD, gyrB, rpoB, recA, and rpoD [16]. Mulet and collaborators have shown that analysis of the sequences of four housekeeping genes (16S rRNA, gyrB, rpoB, and rpoD) in all known species of the genus clarified the phylogeny and greatly facilitated the identification of new strains. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of the four housekeeping genes is reliable for species delineation and strain identification in Pseudomonas [17]. MLST is enhancing our understanding of the general genome organization of
Iron is a micronutrient found in almost all living organisms and is an essential component of nearly all of them [20]. It can be present in both reduced (Fe2+) and oxidized (Fe3+) forms in cells, making it simple to insert into an enzyme’s catalytic site and serve as an electron carrier in many redox-sensing proteins. Iron forms part of a larger cofactor such as Fe-S clusters and heme, the former is involved in diverse biological processes, including metabolite biosynthesis, DNA replication, RNA modification, gene expression, photosynthesis, and respiration, and the latter is required for cytochrome biogenesis and the transport and storage of oxygen in vertebrates. Iron is associated with oxidative stress. In the presence of oxygen, the ferrous ion is unstable, forming ferric ions and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage biological macromolecules and cause cell death. This process is illustrated by the Fenton Reaction [21].
Fenton Reaction:
Even though iron is the fourth most prevalent element in the Earth’s crust, only its ferrous form is soluble in water, whereas ferric iron has very low solubility and forms insoluble precipitates hydroxides at neutral pH with solubilities of 10–9 to 10–10 M (i.e. 56 ng/L) [22]. Because the concentration is too low to maintain life, all organisms have evolved unique mechanisms to solubilize iron. After absorption of iron in the ferrous form by the protein ferroportin in the duodenal mucosa, animals absorb it from the meal. The iron is then transported to the glycoprotein transferrin, where it becomes ferric, and is then stored in ferritin as a polymeric ferric complex. This is utilized to feed iron to various apoproteins for them to produce various iron-containing proteins as well as to provide the iron required for erythrocyte development and hemoglobin synthesis [22, 23].
Transferrin and the related protein lactoferrin:Milk and other extracellutlar fluids contain it (saliva, tears, and nasal mucus). (Transferrin (Tf) is an iron carrier glycoprotein (Fe 3+), synthesized and metabolized mainly in hepatocytes. It is made up of a single polypeptide chain of 679 amino acids with a molar mass of 79,500 g/mol. Each transferrin molecule consists of two lobes with a similar internal structure and is independent for Fe 3+ fixation; the N-terminal lobe contains residues 1–336 and the C-terminal residues 336–679. Each lobe in turn is folded, forming two domains. This conformation of the molecule allows the firm, although reversible, union of Fe.
Ferritin: Ferritin is the intracellular protein responsible for the storage and release of iron. Ferritin can store up to 4500 iron atoms as a ferrihydrite mineral in a protein shell and releases these iron atoms when needed by the cell. The ferritin protein coat consists of 24 protein subunits of 2 types, the H subunit and the L subunit.
Fe-containing proteins such as heme proteins: In these proteins, iron is in its ferrous form and, as such, can be used as an appropriate ligand in which O2 can bind to be transported around the body as oxyhemoglobin.
Outline of the principal iron sources that may be accessed by bacterial pathogens source [
Pathogens obtain iron from their hosts by three methods that are engaged when the bacterium is in an iron-deficient environment that limits its growth and is not mutually exclusive. First, bacteria get iron by breaking down hemoglobin, such as hemolytic bacteria. FeII does not have enough time to oxidize to insoluble Fe III in this situation. Second, using a particular binding protein, the pathogen can bind to transferrin or lactoferrin. At the bacterial cell surface, the iron is then taken from the molecule. Third, the bacteria create a chelating chemical termed siderophore, which has a stronger affinity for iron than the host organism’s iron-containing molecules [22].
Bacteria possess specific pathogenicity mechanisms that they exhibit to overcome a host’s defenses. A pathogenic microorganism could cause damage, at any level, in a susceptible host organism. Virulence is a quantitative measure of pathogenicity and is measured by the number of microorganisms required to cause disease, that is, it is the degree of pathogenicity.
Throughout evolution, bacteria have acquired characteristics that allow them to invade the host environment, express specialized surface receptors for adhesion, remain in these sites through colonization processes, evade the immune system, and finally cause tissue damage within order to gain access to sources of nutrients necessary for their growth and reproduction [24, 25].
Therefore, the virulence factor or determinant is a microbial component that favors growth or survival during infection; iron being a determining factor of intracellular survival for the growth of most bacteria and especially pathogens, such as
When a microorganism enters a host organism, either in a pathogenic or symbiotic form, it finds a favorable environment with access to practically all the nutrients necessary for its growth except for one, iron. Iron, unlike other elemental sources for nutrition, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other macro- and micronutrients, is not freely available in host organisms, so it is an important limiting factor for the growth of microorganisms. It is known that one of the responses of host organisms to pathogen attack consists in the reduction of free iron by sequestering this metal in ferritin molecules, structurally known as siderophores. This iron uptake mechanism that operates in bacteria has also been found in animals and plants. In the latter, there is a notable difference, and in the former, the control of ferritin synthesis occurs molecularly at the translational level, while in plants it occurs at the transcriptional level [4, 28, 29, 30], Hydroxamates: Siderophores that use a hydroxamate group to bind iron. The most representative siderophore is aerobactin, produced by bacteria of the Salmonella genus and some strains of E. coli, which has a dissociation constant very similar to transferrins, so it competes with other sources such as ferritin.
Cathecolates: Enterobactin is the most studied siderophore of this group, produced by strains of E. coli and other enterobacteria.
α-Hydroxycarboxylic acids: they are siderophores with a group similar to that of a hydroxamate, in which one of the radicals is replaced by a double bond with oxygen and nitrogen of the skeleton by a carbon. An example is the siderophore achromobactin produced by Erwinia chrysanthemi.
Mixed: those are in which two different binding groups are combined in the same molecule.
An example is anguibactin which contains a catechol and a hydroxamate group.
The siderophores, despite the variety in their structures, have similarities between them:
They contain strongly electron donating atoms (often oxygen and, to a lesser degree, nitrogen or sulfur).
Their shape is thermodynamically stable.
They contain high Fe3+ spin species.
They have a redox potential between −0.33 V (triacetylfusarinine) and − 0.75 V (enterobactin).
More than 500 siderophores, chemically characterized and classified, are currently reported. In addition, some have been shown to have the ability to chelate (subtract) other metals other than iron, such as aluminum, gallium, chromium, copper, zinc, lead, manganese, cadmium, vanadium, indium, plutonium, and uranium. Due to the great variety of siderophores, it is evident that several mechanisms of iron (III) transport exist [31, 32].
P. aeruginosa synthesizes two types of siderophores, pyoverdine (PVD), and piochelin (PCH). Pyoverdine is the major siderophore of fluorescent pseudomonads (Figure 3). Pyoverdines were discovered in 1892, and over the years, they have been given various names: fluorescins, pseudobactins, and finally pyoverdins or pyoverdines. In 1952, J. Totter and F. Moseley observed that the iron levels affected the production of fluorescin by
Pyochelin of
Pyoverdines are a class of fluorescent yellow-green siderophores produced and secreted by many Pseudomonas species. In addition to pyoverdine, other siderophores with lower affinity for ferric ions are also produced such as pyochelin, pseudomonin, corrugatins, yersiniabactin, and thioquinolobactin [42]. Siderophores are small molecules not only produced by many microorganisms but also by plants whose molecular mass range from 200 to 2000 Da. These molecules are used to chelate iron with high affinity and functions in iron acquisition and also as virulence factors in some bacterial. The term siderophores from greek roots “sideros phoros” means iron carrier or transporter. There are different types of siderophores classified according to the ligand used to chelate iron. Catecholates are the more common functional group used to chelate iron in bacterial siderophores (i.e. enterobactin). Hydroxymates (i.e. Ferrioxamine B) are present in bacteria and Ferrichrome in fungi. Carboxylates (i.e. Rhizobactin) are present as functional groups in some bacterial siderophores; however, siderophores such as pyoverdine have a mix of functional groups that form hexadentate coordinates complexes with ferric iron [42]. Plants siderophores are called phytosiderophores, and the mugineic acid is the more common siderophore in plants. Pyoverdine siderophores molecules consist of a hydroxyquinoline chromophore core, a small peptide chain usually contain 6–14 amino acids and acyl side chain (Figure 5).
Pyoverdine structure from
The chromophore is responsible for the color of the molecule and is linked to the peptide chain and acyl group. Both hydroxyl group of the chromophore and side chains oxygens in the peptide chain form interactions with iron. The peptide chain may be partially or completely cyclized and has L and D configuration amino acids. Unusual amino acids such as
Peptide chain composition of three pseudomonas strains. Amino acids in bold are D configurations. Cyclic structure in the chain is in parenthesis. fOHOrn is N5-formyl-N5-hydroxyornithine. aThr correspond to Allo-threonine and dab is L-2,4- diaminobutyrate. The acyl side chain (amide or dicarboxylic acid) is linked to the amino group of the chromophore. The length and type of acyl side chain depend on strain and growth conditions and whose purpose remains unclear [
The siderophores biosynthesis is a complex enzymatic process that requires several specific enzymes whose expression is regulated by iron and different transcriptional factors. The enzymes involved in siderophores biosynthesis are organized into a multi-enzymatic complex, called siderosomes, and are in close vicinity to each other in the cytoplasmic face of the inner membrane. This organization may reduce the diffusion of siderophores precursor. Most of the siderosome enzymes have modular and each module incorporated specific amino acids into a growing peptide chain. Enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of unusual amino acids present in siderophores are also proposed to be part of the siderosome (Figure 7) [45].
Model of siderosome of
The initial step in pyoverdines biosynthesis takes place in the cytoplasm where non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) catalyze the formation of the peptide precursor for pyoverdines called acylated precursor chain (Figure 8) [46, 47].
Mechanism of multiple carrier thiotemplate [
The NRPS enzymes are modular enzymes with 2–4 modules. PvdL and PVdI have four modules and PvdJ and PvdD are bimodular. The first module (M1) of PvdL catalyzes the incorporation of acyl group (myristic or myristoleic acid) instead of amino acid. This acylation probably links the peptide to the membrane and prevents diffusion during synthesis. The M2 of PvdL catalyzes the activation of L-Glu and its condensation to the acyl group. PvdL, module three (M3), incorporates an L-Tyr that is converted to D-Tyr by domain of this module. M4 adds Dab to generate an acylated tripeptide (Glu-Tyr-Dab). PvdI modules are responsible for adding D-Ser, L-Arg, D-Ser, and fOHOrn to previous acylated tripeptide. L-Lys and fOHorn and two L-Thr are, respectively, added by the bimodular enzymes PvdJ and PvdD. The peptide bound formation is catalyzed by a PCP domain present in the modules. Thioesterase domain of the PvdD module is released by hydrolysis of the 11 amino acid chain from the NRPS [42].
The released peptide is transported to the periplasmic space where it is modified. The transport to the periplasmic space involved a class of ABC pumps codified by
Finally, the PVDI is secreted from the periplasmic space to the environment via PvdRF-OpmQ ATP pump. The secreted PVDI binds to ferric iron to form PVDI-iron complex (Ferripyoverdine). The Ferripyoverdine is imported via FpvA receptors which interact with TonB-ExbBD complex and the help of transporter FpvB [49]. The Fe+3 of the Ferripyoverdine in the periplasmic space is reduced to Fe+2 and released from pyoverdine. Liberated Fe+2 is transported into the cytoplasm through ABC transporter FpvDE.
The transcriptional control of genes involved in the synthesis of pyoverdine is induced by iron deficiency or depletion (Figure 9). The regulation of pyoverdine production involves sensing cytoplasmic levels of iron ions by the regulator protein Fur, which in turn represses regulatory genes involved in iron uptakes, such as FpvR, FpvI, and PvdS [50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. PvdS is a sigma factor required for the expression of pyoverdine biosynthesis genes and some virulence-related genes [55, 56, 57, 58, 29]. FpvI is a sigma factor required by the genes encoding the outer membrane pyoverdine receptor/importer FpvA, and FpvR is an anti-sigma factor that binds to and inactivates PvdS and FpvI [50, 59]. FpvR autoproteolytic cleaves itself at a periplasmic domain without any further degradation unless it contacts ferripyoverdine-bound FpvA. When FpvR/FpvA contact occurs, which involves the activity of TonB (the transport-energizing inner membrane protein), the protease RseP releases PvdS and FpvI allowing the activation of their regulated genes [50, 60]. The regulation of pyoverdine biosynthesis is more complex because it involves signals other than iron starvation, such as the influence of the regulator protein CysB may imply coordination with sulfur availability or biofilm formation and alginate production [61, 62]. Phosphate starvation has been reported to trigger pyoverdine production in host environments [63]. Additionally, the LexR-type transcriptional regulator AmpR affects the expression of more than 500 genes related to metabolism and virulence in
The ferripyoverdine signaling pathway. The alternative sigma factors σFpvI and σPvdS direct expression of the
The World Health Organization classified
Regarding the virulence, it has been found that deficient pyoverdine mutants of
In the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, pyoverdine is virulent, even in the absence of the pathogen. A study found that when this siderophore is consumed by C. elegans together with other chemicals in its aqueous environment, pyoverdine gains access to and eliminates ferric iron through an unknown method once within the host. The host mitochondria, which are iron-rich organelles, are a likely target for this abstraction. Mitochondrial function is disrupted, and mitochondria are targeted for turnover when they are removed. In vitro experiments with pyoverdine-treated murine macrophages revealed considerable toxicity, while no pyoverdine production reduced pathogenicity. Furthermore, pyoverdine translocates into cells and impairs host mitochondrial homeostasis, as previously observed in C. elegans [71, 72, 73].
Pyoverdine is a multifaceted role in
Exotoxin A is one of
The extracellular protease IV, PrpL, degrades surfactant proteins and interleukin-22 necessary for pulmonary mucosal immunity that made
The sigma factor PvdS is required for the expression of PrpL. The extracellular protein profiles obtained, using PAO1 and a Δ
The relationship between iron and antibiotic resistance in
Therefore, pyoverdine plays an important role in antibiotic resistance, since it mediates the uptake of iron in
The rise of resistant
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
",metaTitle:"Team",metaDescription:"Advancing discovery in Open Access for the scientists by the scientist",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/team",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Gómez-Merino"}]},{id:"45745",doi:"10.5772/56824",title:"Current Advances on Genetic Resistance to Rice Blast Disease",slug:"current-advances-on-genetic-resistance-to-rice-blast-disease",totalDownloads:4530,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Xueyan Wang, Seonghee Lee, Jichun Wang, Jianbing Ma, Tracy\nBianco and Yulin Jia",authors:[{id:"168971",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulin",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",slug:"yulin-jia",fullName:"Yulin Jia"}]},{id:"68945",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88434",title:"Effect of Abiotic Stress on Crops",slug:"effect-of-abiotic-stress-on-crops",totalDownloads:1504,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"Crop yield is mainly influenced by climatic factors, agronomic factors, pests and nutrient availability in the soil. Stress is any adverse environmental condition that hampers proper growth of plant. Abiotic stress creates adverse effect on multiple procedures of morphology, biochemistry and physiology that are directly connected with growth and yield of plant. Abiotic stress are quantitative trait hence genes linked to these traits can be identified and used to select desirable alleles responsible for tolerance in plant. Plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular and physiological modifications to react to and adapt to abiotic stress. Crop productivity is significantly affected by drought, salinity and cold. Abiotic stress reduce water availability to plant roots by increasing water soluble salts in soil and plants suffer from increased osmotic pressure outside the root. Physiological changes include lowering of leaf osmotic potential, water potential and relative water content, creation of nutritional imbalance, enhancing relative stress injury or one or more combination of these factors. Morphological and biochemical changes include changes in root and shoot length, number of leaves, secondary metabolite (glycine betaine, proline, MDA, abscisic acid) accumulation in plant, source and sink ratio. Proposed chapter will concentrate on enhancing plant response to abiotic stress and contemporary breeding application to increasing stress tolerance.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Summy Yadav, Payal Modi, Akanksha Dave, Akdasbanu Vijapura, Disha Patel and Mohini Patel",authors:[{id:"186963",title:"Dr.",name:"Summy",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"summy-yadav",fullName:"Summy Yadav"},{id:"308004",title:"Ms.",name:"Payal",middleName:null,surname:"Modi",slug:"payal-modi",fullName:"Payal Modi"},{id:"308005",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Dave",slug:"akanksha-dave",fullName:"Akanksha Dave"},{id:"308006",title:"Ms.",name:"Akdasbanu",middleName:null,surname:"Vijapara",slug:"akdasbanu-vijapara",fullName:"Akdasbanu Vijapara"},{id:"308007",title:"Ms.",name:"Disha",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"disha-patel",fullName:"Disha Patel"},{id:"308008",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"mohini-patel",fullName:"Mohini Patel"}]},{id:"45540",doi:"10.5772/56621",title:"Genes and QTLs for Rice Grain Quality Improvement",slug:"genes-and-qtls-for-rice-grain-quality-improvement",totalDownloads:3743,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Jinsong Bao",authors:[{id:"52135",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinsong",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",slug:"jinsong-bao",fullName:"Jinsong Bao"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4044,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"40178",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23030,totalCrossrefCites:81,totalDimensionsCites:146,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"60074",title:"Pollen Germination in vitro",slug:"pollen-germination-in-vitro",totalDownloads:2759,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pollen germination in vitro is a reliable method to test the pollen viability. It also addresses many basic questions in sexual reproduction and particularly useful in wide hybridization. Many pollen germination medium ranging from simple sugars to complex one having vitamins, growth regulators, etc. in addition to various minerals have been standardized to germinate pollen artificially. The different media, successful pollen germination methods, procedures from pollen germination studies with wheat, rye, brinjal, pigeonpea and its wild relatives are discussed.",book:{id:"6659",slug:"pollination-in-plants",title:"Pollination in Plants",fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants"},signatures:"Jayaprakash P",authors:[{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P"}]},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2297,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. Besides field conditions, tomatoes are grown in controlled environments which range from hydroponics and simple high tunnel structures to highly automated screen houses in advanced countries. However, the yield and quality of the fruits are highly influenced by the environment. This results in unpredictable performances in different growing environments in terms of quality, a phenomenon known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction which confounds selection efficiency. Various approaches are employed by plant breeders to evaluate and address the challenges posed by genotype by environment interaction. This chapter discusses various field and controlled environments for growing tomatoes and the effect of these environments on the performance of the crop. The various types of genotype × environment interactions and their effect of the tomato plant are discussed. Finally, efforts are made to suggest ways and methods of mitigating the confounding effects of genotype × environment interaction including statistical approaches.",book:{id:"6422",slug:"recent-advances-in-tomato-breeding-and-production",title:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production"},signatures:"Michael Kwabena Osei, Benjamin Annor, Joseph Adjebeng-\nDanquah, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"217531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michael Kwabena",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"},{id:"217760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Adjebeng-Danquah",slug:"joseph-adjebeng-danquah",fullName:"Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah"},{id:"217768",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Annor",slug:"benjamin-annor",fullName:"Benjamin Annor"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"248095",title:"Prof.",name:"Essie",middleName:null,surname:"Blay",slug:"essie-blay",fullName:"Essie Blay"},{id:"248096",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Adu-Dapaah",slug:"hans-adu-dapaah",fullName:"Hans Adu-Dapaah"}]},{id:"45153",title:"Irrigation of Sandy Soils, Basics and Scheduling",slug:"irrigation-of-sandy-soils-basics-and-scheduling",totalDownloads:5600,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"3357",slug:"crop-production",title:"Crop Production",fullTitle:"Crop Production"},signatures:"Mohamed S. Alhammadi and Ali M. Al-Shrouf",authors:[{id:"78245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Salman",surname:"Alhammadi",slug:"mohamed-alhammadi",fullName:"Mohamed Alhammadi"},{id:"159904",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shrouf",slug:"ali-al-shrouf",fullName:"Ali Al-Shrouf"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"29",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81888",title:"Reducing Soil Compaction from Equipment to Enhance Agricultural Sustainability",slug:"reducing-soil-compaction-from-equipment-to-enhance-agricultural-sustainability",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104489",abstract:"The compaction of agricultural soils cannot be solved, only managed. As a compressible media, soil travel without causing some collapse of the existing structure is impossible. If left uncorrected, farmers can see up to a 50% reduction in yield from long-term compaction. This chapter will describe the effects of soil compaction on the environment, crop quality, and economic sustainability. The base causes will be examined, along with the engineering designs for vehicles that minimize the problem. The tracks versus tires debate will be thoroughly discussed, and the advantages and disadvantages of each system will be detailed. It will be shown that although tires represent the likely current best economic option for vehicle support, the potential of tracks to reduce compaction has been fully exploited. The advantages of four-wheel drive vehicles in reducing soil compaction will be shown, along with the mitigation potential of independently driven wheels and active soil interaction feedback loops. The design of crop production tillage equipment and tillage tool working points will be explored, along with the concept of critical tillage depth. Equipment for compaction relief will also be discussed, as will the sustainable agricultural protocols of cover crops, crop rotation, and controlled traffic farming.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Michael M. Boland, Young U. Choi, Daniel G. Foley, Matthew S. Gobel, Nathan C. Sprague, Santiago Guevara-Ocana, Yury A. Kuleshov and Robert M. Stwalley III"},{id:"81378",title:"Sustainability-Based Review of Irrigation Schemes Performance for Sustainable Crop Production in Nigeria",slug:"sustainability-based-review-of-irrigation-schemes-performance-for-sustainable-crop-production-in-nig",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103980",abstract:"Irrigated agriculture has been identified as an important practice to achieving food security and socio-economic development in the face of rapid population growth and climatic uncertainties. In northern Nigeria, irrigation has long been identified as the key to achieving the much-desired increase in food production to meet the ever-increasing population. However, the existing irrigation schemes encountered several challenges coming from different dimensions including economic, social, environmental, institutional and technological. To attain sustainable crop production, this paper attempts to uncover the underline challenges confronting irrigation schemes in northern Nigeria that cut across sustainability pillars. The findings revealed that irrigation schemes contributed immensely toward achieving food security and improving the wellbeing of rural dwellers. However, the huge investment in large- and medium-scale irrigation schemes have resulted in massive economic losses. This could be attributed to their under-utilization, poor management and abandonment although few ones are performing remarkably well. The study recommends the need to adopt new water allocation and application methods that can improve water use efficiency, users-managers join approach (participatory), effective and competent institutions which include improved monitoring, evaluation and surveillance systems, frequent policy review to suit the situation, law enforcement, and timely sensitization and awareness campaigns.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Nura Jafar Shanono, Nura Yahaya Usman, Mu’azu Dantala Zakari, Habibu Ismail, Shehu Idris Umar, Sunusi Abubakar Amin and Nuraddeen Mukhtar Nasidi"},{id:"81274",title:"Toward the Recent Advances in Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE): Strategies to Improve Phosphorus Availability to Plants",slug:"toward-the-recent-advances-in-nutrient-use-efficiency-nue-strategies-to-improve-phosphorus-availabil",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102595",abstract:"Achieving high nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and high crop productivity has become a challenge with increased global demand for food, depletion of natural resources, and deterioration of environmental conditions. Higher NUE by plants could reduce fertilizer input costs, decrease the rate of nutrient losses, and enhance crop yields. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are the most limiting nutrients for crop production in many of the world’s agricultural areas, and their efficient use is important for the economic sustainability of cropping systems. Furthermore, the dynamic nature of N and P in soil-plant systems creates a unique and challenging environment for its efficient management. Although numerous fertilizer recommendation methods have been proposed to improve NUE, technologies and innovative management practices are still lacking. Therefore, maximizing crop phosphorus (P) use efficiency (PUE) would be helpful in reducing the use of inorganic phosphorus fertilizers and their escape in the environment for sustainable agriculture. Improvement of PUE in cropping systems can be achieved through two main strategies: optimizing agronomic practice and breeding nutrient efficient crop cultivars that improves P-acquisition and -utilization efficiency. These strategies are needed for future food security and sustainable agriculture. The major revised points are the following: concept of NUE, application of nutrient stewardship, cereal-legume intercropping, regulating soil pH, etc., for enhancing phyto-availability of P and breeding P-efficient crop cultivars that can produce more biomass with lesser P costs and that acquire more P in P-stress condition. These approaches consider economic, social, and environmental dimensions essential to sustainable agricultural systems and afford a suitable context for specific NUE indicators.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Addisu Ebbisa"},{id:"81179",title:"Crop Diversification an Effective Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture Development",slug:"crop-diversification-an-effective-strategy-for-sustainable-agriculture-development",totalDownloads:50,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102635",abstract:"Sustainable agricultural practices involve a variety of approaches. The most important approached for sustainable agriculture development is crop diversification. It allowing the farmers to employ biological cycles to minimize inputs, conserve the resource base, maximize yields and also reduce the risk due to ecological and environmental factors. It serves as an important opportunity to augment income and employment generation for rural communities. Crop diversification promotes the interaction of beneficial soil bacteria, interrupts the disease cycle, and reduces the quantity of weeds. Crop diversification boosts land-use efficiency and crop output by improving the physical and chemical qualities of soil. Crop diversification shows a lot of scope to alleviating the problems such as resurgence of insects-pests and weeds, soil degradation, environmental pollution, soil salinity, decline farm profit and climate change. Crop diversification through crop intensification system enhanced the net returns, B:C ratio, and overall system productivity of a farm. In order to achieve the benefits of crop diversification farmers are shifting from low value low yielding crops to high value high yielding crops. Thus, crop diversification has the sound capacity for achieving the goal of nutritional security, income growth, food security, employment generation and sustainable agriculture development.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Anamika Barman, Priyanka Saha, Shashank Patel and Anurag Bera"},{id:"80867",title:"Potential Applications of Rhizobacteria as Eco-Friendly Biological Control, Plant Growth Promotion and Soil Metal Bioremediation",slug:"potential-applications-of-rhizobacteria-as-eco-friendly-biological-control-plant-growth-promotion-an",totalDownloads:67,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102657",abstract:"Modern agriculture has an immense problem in the depletion of agricultural productivity owing to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. Agriculture’s sustainability and safety are dependent on ecologically friendly practices. Plant rhizobia have been proven to have an important role in disease control, as well as promoting plant growth, productivity, and biomass. Rhizobacteria are soil bacteria that live on the root surface and either directly or indirectly contribute to plant development. Rhizobia are used to induce mediated immune resistance through the manufacture of lytic enzymes, antibiotics, phytoalexins, phytohormone, metabolites. It supports the growth of plants through nitrogen fixation, nutrient enrichment, phosphate solubilization and phytohormone synthesis. In addition, it supports plants during different stresses such as temperature, osmotic, heavy metal and oxidative stress. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria have the ability to control heavy metal pollution of soils as well as enhancing plant growth in these soils. Efficient bioremediation is possible by using rhizobacterial inoculants, still, the distribution and functioning of microbes in the rhizosphere need to be fully explored. This review focuses on the effectiveness, biomonitoring processes and function in promoting plant development. Rhizobia application can be considered an alternative method for the improvement of biodiversity, agriculture, and the environment.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Nafeesa Farooq Khan, Aatifa Rasool, Sheikh Mansoor, Sana Saleem, Tawseef Rehman Baba, Sheikh Maurifatul Haq, Sheikh Aafreen Rehman, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Simona Mariana Popescu"},{id:"80653",title:"Heavy Metal Contamination in Vegetables and Their Toxic Effects on Human Health",slug:"heavy-metal-contamination-in-vegetables-and-their-toxic-effects-on-human-health",totalDownloads:131,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102651",abstract:"Vegetables are a prevalent nutrition for people all over the world because they are high in important nutrients, antioxidants, and metabolites that function as buffers for acidic compounds created during digestion. Vegetables, on the other hand, absorbed both vital and poisonous substances through the soil. Possible human health concerns, including as cancer and renal damage, have been linked to the consumption of heavy metal-contaminated vegetables (HMs). Heavy metals like Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Hg were found in high concentrations in popular vegetables such as Amaranthus tricolour L., Chenopodium album L., Spinacia oleracea, Coriandrum sativum, Solanum lycopersicum, and Solanum melongena. The toxicity, fortification, health hazard, and heavy metals sources grown in soil are detailed in this review study.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Seema Manwani, Vanisree C.R., Vibha Jaiman, Kumud Kant Awasthi, Chandra Shekhar Yadav, Mahipal Singh Sankhla, Pritam P. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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