Phytochemical composition of the crude extract of
\r\n\tVarious disciplines characterize the constituent components comprising mechatronics, which include physical systems modeling, sensors and actuators, signals and systems, computers and logic systems, and software and data acquisition.
\r\n\tMany new MEMS and Nanotechnology applications will emerge, expanding beyond that which is currently identified or known. Here are a few applications of current interest: new phenomena are addressed nowadays in science and technology.
\r\n\tIn this book, we will deal with physical systems modeling., discuss the physical phenomena involved, the adequate methodology to deal with them, and report a selection of papers recently published for possible applications for MEMS and Nanotechnology.
\r\n\r\n\tIn summary, Nano- and micro-electromechanical systems (NEMS/MEMS) are useful for applications ranging from: The design of MEMS accelerometers, gyroscopes, electrostatic actuators, and microresonators; Interfacial engineering for NEMS/MEMS; Biosensors, magnetic biochips, in vitro diagnostics, cell sorting, magnetic nanoparticles, spin electronic materials and sensors, magnetic inductive heads, and magnetic integrated inductors and transformer’s; Flexible substrates for electronics, sensors, and energy conversion platforms; Nanofabrication and nanopatterning technologies, including self-assembly for device fabrication.
\r\n\t
Diabetes is a chronic disease that occurs either when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin (a hormone that regulates blood sugar, or glucose), or when the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces. Diabetes mellitus (DM) presents enormous and increasingly important public health issues as it is listed among the commonest non-communicable diseases (NCDs) globally, the prevalence of which increased in adults from 4.7% in 1980 to 8.5% in 2014. Diabetes mellitus led to about 1.5 million deaths in 2012. Elevated blood glucose resulted into an additional 2.2 million deaths through complications arising from heart related diseases. Over 43% of these deaths were recorded before the seventh decade of life [1, 2]. Prevalence of DM in Africa is approximately 1% in rural areas and up to 7% in urban sub-Sahara Africa [3]. In Nigeria, DM is estimated to be between 0.9–15% [4].
The percentage of deaths attributable to high blood glucose or diabetes that occurs prior to age 70 is higher in low- and middle-income countries than in high-income countries. The disease is characterized by high blood glucose levels and abnormal metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fat associated with a relative or absolute insufficiency of insulin secretion and with various degrees of insulin resistance. Such alterations result in increased blood glucose causing a chronic state of high blood glucose level (hyperglycemia) that results from an absolute or relative insulin deficiency and is associated with long-term complications affecting the eyes, kidneys, heart and nerves [5].
Cellular stress as a result of reactive oxygen species such as peroxyl (ROO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2−), superoxide (O2.−), nitric oxide (NO.), hydroxyl (OH−) and non-free hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen radicals play a significant role in the pathogenesis of several disease conditions such as DNA damage, cellular degeneration and oxidation of lipids and proteins. These have been implicated in the development of these diseased conditions associated with diabetes [6, 7, 8, 9].
The pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus is managed by insulin and oral administration of hypoglycemic drugs such as sulfonylureas and biguanides which are not without a number of side effects. Moreover, none of the oral synthetic hypoglycemic agents has been successful in diabetes management and controlling long-term microvascular and macrovascular complications [10]. The toxicity of oral antidiabetic agents differs widely in clinical manifestations, severity, and treatment [11].
Optional therapies such as herbal preparations have been used for the management of diabetes. The benefits of these herbal medications are their efficacy, endogenous relativity, cost effectiveness and tolerability [12]. Various parts of medicinal trees have been employed in the third world traditional medicinal system and most have demonstrated pre-clinical or clinical normoglycemic activity [13]. Furthermore, World Health Organization has also recommended the evaluation of traditional plant treatments for diabetes [14].
Alloxan monohydrate obtained is a product of Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo, USA. Kit for the estimation of AST, ALT, urea, creatinine and bilirubin, were produced by Randox Laboratories Ltd., Antrim, UK. All other chemicals were of analytical grades and prepared in all-glass apparatus using distilled water (BDH, UK).
The fresh leaves of
A total of thirty-six (36) Albino rats (
The animals were fasted overnight and diabetes was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of freshly prepared 150 mg/kg b.w alloxan monohydrate dissolved in (5%) sterile saline. Two days after alloxan injection, rats with blood glucose level of >12 mmol/L were separated and considered diabetic and were used for the study. Blood glucose levels were measured using blood glucose test strips with fine test glucometer (infopia Co. limited Korea). The treatment started 48 hours after alloxan injection and this was considered the first day of treatment. The treatment continued for 14 days.
Animals were divided into six groups, and for each group, six animals were treated orally once a day for 14 days as follows:
Group A: Control rats received distilled water only.
Group B: Diabetic control.
Group C: Diabetic rats received Glibenclamide at a dose of 5 mg/kg.
Group D: Diabetic rats received 200 mg/kg body weight extract.
Group E: Diabetic rats received 400 mg/kg body weight extract.
Group F: Diabetic rats received 800 mg/kg body weight extract.
At the end of the experimental period, food was withdrawn from the rats and they were fasted overnight while the animals had free access to water. They were then euthanized under diethyl ether vapor and sacrificed. Venous blood was collected from the experimental animals and serum was prepared by centrifuging the blood samples at 3000 rpm for 5 minutes and serum collected by pipetting. The animals were quickly dissected and internal organs including liver and kidney were collected, blotted using filter paper to remove traces of blood and then weighed with an analytical balance. The pancreas, liver and kidney were suspended in ice-cold 0.25 M sucrose solution (1:5 m/v) and homogenized as described by Akanji and Yakubu [17].
Comparisons were made using Duncan’s multiple range test, and values were considered to be significant at p < 0.05.
Table 1 shows the results of the preliminary phytochemical analysis of the leaf extract. Analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, phlobatannin anthraquinones, phenol, cardiac glycoside and saponin while Terpenoids, Steroids, Triterpenes were not detected.
Phytochemicals | Crude extracts |
---|---|
Anthraquinones | + |
Tannins | + |
Phenolics | + |
Saponins | + |
Terpenoids | − |
Alkaloids | + |
Steroids | − |
Cardiac glycoside | + |
Flavonoids | + |
Triterpenes | − |
Phytochemical composition of the crude extract of
Where: (+) indicates present; (−) indicates not present
Table 2 presents the glycemic effects of ethanolic extract of
Treatment groups | Fasting blood glucose level after diabetes induction | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Day 0 | Day 5 | Day 10 | Day 14 | |
Control | 5.13 ± 0.60a | 4.00 ± 0.70a | 4.38 ± 0.20a | 4.13 ± 0.29a |
Diabetic rats + distilled water | 17.03 ± 1.70b | 19.18 ± 1.11b | 18.83 ± 1.25b | 20.41 ± 1.07b |
Diabetic rats + Gliblenclamide | 21.68 ± 1.93b | 16.05 ± 0.72b | 12.10 ± 0.29ab | 5.80 ± 0.35a |
Diabetic rats +200 mg/kg body weight of the extract | 18.43 ± 1.04b | 14.58 ± 0.55b | 13.08 ± 0.44ab | 9.43 ± 0.26ab |
Diabetic rats +400 mg/kg body weight of the extract | 20.80 ± 2.46b | 13.63 ± 0.21b | 12.30 ± 0.81ab | 7.88 ± 0.63ab |
Diabetic rats +800 mg/kg body weight of the extract | 25.33 ± 1.91b | 22.95 ± 1.41b | 13.43 ± 1.10ab | 6.05 ± 0.66a |
Effect of ethanolic extract of
Values are expressed as mean of six replicates ±SD and those with different superscripts down the column are statistically different (p < 0.05)
In diabetic rats, continuous reduction in body weight was observed as shown in Table 3. Glibenclamide (5 mg/kg) as well as the extract treatment groups at the dose of 400 and 800 mg/kg b.w showed improvement (P < 0.05) improvement in body weight of diabetic rats.
Treatment groups | Initial body weight (g) | Final body weight (g) |
---|---|---|
Control | 136.25 ± 10.33a | 180.07 ± 13.07b |
Diabetic rats + distilled water | 172.67 ± 5.10b | 134.01 ± 13.17a |
Diabetic rats + Gliblenclamide | 153.33 ± 1.55ab | 184.22 ± 8.46b |
Diabetic rats +200 mg/kg body weight of the extract | 157.25 ± 3.07ab | 164.08 ± 10.56ab |
Diabetic rats +400 mg/kg body weight of the extract | 175.67 ± 14.06b | 183.19 ± 14.79b |
Diabetic rats +800 mg/kg body weight of the extract | 141.42 ± 4.47ab | 172.69 ± 10.70b |
Effect of
Values are expressed as mean of six replicates ± SD and those with different superscripts down the column are statistically different (p < 0.05)
The effect of ethanolic leaf extract of
Effect of ethanolic leaf extract of
Values are given as mean ± SD from six rats in each group. Bars not sharing a common superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05.
Figures 3 and 4 show the effect of administration of ethanolic leaf extract of
Effect of ethanolic leaf extract of
Values are given as mean ± SD from six rats in each group. Bars not sharing a common superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05.
Effect of ethanolic leaf extract of
Values are given as mean ± SD from six rats in each group. Bars not sharing a common superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05.
The diabetic untreated rats group had decreased levels of serum and liver total protein, albumin and globulin when compared with normal control rats. After treatment for 14 days, liver and serum total protein, albumin and globulin levels were restored to normalcy especially in the groups treated with 800 mg/kg body weight of the extract and reference drug (gliblenclamide).
The influence of administration of ethanolic leaf extract of
Effect of ethanolic leaf extract of
Values are given as mean ± SD from six rats in each group. Bars not sharing a common superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05.
The effect of oral administration of ethanolic leaf extract of
Effect of ethanolic leaf extract of
Values are given as mean ± SD from six rats in each group. Bars not sharing a common superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05 (Duncan’s multiple range test).
Effect of ethanolic leaf extract of
Values are given as mean ± SD from six rats in each group. Values not sharing a common superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05 (Duncan’s Multiple Range Test).
The therapeutic cure for diabetes mellitus has remained elusive despite the discovery of an array of medications that can ameliorate the symtopms of the disease [18]. Phytotherapies have remained a veritable source for drug discovery the world over [19], and for some decades have played an important role in the management of diabetes especially in resource poor countries.
Alloxan acts as diabetogenic by the destruction of β-cells of the islets of langerhans and causes massive reduction in insulin release, thereby inducing hyperglycaemia [20]. Insulin deficiency leads to various metabolic alterations in the animals viz. increased blood glucosel, increased levels of alkaline phosphate and transaminases etc. [21].
Phytochemical investigation of ethanolic leaf extract of
Single dose intra-peritoneal (i.p) treatment of rats with alloxan monohydrate (150 mg/kg) caused an increase in the blood glucose. Ethanolic leaf extract of
The concentration of total protein globulin, albumin and bilirubin may indicate the state of the liver and type of damage. Protein molecules that are regularly employed to assess the state of health of the liver are albumins and globulins (Total Proteins). The blood circulated albumin is the main carrier protein produced in the liver. The larger globulins are responsible for immunogenic activities [24]. Decreased serum albumin and globulin concentrations in the untreated diabetic rats suggests reduced synthetic function of the hepatic cells. Oral administration of ethanolic leaf extract of
Bilirubin is a useful index of the excretory function of the liver. It is an important breakdown product of blood with biological and diagnostic values [25] Elevated bilirubin is an indication of liver cell impairment. The gradual increase in the serum levels of unconjugated (total and conjugated) bilirubin in diabetic rats when compared with the normal control may be an indication that the rats had liver function impairment, resulting in diminished ability of hepatocytes to conjugate bilirubin. The insignificant decrease in total and conjugated bilirubin of both the serum and liver in all the treated animals suggest the ability of the plant extract to ameliorate liver impairment caused by diabetes induction.
Liver enzymes e.g. alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine phosphatise level (ALP) were increased in diabetic rats which is responsible for the liver damage. The elevated serum level of these enzymes was significantly reduced by ethanolic leaf extract of
The kidney removes metabolic wastes such as urea and creatinine, the concentration of which are usually required to assess the normal functioning of different parts of the nephrons [27]. The serum creatinine and urea concentrations are widely interpreted as measures of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and are used as indices of renal function in clinical practice. The concentration of these metabolites increase in blood during renal damage associated with uncontrollable diabetes mellitus. On the contrary those treated with ethanolic leaf extract of
Inbalances in serum lipid levels are usual occurrences in a diabetic state [28]. Since changes in lipoproteins concentrations is an inherent property of diabetes mellitus, such changes are usually triggered by diabetes induced obesity and renal complications [29]. As observed in this study, administration of ethanolic leaf extract of
The present study showed that the ethanolic extract of
One of the most common symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affecting children is problems related with nutrition and eating habits (46–89%) compared to healthy children (25%) [1]. Children with ASD usually prefer consuming products of one type and one color, with a specific texture and smell, or having the same or similar packaging. They also refuse to try new foods and have specific nutritional behaviors, for example, they eat in a ritualistic way [2, 3]. Children with ASD have also problems with their digestive system, such as constipation, diarrhea, bloating, esophagitis, and reflux [4]. Due to the fact that gastrointestinal disorders may affect the incidence and severity of other symptoms in children with ASD, adequate nutrition should play an important role in treatment of mental symptoms. This can improve their life comfort and overall health.
In order to explain the etiology of autism, many hypotheses have been created that combine the occurrence of this disorder with genetic determinants, environmental influences, autoimmunity, viral infections, and drugs. One theory links the ASD symptoms with the gastrointestinal disorders and the composition of the intestinal flora [5]. It is based on the concept of the gut-brain axis, that is, the interaction between the gastrointestinal tract and the nervous system. This axis is a two-way communication between the central nervous system (CNS) and the gastrointestinal tract controlled with autonomic nervous system (with sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves). Mechanisms of this association include the action of neurological, immunological, and hormonal mediators [5, 6]. The increased permeability of the intestinal membrane, which commonly occurs in autistic children, can lead to excessive penetration of the blood exogenous peptides incompletely hydrolysed due to impaired digestion of casein and glutamine in the intestinal lumen. These peptides are transported to the brain, where they pass through the blood-brain barrier and as neuro- and immunoactive substances interfere with the neurological mechanisms of brain development [3, 7]. The biological activity of these compounds comes from their structural similarity to the endogenous opioid peptides [8]. The intestinal microflora can also affect the functioning of the CNS through the ability to synthesize identical or similar neuroactive molecules such as, inter alia, acetylcholine, catecholamine, histamine, or melatonin. On the other hand, the composition of intestinal bacterial flora may also depend on the level of stress or intensity of emotions; thus the digestive and nervous systems interact with each other [7].
Parents of children with ASD most frequently observe the selectivity of food and a very narrow range of consumer products [3, 9]. Eating disorders in children with ASD can be divided into the three following categories: (1) refusing to eat, (2) limited range of food consumed, and (3) frequent consumption of one product [10]. It was shown that children with ASD choose food based on its texture (69%), occurrence (55%), taste (45%), smell (36%), and temperature (22%). There was also a reluctance to try new food products in 69% of respondents [11].
Children with ASD aged 2–12 years are characterized by poorer skills of independent eating, more frequent occurrence of avoidance, and neophobia of food in comparison to the healthy peers [3]. These children also prefer energy-rich products such as hotdogs, peanut butter, cakes, fries, and pasta, while they eat a few vegetables and fresh fruit [12, 13]. It was also found that obesity in children with ASD can occur more likely than in healthy children [3]. The prevalence of eating disorders such as selectivity and refusal to eat reaches almost 90% in children with ASD [1, 2, 14]. A UK study found that 59% of children who had ASDs were eating less than 20 different foods [9].
The most common gastrointestinal complaints are constipation, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and reflux. It has been also found that they may suffer gastric acid hypochlorhydria, intestinal motility disorders, decreased activity of disaccharidases, and primarily lactase in intestinal juice [4, 8]. It has been also observed that 70% of children with ASD suffer from gastrointestinal disorders, where in healthy children this frequency was only 28% [5, 15]. In accordance with the other studies, gastrointestinal complaints are five times more frequent in children with ASD; abdominal pain occurs twice as often; and constipation and diarrhea are four times more often than in healthy controls [16]. However, the higher incidence of gastrointestinal complaints in children with ASD is not clearly stated, as not all studies show such dependence [3, 15]. It is often also suggested that gastrointestinal symptoms may be related to the medication being taken and the side effects they may cause [3].
Studies in which intestinal biopsy was performed among children with ASD suffering from food disorders showed a deficiency of disaccharidases and hexose transporters. This may indicate that the digestive system carries incorrect digestion of carbohydrates and their transport through enterocytes. Decreased digestion and absorption of these compounds may result in the accumulation of sugars in the intestinal lumen, and this can lead to the occurrence of osmotic diarrhea and bloating [5].
People suffering from ASD frequently have increased intestinal mucosal permeability, which may be due to their chronic inflammation. One of the studies carried out among children with ASD showed a significant increase in CD3 + and CD8 + lymphocytes in the intestinal epithelium and increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines in their mucosa. Elevated levels of cytokines were associated with the occurrence of behavioral and communication disorders [5].
Children with ASD can be characterized with a different composition of the bacterial flora of the stomach and intestines. Studies have shown in children with ASD a reduced amount of
Due to the selectivity of food and a little varied diet, the intake of vitamins and minerals in children with ASD may be insufficient and lead to malnutrition. This applies in particular to vitamins A, D, K, and B12 as well as calcium and zinc [3, 9, 10, 17]. Research in which nutritional diaries were used, covering 3 days in the group of children aged 8–11 years, showed that insufficient intake of vitamin D, calcium, and vitamin A occurred more frequently in children with ASD than in the group of healthy ones. There was also an increase in protein intake in children with ASD, higher than the recommended norm by 111%. Children with ASD were also characterized by a higher intake of vitamin B6 and vitamin E [3].
It was found that in people with ASD, the intake of vitamin E and B6 is higher than in healthy people, while the intake of iron, calcium, and vitamin D is significantly lower. It was also found that children characterized by food selectivity are more exposed to calcium, zinc, and vitamin D deficiency. Examining the amount of nutrients consumed in children with ASD with a narrow range of eaten products, they confirmed an increased risk of deficiency not only of vitamin D, calcium, and zinc but also vitamin B12 compared to healthy ones [17, 18]. Based on a study in which a 3-day nutritional interview was used, it was shown that in the group of children with ASD aged 4–8 years, the intake of calories and protein is too low and the intake of carbohydrates higher than recommended. Insufficient intake of vitamin D was diagnosed in 87% of children under the age of 4, in 89% of children between 4 and 8 years of age, and in 79% of children between 9 and 11 years of age [19]. Studies indicate a higher incidence of folic acid; vitamins B6, A, C; zinc; and calcium deficiency in children with ASD than in healthy ones [20]. Other studies show that the intake of protein in the children with ASD exceeded the norm by more than 171%, and the supply of animal protein was exceeded by 200%. The excessive consumption of sodium, phosphorus, magnesium, and vitamins A, C, and B and insufficient supply in the diet of vitamin D, calcium, iron, potassium, fiber, and cholesterol were also indicated [8]. However, the majority of people with ASD are characterized by excessive intake of vitamin C and low carotenoid intake [19, 21]. In another group of children with ASD examined for nutritional deficiencies, insufficient calcium intake and excessive supply of vitamin B6 and E were found. Too little intake of iron, calcium, vitamin D, and fiber was found in both children with ASD and in the group of children developing properly [9].
The diet of a pregnant woman affects the growth and development of the fetus, including the maturation of his brain. It can therefore be assumed that there is a probability of dependence between maternal nutrition and an increased risk of ASD in a child. It has been shown that the risk of ASD is about 40% lower among those children whose mothers took folic acid before conception 6 weeks and 6 weeks after conception. Women who had healthy children consumed 123.9 ± 46.4 μg more folic acid than mothers of children with ASD. Schmidt et al. found lower intake of folic acid in the first month of pregnancy in women who had children with ASD than mothers of healthy children. The relationship between the increase in folate intake and the decrease in the risk of ASD was demonstrated [22]. There was also a higher intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), before and during pregnancy, among women whose children developed normally than mothers of children with ASD. According to the study, women whose intake of omega-3 acids in the study group was the lowest had a 53% higher risk of giving birth to a child who had ASD than women with a middle range of consumption of these acids [23]. In other studies, there was no evidence of a decrease in the risk of ASD with an increase in the intake of omega-3 acids above the norm, but it has been proven that the risk increases with a very low intake of these acids [24]. It may also be important for pregnant mothers to eat fish, which is a rich source of unsaturated fatty acids and vitamin D. However, no study has linked the amount of fish consumed by pregnant women to the occurrence of ASD in their children. It was suggested that a small intake of vitamin D, by a pregnant woman, may be a risk of ASD in a child, but this relationship was not confirmed by any study [22].
Obesity of the mother and eating a diet full of fat during pregnancy can also increase the risk of ASD in the child. The increase in the prevalence of ASD was associated with a higher rate of obesity [25]. The offspring of obese women are more exposed to the appearance of behavioral disorders such as depression, anxiety, ADHD, and ASD. It is related to the influence on the fetal development of factors related to maternal obesity, among others, hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, and insulin resistance [25]. Compared to children of women with normal body mass, in obese children (II and III classes) ASD was diagnosed more frequently [26]. A relationship between the occurrence of ASD and excessive weight gain in women during pregnancy has been demonstrated. There was also an increased risk of developing ASD in children whose mothers were obese prior to pregnancy [26]. One of the theories explaining the association of obesity in children with ASD is the occurrence of higher levels of leptin. This causes placental dysfunctions, which may disrupt the normal, neurological development of the child [25]. People with autism have more leptin in plasma than healthy subjects [11]. Obesity is considered to be an inflammatory disease; it causes an increase in inflammatory cytokines in the body that reach many organs, including the brain. Therefore, excessive body weight and maternal diabetes can activate the inflammatory response in the placenta [25]. Diet high in fat in pregnant women stimulates inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL-4, IL-5) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). These cytokines have been associated with the occurrence of ASD. In addition, these compounds transmitted by obese or mothers with diabetes to the fetus can initiate physiological and behavioral responses observed in children with ASD whose mothers during pregnancy have developed infections [25].
A gluten-free diet relies on elimination from diet products containing wheat, oats, barley, and rye (as well as flour, bread, pasta, cakes, and other products made from these cereals). The casein-free diet (dairy free diet) relies on avoidance of the consumption of milk including breast milk, dairy products, yogurts, cheese, butter, cream, ice cream, and others [27]. Gluten-free and casein-free (GFCF) diets are one of the first nutritional interventions offered to patients with ASD. Many parents have reported improvements in maintaining eye contact and talking to children with ASD who have been on this diet [28]. In the study describing the study conducted on a group of 149 children diagnosed with ASD, it was found that after the introduction of the GFCF diet and its use for 3 months, a significant improvement in 81% of children was observed. However, the authors questioned the significance of the results of this study, because the conclusions on the health status of children and its improvement were drawn by their parents, aware of the conducted nutritional intervention [28]. A blind experiment was carried out among children with ASD regarding the use of the GFCF diet. In both control and research groups, there were 10 children with ASD. In one group, an intervention was introduced relying on elimination of gluten- and casein-containing products from the diet, while the other group continued their previous diet. Observations were made before the beginning of a nutritional intervention and after 1 year from the beginning of its implementation. The tests that were used were based on, inter alia, nonverbal techniques. There was a statistically significant improvement in the ability to learn in a group of children using a diet with the elimination of gluten and casein [14, 20]. In another paper, in one of their presented examples, the GFCF diet began to bear effects after only 2.5 months of its use. An improvement in social communication and in emotional reactivity was recorded [29]. Antibodies of IgG, IgM, and IgA against gliadin, casein, basic myelin protein, maize, eggs, and soy in 50 children with ASD were measured. Analysis of blood samples showed that a large number of children produced antibodies against casein and gliadin. In addition, it was found that these proteins bind to lymphocytes and CD26 enzymes, which can cause inflammation and activate the immune system response [30]. Behavioral changes in ASD patients may result from abnormal activation of the opioid system due to excess receptor antagonists in the brain. It was found that gluten and casein are the source of compounds characterized with the activity of opioid peptides [31]. Fifteen children with ASD who did not show any food intolerance took part in another study. They were divided into two groups and blinded. For 12 weeks, one group was given a diet with the elimination of gluten and casein and the other a diet enriched with these substances. After this time, each group went on an alternative diet for the next 12 weeks. The carers or parents of the examined children were not aware of the kind of food their child was receiving. There was no difference in the behavior and development of the child in any group [15]. The influence of a diet containing gluten and casein on the behavior and complaints from the digestive system in children with ASD, which until then used diet with the elimination of these substances, was investigated. The study was randomized, double blind, and controlled; the experimental group consisted of 38 people and the control group of 36 people. According to the authors’ hypothesis, the introduction of autistic gluten and casein into children’s nutrition was to cause deterioration of their behavior and gastrointestinal complaints. Nutrition interventions were carried out for a week. There were no differences in the health status between the test and control groups. It was suggested that the result of the study could be affected with the short intervention time [32]. Many studies on the GFCF diet focus on the safety of the intervention [31]. In various studies, no differences were observed in the nutrition of children with ASD using the GFCF diet compared to children on the standard diet. However, a significant reduction in the concentration of amino acids was observed, including tryptophan in children using GFCF diets. In addition, patients using a gluten-free diet were found to consume larger amounts of proteins and fats but smaller amounts of carbohydrates, fiber, calcium, and iron [31]. Therefore, it warns against the risk of insufficient supply of micro- and macroelements while using the GFCF diet [29, 32]. The casein-free diet can cause calcium deficiencies. In addition, slower bone development in children using such nutritional intervention was also reported in comparison with children without any dietary restrictions. It was shown that patients with ASD on a non-denaturing diet had lower bone density than the control group. Lower vitamin D intake is also seen in such patients [11, 29, 32].
Another nutritional intervention in children with ASD is a ketogenic diet, which is characterized by an increased fat content, adequate to the amount of protein needed and insufficient for metabolism the amount of carbohydrates, which leads to the body’s use of lipids as the main source of energy. In the original ketogenic diet, the ratio of calories from fat to calories from carbohydrates and proteins was 4:1 (the proportions were 80% of lipids, 15% of proteins, and 5% of carbohydrates). With a standard diet, fatty acids are catabolized to acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) in the oxidation beta reaction and then oxidized to CO2 and H2O in the Krebs cycle. However, when the amount of fatty acids is too high and exceeds the ability of the Krebs cycle to metabolize CoA (e.g., low carbohydrate or protein diets), in the acetyl-coenzyme A, the liver is converted to ketone bodies (acetoacetate and D-beta-hydroxybutyrate). Ketone bodies produce a similar amount of energy as proteins and carbohydrates; they can also cross the blood-brain barrier, so they can be used by brain cells as a source of energy [33]. Ketogenic diet is an alternative or supportive therapy for patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. It was found that in patients using these diets, it was easier to control epileptic seizures as well as their frequency. The ketogenic diet is also used in other diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, migraine, and depression [33, 34]. The ketogenic diet is also used as an option to suppress symptoms accompanying ASD [35]. The study evaluated the effectiveness of the ketogenic diet in a group of 30 children with ASD. Children were evaluated before and after dietary intervention using the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) scale. It was found that a significant improvement occurred in two patients, the average in eight patients, and a slight improvement in eight patients. Nutritional intervention, in addition to the introduction of a ketogenic diet, also consists of supplementation of vitamins and minerals dosed depending on the age of the subjects. According to the authors, the research on the effectiveness of autistic treatment by ketogenic diet should be extended and continued. The studies showed that in patients who were characterized with a higher CARS score, the improvement in the results of ketogenic diet treatment was lower than in patients with moderate or light ASD [35]. Because the characteristic composition of the ketogenic diet is quite distasteful, often patients decide to interrupt this diet intervention and return to the previous method of nutrition. This diet may additionally lead to nutritional deficiencies [35]. It also has numerous side effects including weight loss, growth inhibition, fatigue, drowsiness, changes in appetite, constipation, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting [33]. In one of the studies in which the impact of the ketogenic diet on the symptoms of ASD was analyzed, constipation or diarrhea appeared in 12% of children with ASD [35]. Due to the limited number of research results on humans and on animal models stating the reduction in the frequency of behavioral disorders, after using the ketogenic diet, it cannot be unambiguously determined its effectiveness in children with ASD.
Vitamins and minerals play an important role for human health, because they have numerous functions in the body, including enzyme cofactors for many reactions. In particular, attention is paid to the insufficient supply of vitamins and minerals in the diet, as one of the causes leading to many health problems in children, for example, anemia, hypothyroidism, or rickets. Recently, researchers have focused on the relationship between metabolic disorders and developmental disorders, including lack of concentration, learning disabilities, and intellectual development [21]. Children with ASD due to diets, often restrictive, may be exposed to nutrient deficiencies. Dietary supplements are one of the most frequently recommended nutritional interventions for children with ASD, recommended by 49% of physicians [21]. Other studies suggest that 66% of people with ASD are taking supplements—most frequently probiotics, omega-3, vitamin B6, and melatonin [36].
Probiotics are defined as living, nonpathological microorganisms, which have a beneficial effect on the human body, when of course administered in the right dose. They consist mainly of lactic acid producing bacteria,
In the studies carried out so far, 50% of children and adults with ASD have shown positive effects of vitamin B6 supplementation [40]. According to studies, children with ASD who do not take any supplements are characterized with a higher level of vitamin B6 in plasma than the control group subjects. There are more studies that confirm this phenomenon [40]. One of the explanations is the lower activity of vitamin B6 in people with ASD. It was also found that pyridoxal kinase—an enzyme responsible for the conversion of pyridoxal to the active form of vitamin B6 (PLP, pyridoxal phosphate), in this group of people—is also characterized with a slowed effect [39, 41]. This activity can be lowered by up to 40% compared to people developing properly. PLP is an essential component for the synthesis of mitochondrial components, among others, heme and coenzyme Q10. It has also been shown that this compound protects neurons from excessive oxidative stress by increasing the production of ATP and the use of excess glutamate [42]. People with ASD may notice an improvement in health during supplementation with a high dosage of vitamin B6, which will lead to increased energy production, decreased excitotoxicity, and reduction of oxidative stress. Some of the parents, when using such dietary intervention, observe in children with ASD improvement in the areas of attention, communication, learning, or maintaining eye contact [39, 40]. Often when supplementing vitamin B6, it is also recommended to take magnesium for the purpose of preventing its deficiency and reduction of the level of hyperactivity. In addition, this element blocks excessive irritation of excitotoxic receptors in the brain by means of calcium channel modeling [42]. Supplementation of these two nutrients led to improved behavior in children with ASD [36, 39]. In one of the studies in which the double-blind method was used, it was found that in children supplementing magnesium and vitamin B6, behavioral improvement was noted, while in groups in which only magnesium or vitamin B6 was administered, this improvement was not observed [43]. One of the 9-year-old boys with ASD, who was prescribed supplements with B6, magnesium, and additionally vitamin B12, decreased sleep problems and improved behavior [43]. At present, it is not known what the possible side effects of taking vitamin B6 may be. Older studies show that long-term supplementation of this nutrient may increase the risk of developing peripheral neuropathy [44].
Omega 3 acids belong to the group of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). They include alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). A lot of research confirms that EPA and DHA are important for both the structure and functioning of the brain. Supplementation of these acids is recommended for the treatment of disorders of the nervous system, such as schizophrenia or ADHD [43, 44]. The anti-inflammatory effect of PUFA has also been proven, which may also include a reduction in the number of proinflammatory factors in the body such as Il-6, Il-10, and TNF alpha. The rich sources of EPA and DHA are fish products and seafood while ALA plant products [45]. There are many studies on the role of deficiency of omega 3 in children with ASD. Lower levels of omega 3 were observed in children with ASD compared to the healthy ones. According to the research, the difference in the level of these acids in the research and control group reaches about 10% and nearly 29% of children with ASD supplementing omega 3 [44, 45]. For 6 weeks, 1.5 grams of fish oil was given to 13 children with ASD aged 5–17 years. An improvement in the occurrence of hyperactivity in these children was sought [43, 44]. Similar results were obtained in studies where the supplementation was used for 12 weeks in patients with ASD aged 3–8 years [45]. Thirty children with ASD for 3 months were supplemented with omega 3, omega 6, and vitamin E. An improvement was noted in 20 children, which was confirmed by the Childhood Autism Rating Scale [46]. Omega 3 fatty acid supplements are generally considered safe but their consumption in larger quantities may increase the risk of bleeding and mercury poisoning, which may be contaminated with fish products, which are a good source of fatty acids.
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin; it occurs in three forms: D1 (calciferol), D2 (ergocalciferol), and D3 (cholecalciferol). The main source of Vitamin D is skin synthesis and food products (marine fish, fish oils, and to a lesser extent meat and dairy products, in which it occurs as a cholecalciferol). For a long time, vitamin D was only known for its positive effect on the skeletal system and mineral metabolism. For several years, numerous studies have been conducted and provided information on other functions of vitamin D, previously unknown to anti-inflammatory effect, protection of mitochondria against oxidation, elevation of glutathione levels, and influence on at least five proteins that regulate DNA repair, increase in seizure threshold, or increase regulatory T lymphocytes. One of the most frequently studied areas in relation to the effects of this vitamin is brain development and mental disorders. It has also been proven that vitamin D can have a positive effect on the treatment of certain autoimmune diseases, for example, multiple sclerosis, because the receptors of this vitamin have been found in lymphocytes and dendritic cells. The research into the possible impact of vitamin D deficiency on the incidence and course of autism has also been intensively developed. Low levels of cholecalciferol in the body and ASD have many similarities with regard to their etiopathogenesis. ASD findings indicate that this disease is more common in urban areas, in a climate with less sunlight, and in areas with higher environmental pollution, which also coincides with the etiology of vitamin D deficiency [47]. A hypothesis was proposed in which the deficiency of vitamin D, both in mothers during pregnancy and in children, is considered as an environmental risk factor for ASD. As a justification, the role of this vitamin in the maintenance of homeostasis of the brain, embryogenesis, and development of the nervous system or modulation of the immune system is given. It was also noticed that the children of women who used antiepileptic drugs with negative effects on the metabolism of vitamin D in the body were more likely to have a deficiency of cholecalciferol and ASD [48]. Vitamin D may also play a role in reducing DNA damage, acting as an intermediary in its repair, and genetic mutations resulting from DNA damage are also involved in the pathogenesis of ASD. T-cell dysfunction in patients with ASD, which is also influenced by vitamin D, is also revealed. Another theory of ASD etiogenesis is insufficient supply of adequate amount of vitamin D during the first 12–24 months of life [49]. It has been shown that children with ASD have a lower level of calcidiol and calcitriol in the body than the control group, consisting of healthy children [50]. The level of vitamin D was compared in the group of 50 children with ASD with a control group including 30 healthy children. Children with ASD had a lower level of vitamin D than the control group, and as many as 48% of them had deficits in vitamin D, although it was found that the amount of time spent in the sun was similar in both groups [49]. One of the studies attempted to reduce the symptoms of ASD in children by supplementing vitamin D. Sixty-seven subjects were given 5000 IU of vitamin D per day. Improvements in behavior such as reduced irritability, drowsiness, social withdrawal, and hyperactivity were observed [51]. One of clinical cases included a 32-month-old child diagnosed with ASD, characterized with severe symptoms including impaired communication; reluctance to social interactions; lack of reaction to other people, to commands from their parents, when their name are called, and to physical contact; avoidance of the eye; and delayed language and communication development. The child also had tantrums. The tomographic examination did not show any changes in the brain, and serum and urine tests did not reveal any metabolic deviations. Diagnostics in the direction of autism was carried out using scales, for example, Autism Behavior Checklist and Childhood Autism Rating Scale. The patient also had low levels of vitamin D at 12.5 ng/ml. It was decided to subject the child to supplementation with vitamin D, intramuscularly at 150,000 IU once a month and orally 400 IU per day. After 2 months, parents noticed a significant improvement in the child’s behavior. The child began to respond to his name, let his parents cuddle, and play with toys. Laboratory tests showed an increase in the concentration of vitamin D to 81.2 ng/ml. The results and assessment made with the aforementioned scales have also improved. This example may suggest that vitamin D plays a large role in improving the basic symptoms of ASD; however, the observations made in this clinical case cannot be transferred to all patients with ASD. It is worth emphasizing, however, that research in this direction should be broadened and continued [52].
One of the most common problems in ASD is eating disorders and gastrointestinal complaints. Nutritional problems occur 2–3 times more frequently in children with ASD than in healthy children [1]. The most common symptoms from the digestive system are constipation, diarrhea, bloating, and reflux. Almost 70% of autistic children suffer from it [2, 53]. Given these reports, the hypothesis combining the symptoms of autism with the functioning of the digestive system and its bacterial microflora based on the concept of the gut-brain axis becomes very interesting and credible [54, 55, 56, 57]. Different types of environmental and situational stressors may contribute to the occurrence of gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, enteritis, as well as increase intestinal permeability and change their bacterial flora [58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66]. Differences were found in intestinal microbiome in children with ASD compared to healthy ones based on the analysis of metabolic products and composition of fecal flora [59, 67]. Gut microbiota-mediated metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and free amino acid (FAA) concentrations, are significantly higher in children with ASD than healthy ones [68, 69]. The SCFAs are mainly produced by
One of the most interesting and surprising results in our own research is that children with ASD were characterized by greater intake of offal and red meat than healthy children. As many as 32% of children with ASD eat red meat several times a week. On the other hand, offal is consumed 1–3 times a month by 25% of examined children with ASD [73]. Offal and red meat are a rich source of iron. Perhaps this mineral ingredient can cause frequent consumption of the abovementioned products by children with ASD. Iron plays an important role in the development of cognitive, motor, and behavioral functions. It is also an important mineral component which, as a component of some enzymes, is involved in synthesizing neurotransmitters. Iron deficiency in children with ASD is very common. It has been shown that 24.1% of examined children with ASD have reduced iron levels and 15.5% suffer from anemia due to deficiency. The reason for such frequent iron deficiencies and hence the low level of ferritin present in autism is unknown until now. One of the hypotheses concerns the symptoms of the digestive system and the possible absorption disorders, which makes the iron from food less absorbed. It was found that this hypothesis is erroneous because in their studies, supplementation of this element in children with ASD caused an increase in the level of ferritin and iron, which excludes the problem of absorption deficits [74].
Due to the large interest in this topic, many papers have been made to assess the nutrient intake of children with ASD. The results of these studies often differ from each other, which probably results from the preferences of nutrition of children with ASD. On the basis of numerous studies, it can be concluded that in people with ASD, an inadequate intake of nutrients is more common. These deficiencies may not only lead to an increase in ASD symptoms but may also initiate the development of diet-related diseases. Many pediatricians recommend their patients with ASD to check the level of calcium, iron, and vitamins in the blood and prescribe multivitamin preparations or probiotics [21, 36, 41, 55, 64].
Several studies have reported that the most common diet products chosen by children with ASD are fast food products, that is, French fries, hotdogs, hamburgers, as well as candies, sweets, and products containing preservatives [12, 13]. In the conducted research, 27% of parents answered that the child does not prefer to consume any type of products, and 25% that the child most eats sweets. It is interesting that fast food products, sweets, and other products characterized by the content of artificial food additives are eaten much more often in the group of healthy children than people suffering from autism. Artificial food additives such as preservatives, dyes, flavor enhancers, and sweets can cause hyperactivity in some children as well as impede concentration or learning opportunities. These symptoms are characteristic of such disorders as autism or ADHD. Studies have been carried out in which a change in diet in people with ASD led to an improvement in the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract and to the improvement of the psychological and neurological symptoms of this disorder [55, 58, 63]. This indicates an important role of bacterial microflora, which is based on the concept of the gut-brain axis of etiopathogenesis and ASD therapy in children. The relationship between the digestive and nervous systems is closely related; therefore diet therapy should be an important element in the treatment of autism.
I confirm there are no conflicts of interest. The funding organization played no role in the study design; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; or in the decision to submit the report for publication.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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This chapter aims for those who need to teach Kalman filters to others, or for those who do not have a strong background in estimation theory. Following a problem definition of state estimation, filtering algorithms will be presented with supporting examples to help readers easily grasp how the Kalman filters work. Implementations on INS/GNSS navigation, target tracking, and terrain-referenced navigation (TRN) are given. In each example, we discuss how to choose, implement, tune, and modify the algorithms for real world practices. Source codes for implementing the examples are also provided. In conclusion, this chapter will become a prerequisite for other contents in the book.",book:{id:"7466",slug:"introduction-and-implementations-of-the-kalman-filter",title:"Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter",fullTitle:"Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter"},signatures:"Youngjoo Kim and Hyochoong Bang",authors:null},{id:"77284",title:"The Paradigm of Complex Probability and Isaac Newton’s Classical Mechanics: On the Foundation of Statistical Physics",slug:"the-paradigm-of-complex-probability-and-isaac-newton-s-classical-mechanics-on-the-foundation-of-stat",totalDownloads:1581,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The concept of mathematical probability was established in 1933 by Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov by defining a system of five axioms. This system can be enhanced to encompass the imaginary numbers set after the addition of three novel axioms. As a result, any random experiment can be executed in the complex probabilities set C which is the sum of the real probabilities set R and the imaginary probabilities set M. We aim here to incorporate supplementary imaginary dimensions to the random experiment occurring in the “real” laboratory in R and therefore to compute all the probabilities in the sets R, M, and C. Accordingly, the probability in the whole set C = R + M is constantly equivalent to one independently of the distribution of the input random variable in R, and subsequently the output of the stochastic experiment in R can be determined absolutely in C. This is the consequence of the fact that the probability in C is computed after the subtraction of the chaotic factor from the degree of our knowledge of the nondeterministic experiment. We will apply this innovative paradigm to Isaac Newton’s classical mechanics and to prove as well in an original way an important property at the foundation of statistical physics.",book:{id:"11066",slug:"the-monte-carlo-methods-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"The Monte Carlo Methods",fullTitle:"The Monte Carlo Methods - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]},{id:"46862",title:"Analysis of Balancing of Unbalanced Rotors and Long Shafts using GUI MATLAB",slug:"analysis-of-balancing-of-unbalanced-rotors-and-long-shafts-using-gui-matlab",totalDownloads:8487,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3845",slug:"matlab-applications-for-the-practical-engineer",title:"MATLAB",fullTitle:"MATLAB Applications for the Practical Engineer"},signatures:"Viliam Fedák, Pavel Záskalický and Zoltán Gelvanič",authors:[{id:"85462",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Viliam",middleName:null,surname:"Fedak",slug:"viliam-fedak",fullName:"Viliam Fedak"},{id:"154498",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Záskalický",slug:"pavel-zaskalicky",fullName:"Pavel Záskalický"},{id:"169849",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelvanič",slug:"zoltan-gelvanic",fullName:"Zoltan Gelvanič"}]},{id:"65445",title:"Power Flow Analysis",slug:"power-flow-analysis",totalDownloads:5131,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Power flow, or load flow, is widely used in power system operation and planning. The power flow model of a power system is built using the relevant network, load, and generation data. Outputs of the power flow model include voltages at different buses, line flows in the network, and system losses. These outputs are obtained by solving nodal power balance equations. Since these equations are nonlinear, iterative techniques such as the Newton-Raphson, the Gauss-Seidel, and the fast-decoupled methods are commonly used to solve this problem. The problem is simplified as a linear problem in the DC power flow technique. This chapter will provide an overview of different techniques used to solve the power flow problem.",book:{id:"7678",slug:"computational-models-in-engineering",title:"Computational Models in Engineering",fullTitle:"Computational Models in Engineering"},signatures:"Mohammed Albadi",authors:[{id:"209533",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Albadi",slug:"mohammed-albadi",fullName:"Mohammed Albadi"}]},{id:"46614",title:"Modeling of Control Systems",slug:"modeling-of-control-systems",totalDownloads:10519,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"3845",slug:"matlab-applications-for-the-practical-engineer",title:"MATLAB",fullTitle:"MATLAB Applications for the Practical Engineer"},signatures:"Roger Chiu, Francisco J. Casillas, Didier López-Mancilla, Francisco G.\nPeña-Lecona, Miguel Mora-González and Jesús Muñoz Maciel",authors:[{id:"41151",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco J.",middleName:null,surname:"Casillas",slug:"francisco-j.-casillas",fullName:"Francisco J. Casillas"},{id:"41153",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Maciel",slug:"jesus-munoz-maciel",fullName:"Jesús Muñoz-Maciel"},{id:"41154",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco G.",middleName:null,surname:"Peña-Lecona",slug:"francisco-g.-pena-lecona",fullName:"Francisco G. Peña-Lecona"},{id:"169609",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Chiu",slug:"roger-chiu",fullName:"Roger Chiu"},{id:"169825",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Mora-González",slug:"miguel-mora-gonzalez",fullName:"Miguel Mora-González"},{id:"169826",title:"Dr.",name:"Didier",middleName:null,surname:"López-Mancilla",slug:"didier-lopez-mancilla",fullName:"Didier López-Mancilla"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"95",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",abstract:"We investigated if general insurance claims are normal or rare events through systematic, discontinuous or sporadic jumps of the Brownian motion approach and Poisson processes. Using firm quarterly data from March 2010 to December 2018, we hypothesized that claims with high positive (negative) slopes are more likely to have large positive (negative) jumps in the future. As such, we expected salient properties of volatile jumps on the written products/contracts. We found that insurance claims for general insurance quoted products cease to be normal. There exist at times some jumps, especially during holidays and weekends. Such jumps are not healthy to the capital structures of firms, as such they need attention. However, it should be noted that gaps or jumps (unless of specific forms) cannot be hedged by employing internal dynamic adjustments. This means that, jump risk is non-diversifiable and such jumps should be given more attention.",book:{id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg"},signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha"},{id:"81471",title:"Semantic Map: Bringing Together Groups and Discourses",slug:"semantic-map-bringing-together-groups-and-discourses",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103818",abstract:"This chapter presents a multivariate analysis method which is developed in two steps using a combination of Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and Factorial Correspondence Analysis (AFC). To explain and describe the steps of the method, we use an application example on a survey dataset from young students in Thessaloniki trying to investigate their behavioral profiles in terms of political characteristics and how these may be affected about their attendance to a civic education course offered by the Political Science department in the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. The method is explained step by step on this example serving as a manual of its application to the researcher. HCA assigns subjects into cluster membership variables and in the next stage, these new variables are jointly analyzed with AFC. Correspondence analysis manages to extract the dimensions of the phenomenon in the study, explaining the inner antithesis between the categories but also giving the opportunity to visualize the information in a two-dimensional space, a semantic map, making interpretation more comprehensive. HCA is then applied again to the AFC’s coordinates of the categories constructing profiles of subjects, assigning them to the categories of the variables.",book:{id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg"},signatures:"Theodore Chadjipadelis and Georgia Panagiotidou"},{id:"79491",title:"Fuzzy Perceptron Learning for Non-Linearly Separable Patterns",slug:"fuzzy-perceptron-learning-for-non-linearly-separable-patterns",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101312",abstract:"Perceptron learning has its wide applications in identifying interesting patterns in the large data repositories. While iterating through their learning process perceptrons update the weights, which are associated with the input data objects or data vectors. Though perceptrons exhibit their robustness in learning about interesting patterns, they perform well in identifying the linearly separable patterns only. In the real world, however, we can find overlapping patterns, where objects may associate with multiple patterns. In such situations, a clear-cut identification of patterns is not possible in a linearly separable manner. On the other hand, fuzzy-based learning has its wide applications in identifying non-linearly separable patterns. The present work attempts to experiment with the algorithms for fuzzy perceptron learning, where perceptron learning and fuzzy-based learning techniques are implemented in an interfusion manner.",book:{id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg"},signatures:"Raja Kishor Duggirala"},{id:"80937",title:"Assessing Heterogeneity of Two-Part Model via Bayesian Model-Based Clustering with Its Application to Cocaine Use Data",slug:"assessing-heterogeneity-of-two-part-model-via-bayesian-model-based-clustering-with-its-application-t",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103089",abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to provide an introduction to the model-based clustering within the Bayesian framework and apply it to asses the heterogeneity of fractional data via finite mixture two-part regression model. The problems related to the number of clusters and the configuration of observations are addressed via Markov Chains Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling method. Gibbs sampler is implemented to draw observations from the related full conditionals. As a concrete example, the cocaine use data are analyzed to illustrate the merits of the proposed methodology.",book:{id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg"},signatures:"Ye-Mao Xia, Qi-Hang Zhu and Jian-Wei Gou"},{id:"78846",title:"Clustering Algorithms: An Exploratory Review",slug:"clustering-algorithms-an-exploratory-review",totalDownloads:146,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100376",abstract:"A process of similar data items into groups is called data clustering. Partitioning a Data Set into some groups based on the resemblance within a group by using various algorithms. Partition Based algorithms key idea is to split the data points into partitions and each one replicates one cluster. The performance of partition depends on certain objective functions. Evolutionary algorithms are used for the evolution of social aspects and to provide optimum solutions for huge optimization problems. In this paper, a survey of various partitioning and evolutionary algorithms can be implemented on a benchmark dataset and proposed to apply some validation criteria methods such as Root-Mean-Square Standard Deviation, R-square and SSD, etc., on some algorithms like Leader, ISODATA, SGO and PSO, and so on.",book:{id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg"},signatures:"R.S.M. Lakshmi Patibandla and Veeranjaneyulu N"},{id:"78463",title:"Clustering by Similarity of Brazilian Legal Documents Using Natural Language Processing Approaches",slug:"clustering-by-similarity-of-brazilian-legal-documents-using-natural-language-processing-approaches",totalDownloads:157,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99875",abstract:"The Brazilian legal system postulates the expeditious resolution of judicial proceedings. However, legal courts are working under budgetary constraints and with reduced staff. As a way to face these restrictions, artificial intelligence (AI) has been tackling many complex problems in natural language processing (NLP). This work aims to detect the degree of similarity between judicial documents that can be achieved in the inference group using unsupervised learning, by applying three NLP techniques, namely term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF), Word2Vec CBoW, and Word2Vec Skip-gram, the last two being specialized with a Brazilian language corpus. We developed a template for grouping lawsuits, which is calculated based on the cosine distance between the elements of the group to its centroid. The Ordinary Appeal was chosen as a reference file since it triggers legal proceedings to follow to the higher court and because of the existence of a relevant contingent of lawsuits awaiting judgment. After the data-processing steps, documents had their content transformed into a vector representation, using the three NLP techniques. We notice that specialized word-embedding models—like Word2Vec—present better performance, making it possible to advance in the current state of the art in the area of NLP applied to the legal sector.",book:{id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg"},signatures:"Raphael Souza de Oliveira and Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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