Percentage of abnormal vessel changes seen in the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva and retina among occupationally exposed workers [14].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Besides, the conventional power grids and their assets that span large areas of the earth and form huge interconnected meshes, not only have a close relationship with social and economic activities, but also generate a substantial amount of criteria air pollutants, as evident by the continuing development of new rules under the clean air act for the electric power sector. One of the main disadvantages of such networks is their reliance on large centralized power generation units which produce particulate and gaseous emission pollutants. In other words, coal-fired power plants together with fossil fuel power stations that make a large portion of generation companies (GenCos) are the major contributors in pollutants include Greenhouse Gases (GHGs), fine particulates, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulfur (SOx) and mercury (Hg), which are thought to cause global warming. They are also contributing to carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as well as producing solid waste in the form of fly ash and bottom ash. Therefore, a new trend for modernization of the electricity distribution system and generation sector has been proposed to address these issues suitably. This plan of action mainly focuses on generating energy locally at distribution voltage level through incorporation of small-scale, low carbon, non-conventional and renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, fuel cell, biogas, natural gas, microturbines, etc., and their integration into the utility distribution network. Generally, such energy choices are regarded as dispersed or distributed generation (DG) and the generators are termed as distributed energy resources (DERs) or microsources. On the other hand, conventional power grids which are mostly passive distribution networks with one-way electricity transportation are in the era of major modification and alteration into active distribution networks (ADNs) with DERs and bidirectional electricity transportation (Chowdhury et al., 2008a, 2008b). In this regard, flexible and intelligent control systems must be incorporated in ADNs to exploit clean energy from renewable DERs. Advanced systems and key technologies should be also employed for integration of DERs. With low incorporation of renewable energy sources (RESs) the total effect on grid operations is confined, but as the penetrations of such resources increase, their mutual effects increase too (Angel & Rújula, 2009 ; Clark & Isherwood, 2004). Nevertheless, harness of RESs, even when there are good potential resources, may be problematic due to their variable and intermittent natures, thus RESs cannot necessarily be operated in a conventional manner. Instead, RESs behaviors can be predicted via expert estimators and the forecast information is exactly the kind of information that an ADN must uses to improve system efficiency (Chowdhury et al., 2008c, 2008d).
It was mentioned earlier that existing transmission and distribution systems in many parts of the world use technologies and strategies that are many decades old. They make limited use of digital communication and control technologies. To update this aging infrastructure and to create a power system that meets today’s growing and changing needs, developed societies try to create intelligent means which use advanced sensing, communication, and control technologies to distribute electricity more effectively, economically and securely. Additionally, there are some important side benefits for the consumers such as potential lower cost, higher service reliability, better power quality, increased energy efficiency and energy independence that are all reasons for an increased interest in distributed energy resources and focusing on what are called “Smart Micro-Grids”, as the future of power systems. Although the term “Smart Grid” is frequently used today, there is no agreement on its definition. In other words, the concept of intelligence in Smart Grid design and how it will be measured is unclear. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) mentioned in one of its recent issues that a Smart Grid uses digital technology to improve reliability, security and efficiency of the electric system from large generation, through the delivery systems to electricity consumers and a growing number of distributed-generation and storage resources (U.S. DOE, 2008). Later, in June 2008, a meeting of industry leaders was held at the U.S. Department of Energy and seven different characteristics were declared for the Smart Grid concept:
Better utilization of conventional assets, optimization and efficient operation,
Accommodation of all generation and storage options in power grids,
Supply of power quality as a great need of today’s industry,
Prediction of events and fast response to system disturbances in a self-healing manner,
Robust operation against attacks and natural disasters,
Active participation of consumers,
Introduction of new services, products and markets.
While details vary greatly about the definition of a Smart Grid, a general definition can be made as follow: A Smart Grid is an intelligent, auto-balancing, self-healing power grid that accepts any source of fuel as its input and transforms it into a consumer’s end use with minimal human intervention. It is a course of action that will result in better utilization of renewable energy resources and reduce environmental vestiges as much as possible. It has a sense of detection to understand where it is loaded beyond capacity and has the ability to reroute power to lessen overload and impede potential outages. It is a base that provides real-time communication between consumers and the utility in order to optimize energy harvesting based on environmental benefits or cost preferences. However, it should be noted that deployment of Smart Grid technologies will occur over a long period of time, adding successive layers of functionality and capability onto existing equipment and systems. Although technology is the focal point, it is only a way to achieve the goal, and the smart grid should be defined by more extensive characteristics (Anvari Moghaddam et al., 2010b, 2010c, 2011b). How the Smart Grid differs from conventional grids we know today, is illustrated in Figs. 1, 2. Conventional networks are designed to support large power units that serve faraway consumers via one-way transmission and distribution grids (Fig.1), but the future grids will necessarily be two-way real time systems, where power is generated not only by a large number of small and distributed energy resources but also by large power plants(ABB, 2009). Power flow across the network is based on a mesh grid structure rather than a hierarchical one (Fig. 2).
Conventional power system
Likewise, the term “Micro-Grid” in its whole vision, is an exemplar of a macro-grid in which local energy potentials are mutually connected with each other as well as with the L.V utility and make a small-scaled power grid. In such a network, DGs are exploited extensively both in forms of renewable (e.g., wind and solar) and non-conventional (micro-turbine, fuel cell, diesel generator) resources, because these emerging prime movers have lower emission and the potential to have lower cost negating traditional economies of scale (Anvari Moghaddam et al., 2011c, 2012). In addition to DGs, storage options are also used widely to offset expensive energy purchases from utility or to store energy during off-peak hours for an anticipated price spike (Divya & Østergaard, 2009; Kaldellis & Zafirakis, 2007). In a typical Micro-Grid, DERs generally have different owners handle the autonomous operation of the grid with the help of local controllers (μc or MGLC) which are joined with each DER and Micro-Grid central controller (μcc or MGCC). Moreover, the central control unit (CCU), which is a part of MGCC, does the optimization process to achieve a robust and optimal plan of action for the smart operation of the Micro-Grid
Future power system (Smart Grid)
From a utility point of view, implementation of a Smart Grid can yield several advantages over the conventional one, as shown in Fig.3. A Smart Grid can organize operations and enable utilities to tap into new paths to save energy and reduce environmental footprints to levels greater than would otherwise be attainable (Abbasi & Seifi, 2010).
As the figure shows, selected mechanisms empowered by a Smart Grid, represent pathways to energy savings and/or emission reductions, although some of these benefits overlap across the various goals. For example, indirect feedback to customers using improved billing is related to improvements both in operational efficiency and customer energy use behavior. Similarly, greater options for dynamic pricing and demand response are related to customer service enhancement as well as to demand response activation. It’s also notable that some of the ways associated with the mentioned goals are slightly indirect or their energy savings potentials are difficult to express on a national standard, because they include complex market, institutional, and behavioral interactions that can vary considerably across the nations (European Commission, 2006). Considering different mechanisms have been identified earlier, this section of the work highlights the more direct ways for energy savings and reduced carbon emissions in order to get better insight into the Smart Grid environmental benefits. As shown in Fig. 3, two of the pathways can directly reduce carbon emissions while inducing energy savings: (i) higher penetration of RESs and their greater integration into the grid environment and (ii) further utilization of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and facilitation of their deployments.
Smart Grid mechanisms for energy efficiency & emission reduction
A Smart Grid facilitates more seamless integration of RESs and other DERs including energy storage options due to its advanced control and communications capabilities. Earlier studies have indicated that energy storage can compensate for the stochastic nature and sudden deficiencies of RESs for short periods without suffering loss of load events, and without the need to start more generating plants (Anvari Moghaddam et al., 2010a, 2011a). Moreover, with higher penetration rates of renewables such as wind and solar in the overall supply mix, utilities will decrease their carbon emissions and will be better situated to meet their corresponding states’ renewable portfolio standard (RPS) mandates. In a same manner, customers not only receive a greater share of green power from the utility, but also integrate their individual microsources and/or renewable options (e.g., rooftop photovoltaic systems) into the grid for participation in net metering programs. From the other point of view, all advantages of non-conventional or renewable low-carbon generation technologies and high-efficiency combined heat and power (CHP) systems can be achieved through implementation of a Smart Micro-Grid (Battaglini et al., 2009 ; Esmaili et al., 2006). In this regard, energy and power can be produced in an efficient manner through capturing waste heat by using the CHP-based DERs, while environmental pollution can be reduced extensively by generating clean power with the help of low-carbon DERs. Although DERs appear in various types and range from Micro-CHP systems based on Stirling engines, fuel cells and microturbines to renewable ones like solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, wind energy conversion systems (WECS) and small-scale hydroelectric generation, the choice of a particular DER depends strongly on the climatic conditions, regional anatomy and fuel availability (Hajizadeh & Golkar, 2007 ; Hammons, 2006). Similarly, application of biofuels and different storage technologies such as Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) and ultra-capacitors are investigated comprehensively with regard to a certain geographical location and some environmental constraints (Koeppel, 2008). Moreover, to lessen the greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate global warming, most of the countries including the European Union(EU) and UK, are advocating the schemes associated with further exploitation of RESs as well as better integration of DG systems as part of the Kyoto protocol. Besides, with the continuous depletion of fossil fuels as a result of growing needs in energy sector, most of the utilities are looking for non-conventional/renewable energy resources as an alternative.
Implementation of a Smart Grid environment will also facilitate the market adoption and accommodate all available options for better integration and interconnection of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), as the future of clean transportation systems. These battery-like vehicles can be used as substitutions for conventional non-renewable energy sources while they can be plugged into electrical outlets for recharging (EPRI, 2008a). In comparison with the current hybrid vehicles, PHEVs have different operational modes as well as flexibility in applications, thus they can further decrease the reliance on gasoline to fuel the internal combustion engines. Moreover, incorporation of PHEVs will save fuel costs, since they run on the equivalent of 75 cents per gallon or better at today’s electricity prices. From an environmental perspective, the deployment of PHEVs will result in a considerable reduction in air pollutant emissions. As an illustrative example, it was announced in 2007 by EPRI and the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) that PHEVs will lead to a reduction of 3.4 to 10.3 billion metric tons of GHGs by 2050, as a function of PHEV fleet penetration and the carbon-intensity of the electricity generation mix (EPRI, 2007a, 2007b, 2008b). Likewise, this EPRI study revealed that PHEVs could result in GHGs reductions of 100 to 300 million metric tons of CO2 per year, based on a range of planned PHEV market share considering the reference year of 2030. From a utility viewpoint, development of Smart Grid supports further participation of PHEVs in market actions. The ability to charge PHEVs during the night with low energy price tariffs provides operational benefits through improved system load factor, environmental benefits through mitigation of GHGs emissions and economical profits though utilization of base load resources. Development of a Smart Grid makes it possible to send signals to consumers intelligently on when to charge their vehicles or provide multi-tariff rates to encourage off-peak charging. Alternatively, PHEVs can be used for peak-shaving or power-quality applications by storing electrical energy in their onboard batteries, offering potentially powerful synergies to complement the electric power grid. With an expert coordination among smart vehicles and the Smart Grid, PHEVs may serve as a dispersed generation system itself, providing energy efficiency, stability and environmental benefits for the grid operation. Considering the attributes inherent in a typical PHEV, it is reasonable to assign some share of projected PHEV CO2 reduction impact to the development of a Smart Grid. On the basis of EPRI research studies, a portion of 10% to 20% can be dedicated to PHEV CO2 reduction impact in a smart grid environment, which in turn reduces the net CO2 emissions from 10 to 60 million metric tons of CO2 in 2030.
Regardless of market sensitivity, renewable energy microsources and other low-carbon generation units can effectively reduce emissions and environmental warming and this is one of the most important reasons to support Micro-Grid design and implementation. To assure eco-friendly operation, the Micro-Grid central controller (CC) should be programmed in a way to make optimal decisions for unit commitment based on the lowest net emission production, considering both displaced emission and local emission from microsources as objectives. In the presence of market sensitivity, decision-making algorithms become more complex, because market-responsive CC should include “emission minimization” as an additional criterion for dispatch decisions (Chuang & McGranaghan, 2008). This complexity can be handled suitably provided that reasonable and fair emission tariffs are introduced into the market system, i.e., the electricity supplied from the microsources would be valuated through price tariffs following the net reduction in emissions is acquired. In that case, a measure of the net emission reduction is available from the price signals itself. Emission tariffs might be also established on the basis of multi-criteria functions covering several factors such as time, season and location, so that at worst pollution times and locations, the tariffs would be most attractive. In such a situation, emission price tariffs are provided as extra input signals to the CC to dispatch microsources optimally for minimizing emissions (Cinar et al., 2010). It’s also worthy of note that environmental policy initiatives and existing regulatory guidance should be given due importance for moving toward a cleaner ambient. In this regard, the US Environmental Protection Agency put limits on the amount of emissions from six air pollutants, including: nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), lead (Pb), ozone (O3) and particulates. According to recent reports on environmental pollutants it’s shown that conventional power plants and fossil-fuelled vehicles are the largest producers of NOx gases. Similarly, large gas turbines and reciprocating engines result in sufficient NOx production when they are operating at high temperature. Conversely, microturbines and fuel cells emit lower amounts of NOx because of lower combustion temperatures; hence, their application as microsources would significantly reduce carbon and nitrogen compounds and total hydrocarbons (THC). Besides, many efforts are made at the resent time to develop combined environmental–economic optimization (EED) algorithms for dispatching DGs and microsources considering cost of operation and atmospheric emissions like NOx, SO2, CO2, etc., as weighted objective functions simultaneously (Lagorse, 2010 ; Momoh, 2009). For CHP-based microsources, usually heat optimization is at the head of concern and optimization of electricity is observed at the second step; i.e., according to customers’ heat requirement, the amount of power production from CHP is determined. It’s nice to mention that for large-scale CHP systems there are many technical and environmental constraints that must be met during the operation and they are mainly as follows:
Demand-supply balance: at any hours of a given day, the amount of heat generation must be equal to the heat demand.
Energy efficiency: the maximum electrical power generated in the process should be used to supply the electrical loads and surplus of demand must be provided thorough other microsources or purchased from the market.
Emissions cap: The NOx, CO2 and SO2 emissions must be maintained at specified limits.
According to the importance of the optimization variables, shadow prices, which are used to quantify the importance of each variable, might be developed to provide appropriate weighting factors to each of the above-mentioned constraints. Such prices might be a function of the real-time price, the demand, the time of use and the season. Shadow prices might be also defined hourly for each type of pollutants during the operation period for generating both electrical and heat energy. All the mentioned parameters would be calculated and used by the Micro-Grid’s CC to arrive economically at an optimal dispatch solution using an iterative procedure. During the optimization process, both seasonal and diurnal trends and area-wise variations of emissions should be given right weighting factors for appropriate scheduling and controlling the operation of generators. For example, the amount of ozone emission is augmented in late spring and during the summer when ambient temperature is high. In a similar manner, peak ozone concentrations occur significantly downwind of emission sources, mainly due to the lengthy reaction times. Moreover, ozone concentration is increased in more crowded areas at considerable distances downwind from urban areas. Thus, during the warmer periods of times, it is wise to reduce NOx emission in or near dense populated places to decrease ozone formation. CHP-based microturbines, which play an important role in Micro-Grids, can effectively address the corresponding issue. Beyond the above-mentioned points, there are some other parameters that must be provided for controlling hazardous pollution and mitigating global warming. Such extra information includes: fair rate incentives based on specific pollutant production, displaced emissions, expected temperature, and etc.
As discussed in previous section, Micro-Grid is considered as a small-scale, medium or low voltage (MV/LV) combined heat and power (CHP) system for supplying electrical power and energy needs of small local loads. More than one Micro-Grid may also be integrated to constitute power parks for supplying larger load demands. In this regard, the microsources inside a typical Micro-Grid serve as primary means of energy producers while they are using diverse types of low-carbon generation technologies. As an example, combined heat and power (CHP) system is a popular kind of DER useful for Micro-Grid applications. Such cogeneration system has the advantage of energy-efficient power generation via utilization of waste heat (see Fig. 4).
Combined Heat & Power (CHP) system
Unlike fossil-fuelled generation units, CHP-based generators capture and use the waste heat for industrial processes or other local heating purposes. Moreover, the heat reproduced at moderate temperatures (100–180 oC) can also be used in absorption chillers for cooling mechanism. In this way, a CHP system can potentially reach an efficiency of more than 80%, compared with that of about 35% for conventional power plants. The efficiency can be even more when the heat is used locally, in other words, if the produced heat is transmitted over long distances for supplying remote thermal loads, not only the overall efficiency reduces, but also the net operating cost and emission increases. On the other hand, because of lower electrical loss, CHP plants can be situated somewhere faraway from electrical loads and their produced energy can be transmitted over much longer distances, however, it should be kept in mind that such systems must always be located close to the heat loads for better efficiency and performance (Pecas Lopes et al., 2007). On the whole, it has been found that application of CHP micro-energy source yields a reduction of 35% in primary energy use in comparison with conventional power plants and heat-only boilers, 30% reduction in emission with respect to coal-fired power plants and 10% reduction in emission with respect to combined cycle gas-turbine plants. In addition to CHP-based systems, microturbines are also small and simple-cycle gas turbines that are used extensively in Micro-Grids and ranged typically from 25 to 300 kW based on the output power (Saha et al., 2008). Actually, microturbines have several advantages and inherent technologies that are briefly include: recuperation, low NOx emission technology and advanced material usage such as ceramic for the hot section parts. Microturbines have also various structural and operational features as shown in Fig. 5.
Schematic of a microturbine
From a structural prospective, they are relatively smaller in size as compared to other DERs, have simpler installation procedure and lower level of noise and vibrations. They also have the capability of using alternative fuels, like natural gas, diesel, ethanol and landfill gas, and other biomass-derived liquids and gases. From an operational viewpoint it can be said that, microturbines are designed for 11,000 hours of operation between major overhauls with a service life of at least 45,000 hours. Total cost of such system is lower than $500 per kW which is competitive with alternatives including grid power for market applications. They can also reach the range of 25–30% in fuel-to-electricity conversion rate while the energy efficiency level can be greater than 80% if the waste heat recovery is used for CHP applications. In addition, microturbines participate actively in clean air action by producing reduced amounts of NOx emissions which are lower than 7 ppm for natural gas machines. As a matter of fact, the net emission belongs to a microturbine greatly depends on its operating temperature, power output and the control of the combustion process, therefore it can be minimized only through quick and accurate control of the combustion process which is done suitably by the microturbine’s internal control system. On the other hand, the central controller of the Micro-Grid (μcc) may only provide the generation set points for the microturbine considering the net emission production in relation with power level and displaced emissions for both heat and electric power output. The CC may also monitor the remaining oxygen concentration in the engine exhaust for some particular applications. In order to minimize NOx emission, microturbine manufacturers usually apply various controlling algorithms along with some combustion control methods. For instance, wet diluent injection (WDI) is a controlling approach for NOx reduction in microturbines where water or steam is injected into the combustion zone to moderate the temperature, however, this method increases CO2 production, reduces efficiency and shortens equipment life.
Another type for microsources is regarded as fuel cell (FC) which converts chemical energy of a fuel into electrical energy directly (Fig. 6). Basically, it consists of two electrodes with different polarities and an electrolyte that dissociates fully or partially into ions when dissolved in a solvent, producing a solution that conducts electricity.
Schematic of a Hydrogen FC
From an operational prospective, the FC is very similar to a storage battery, however, the reactants and products are not stored, but are continuously fed into the cell. During operation, the hydrogen-rich fuel is fed to the anode and the oxidant which is usually air is conducted toward the cathode separately. Through an electrochemical oxidation and reduction process, electricity, as the main output, is produced at the electrodes while heat and water are produced as by-products. Compared to conventional generators, FCs have several advantages. First, they are very clean means of energy production and serves as eco-friendly sources of energy. Because of their higher efficiency and lower fuel oxidation temperature, they emit lower amounts of CO2 and NOx per kilowatt of output power. Due to the absence of any rotating parts in FCs’ structures, they are robust, low maintenance and almost free from noise and vibration. Moreover, they can run with different kinds of fuels like natural gas, propane, landfill gas, anaerobic digester gas, diesel, naphtha, methanol and hydrogen, therefore, this technology will not become obsolete due to versatility of consuming fuels or unavailability of energy resources. Apart from the mentioned microsources, solar photovoltaic (PV) is another kind of DER that helps the minimization of pollutants deposition by generating electricity from solar energy. PV systems have several advantages over the conventional generators as are stated in the following:
Inexhaustible, clean and free nature of solar energy,
Minimum environmental impact,
Lower customers’ electricity bills due to free availability of sunlight,
Long operational lifetime of over 30 years with minimum maintenance,
Noiseless operation
Owing to the above benefits, it’s found that today’s PV systems not only have the potential to supply a big portion of the world’s energy needs in a sustainable and renewable manner, but also have the capability to reduce environmental footprints.
It has explained earlier that effective utilization of waste heat in CHP-based microsources is one of the potential benefits of a Smart Micro-Grid. Besides, good coordination between heat generation and efficient heat utilization is a requisite task for energy optimization in Smart Micro-Grids that can be achieved by using heat generation control and thermal process control features in Smart Central Controller (SCC). Process optimization functions can also be built in the SCC to increase overall system efficiency and reliability (Molderink et al., 2009; Venayagamoorthy, 2009). On the other hand, Smart Micro-Grid has the ability to affect electricity and gas markets significantly, when its share of market participation is encouraged. In this regard, insightful market reforms must be made to allow active participation, while good financial incentives should be provided for owners to invest in Smart Micro-Grids. Once market participation is assured, Smart Micro-Grids can effectively supply quality services for distribution systems as well as ancillary services for the utilities. Similarly, with rising concern for global warming and environmental pollution, most countries are focusing on utilizing eco-friendly plants with low-carbon generators and trying to reduce their emission levels by 50% as per the Kyoto Protocol, considering the reference year of 2050. Regarding this planning horizon, Smart Micro-Grids together with cleaner microsources and RESs, strongly have the ability to reduce the overall environmental impact caused by existing infrastructures. To fulfill the clean air action, SCCs must be also programmed in a way to make smart dispatch decisions for DGs considering pollution level caused by the net emission in the locality (Figueiredo & Martins, 2010). Likewise, to give due importance and authority to Smart Micro-Grids that would help to mitigate the net greenhouse gas (GHG) and particulate emissions in the environment, rules and regulations must be made subsequently. On the whole, development of Smart Micro-Grid is very promising for the electric energy industry because of the following advantages:
It’s also noticeable that in the case of market participation, additional advantages can be achieved by Smart Micro-Grids which are mainly as follows:
Energy management systems and power system optimizers accompanied by integration of renewable energy resources and adoption of PHEVs which form a whole Smart Micro-Grid vision, are parts of an integrated approach to mitigate global warming and have the capability of serving as a basic tool to reach energy independence and climate change objectives. In this regard, energy efficiency mechanisms are potentially the most cost-effective, short-term options to reduce carbon emissions compared to other abatement alternatives. Moreover, energy-efficient approaches reduce GHG emissions not only through energy savings but also through the deferral of new generation with the help of technological advancements on the supply-side. In this sense, the more deferral of new generation by means of energy efficiency measures, results the more free time dedicated to improvements in bringing cleaner and more efficient generation online, thereby providing a bridge between the present and a carbon-constrained future.
On the other hand, an intelligent grid can lead to a revolution in power system operation, a revolution that will take place if new ideas and technologies along with very large penetrations of renewable energies are to be incorporated onto the grid. However, in order to efficiently operate and make good decisions, a Smart Micro-Grid must have information feeding supervisory control unit and Smart Energy Management System (SEMS). This information can be used to create better procedures and capabilities for the Smart Micro-Grid and allow more prudent investments. The optimal integration of decentralized energy storages will be also an extremely important task in the near future for the utilities. Moreover, to reach a pathway toward intelligent structures, first the barriers must be identified and then research, development and demonstrations of operation must be conducted to overcome these barriers.
Airborne pressure waves are ubiquitous in all human environments and have played vital roles in the survival, evolution, and development of the human species. Under certain conditions, airborne pressure waves can be perceived as “sound” by the human auditory system. Under other conditions, they may be perceived as a whole-body or partial-body vibration. Some airborne pressure waves are not consciously perceived at all. As human societies developed and became more technological, airborne pressure waves emanating from human-made devices became ubiquitous and “noise” became a more serious issue. By the late nineteenth century, noise and health studies began to flourish. In the early twentieth century, the telephone and growing industrialization led to more in-depth studies of the human hearing function. In 2011, a WHO document on the burden of diseases reflected the seriousness of the ongoing “noise problem” [1].
\nThe only airborne pressure waves considered of consequence for human health were those that could be
Acoustical spectrum showing the classical three segments (infrasound, audible, and ultrasound) with the frequency and wavelength indicated at the cutoff of each segment.
Figure 2 shows the frequency response curve for the dBA metric, clearly following the human auditory response to airborne acoustic pressure waves.
\nFrequency response curve for the deciBel-A metric (dBA) commonly used in noise-related legislation [
While the dBA metric proved to be key for the protection of hearing and speech intelligibility, it was insufficient for the assessment of airborne pressure waves occurring outside of the 800–7000 Hz range. Figure 3 emphasizes the 800–7000 Hz range within the dBA metric, and Figure 4 shows its application at 10 Hz. The dBA metric is, therefore, unsuited for evaluating airborne pressure waves occurring at frequencies below 800 Hz. Health effects that may be developing due to exposures at these lower frequencies cannot be properly studied if the dBA metric is being used to characterize acoustical environments.
\nFrequency response curve for the dBA metric applied to the range of highest human auditory acuity. Within this frequency range, the dBA measurement will accurately reflect the airborne acoustical energy present in the environment.
Frequency response curve for the dBA metric applied to infrasonic frequency ranges, showing a 70 dB difference when evaluated at 10 Hz. Within these lower frequency ranges, the dBA metric will significantly underestimate the airborne acoustical energy present in the environment.
There is a shortage of studies that properly evaluate the biological response to infrasonic (≤20 Hz) or lower frequency (≤200 Hz) airborne pressure waves. Three important reasons for this have been provided above: the rudimentary segmentation of the entire acoustical spectrum into merely three “blocks” (compare to segmentation of the electromagnetic spectrum), the unsuitability of the dBA metric to quantify airborne acoustical pressure waves at these lower frequencies, and the ingrained notion that “what you can’t hear can’t hurt you.” These major hindrances have been crystallized into mainstream science [3] and have served to significantly impede scientific inquiry and human health protection.
\nThe goal of this chapter is to consolidate what is known on the biological response to airborne pressure waves occurring within the infrasonic and lower frequency ranges. A biomedical engineering approach is taken, whereby biological organisms are viewed as structures of composite materials, with significant viscoelastic components and organized in accordance with the principles of tensegrity architectures. When airborne pressure waves impact these types of structures, the biological response will depend on the type of biomaterial under study, it will exhibit anisotropic properties, and it will vary nonlinearly with exposure time. Depending on the physical properties of the airborne pressure waves (including time profiles) and on the biostructure under study, mechanical perturbations are relayed into cells and tissues through a variety of different pathways that, to date, still remain unclear.
\nViscoelasticity is an attribute given to bodies that exhibit both viscous and elastic behaviors beyond the classical Hooke’s elastic model [4]. Viscoelastic materials have three distinct properties not contemplated by Hookean models: creep, stress relaxation, and hysteresis. Most biological materials have viscoelastic behaviors.
\nIn a Hookean (or purely elastic) material, total deformation depends on total load, and no further deformation occurs even if load is maintained. In viscoelastic materials, however, when sufficient stress is applied and maintained, they may continue to deform, even though stress load remains unaltered. This property is called
In a purely elastic material, the strain within the material is constant throughout the application of the load; it does not vary with time, but only with the amount of applied stress. In viscoelastic materials, when stress is applied and maintained, strain can decrease with time. This property is called
Consider repetitive or cyclical loads on materials. In purely elastic materials, periodic loads will not alter the stress-strain curve. The pathway taken by the material to deform is exactly the same pathway it takes to return to its original, equilibrium position. In viscoelastic materials, however, the return to equilibrium may be different than the pathway used to get to the point of deformation (The word pathway is here loosely used, and is meant to encompass all spatial, temporal and energetic components of these types of movements.) This property is called
Many structures in the natural world are organized in accordance with the principles of tensegrity architecture—elements providing discontinuous compression are held together through elements of continuous tension [5]. Figure 5 shows several examples of tensegrity structures.
\nTensegrity structures. A. Model showing elements of continuous tension and discontinuous compression. B. Needle tower, by Kenneth Snelson, in the Hirshhorn sculpture garden (USA) [
Depending on the properties of the airborne pressure waves and biomaterial under study, the propagation of mechanical perturbations throughout these types of structures can reach long distances, without loss of structural integrity.
\nCells and tissues are organized in accordance with the principles of tensegrity architecture [8, 9]. This means that in addition to biochemical signaling, cells also communicate with their surroundings through mechanical signals. Mechanosensitive receptors exist on cell surfaces, and mechanosensitive junctions interconnect cells, thus forming tissues. Depending on the physical properties of the airborne pressure waves and biomaterials under study, external airborne mechanical perturbations can elicit a mechanical response, which, in a larger, macroscopic view, can lead to clinically pathological situations.
\nThe fascia is a sheet of connective tissue that uninterruptedly extends from head to toe, suspended from the skeleton, and that provides the integrated supporting framework for maintaining anatomical and structural form [10, 11]. That external mechanical perturbations elicit responses at large distances away from the point of entry is a well-known concept among scientists and health professionals who study fasciae. When presented with external airborne pressure waves, fasciae can respond by changing their structural properties:
Connective tissue structures are ubiquitous forming all external surfaces of vessels, nerves, organs, and muscles, and at the cellular level, the extra-cellular matrix that surrounds and communicates with each individual cell. In addition to maintaining structural integrity, the fasciae are the first line of defense against external perturbations, playing important physiological roles in mobilizing the immune system.
\nStudying the effects of infrasonic or lower-frequency airborne pressure waves on biological structures is a very complex undertaking, whether it be on cell cultures, on animal models, or on human populations. Laboratorial studies, occupational field studies, and residential field studies all have their own strengths and weaknesses. When the latter go unrecognized, however, experimental design flaws can ensue. In this section, the attributes of these different experimental setups are discussed, and their weaknesses and strengths are explored. Together with the preceding section, this serves as a preamble to Section 4, where the results of experimental studies are described in detail.
\nLaboratories where infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves can be applied in a controlled manner are in short supply worldwide, and those that do exist are mostly associated with military installations. Laboratories emitting airborne pressure waves with infrasonic and lower frequency components cannot be randomly placed within residential environments; issues with neighbor disturbance and public health would curtail its use. Moreover, the equipment used to generate the airborne pressure waves is, typically, very large and very expensive, and few sectors of society (other than military or space exploration industries) would have the need for an extensive use of these types of installations.
\nIn these laboratory settings, continuous or pulsed-trains of single-tone airborne pressure waves can be applied, as well as, broadband exposures that can be accurately characterized. The fact that exposure times and acoustic parameters can be precisely controlled is one of the strengths of laboratorial studies, allowing for continuous time exposures, or occupationally simulated exposure schedules. Immediate (hours or days) versus long-term (weeks or months) effects can also be explored.
\nThere are numerous types of biological outcomes that can be studied under laboratorial conditions. Light-, electron- and atomic-force microscopy can be used to study cellular and tissue structural properties, as well as their chemical composition and content of bio-reactive elements. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques can provide information on messenger RNA (mRNA) expression, allowing for the identification of key pathways. With pharmacological intervention or gene knock-out specimens, specific signaling molecules and pathways involved in the elicited responses can be pinpointed. Additionally, control populations for comparison are fairly easy to achieve—they are simply not subjected to the laboratorial exposures.
\nOccupational environments are exceptional field laboratories, as both short-term (several months) and long-term (years) effects can be investigated in more realistic acoustic environments. Typically, different workstations have different acoustical features that can greatly depend on different machinery regimens. For occupational field laboratories, acoustical characterizations of the workplace(s) must be comprehensively undertaken and time exposures to each type of environment should be scored.
\nExposure times at work must be differentiated from exposure times away from work, i.e., when the work shift ends, workers leave the field laboratory, but additional exposures to infrasonic or lower frequency airborne pressure waves may be incurred (e.g., recreational, transportation). These must be documented. Significant confounding factors may be introduced unless each subject’s residential area is scrutinized and prior-exposure histories probed for fetal, childhood, and adolescent exposures.
\nPossible biological outcomes within occupational field studies are more limited when compared to laboratory exposures. Noninvasive testing can be imprecise, and the minimally invasive testing (such as a blood chemistry analysis, X-ray, or MRI) may also not be sufficiently precise to yield relevant data. It is also the case that scientific knowledge on relevant biological outcomes that can be noninvasively evaluated in exposed humans is still absent or, at best, very incomplete.
\nSurvivorship bias is a well-known confounding factor in human population studies. In occupational environments, workers with more time on-the-job are those who have survived throughout the years of professional activity, while workers with less time in professional activity may exhibit more severe biological outcomes. This phenomenon is often misinterpreted leading to inconclusive or erroneous conclusions.
\nControl populations for exposures to infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves have been a very difficult proposition, given the ubiquitous nature of this stressor. One of the solutions to this profound problem is the scoring of subjects into different groups as per their exposure. Within this context, control groups are composed of individuals who have the least amount of cumulative (prior and present) exposure, and not of individuals with zero exposure.
\nDifferent professions can provide different field laboratories, both in terms of acoustic environment and time exposure schedules. For example, long-haul truck drivers are typically exposed for more than 8 hours daily and, oftentimes, sleep in the truck while it is idling, or while refrigeration systems are continuously operating. Workers onboard ships, submarines, offshore oilrigs, aircraft, and spacecraft (for example) can be exposed to significant amounts of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves for weeks or months at a time. The wealth of information waiting to be gleaned from these types of field laboratories is breathtaking.
\nField laboratories in urban, suburban, and rural residential settings are generally designed to investigate environmental health effects due to human-made infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves. Typically, these sources are associated with industrial complexes or infrastructure that, in turn, are usually linked with important economic interests. In general, the amount and type of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves contaminating a home will depend on the machine operation and/or the use of the infrastructure. For example, in most urban and suburban areas, airports must close down between the hours of midnight and 5 am. Some factories do not have night shifts and therefore also have daily shutdown periods. Large refrigeration units, hydroelectric dams, and large volume highways, however, must be kept running 24/7 and can also be viewed as continuous sources of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves. Wind turbines are the latest addition to these type of sources although they are almost exclusively within rural areas.
\nComprehensive characterization of the acoustic environments in the different residential areas must be undertaken (e.g., master bedroom, children’s bedrooms, living-lounge areas), since room-resonance phenomena can significantly modify the acoustic environment that is originally being induced and driven by external, incoming airborne pressure waves. Additionally, wind can also influence the spectrum, intensity and type of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves that exist within a room. This differentiation is readily achieved with proper acoustic evaluations.
\nResidential exposure times are much more difficult to control, as they can differ from room to room and on an hourly basis. Moreover, subjects may also be sleeping within the “contaminated” environments, which can severely aggravate biological outcomes. If exposure is concomitantly occurring during sleep and waking hours (e.g., homemakers, workers from home, farmers), then biological outcomes may be further aggravated. Leaving the home can be equated with a biological recovery period (i.e., nonexposure period).
\nShort-, medium- and long-term effects can be studied in residential settings when the implementation of a new infrastructure or industrial complex is known to be coming to the area. Biological outcomes should strive to be either noninvasive or minimally invasive, and prior-exposure histories are fundamental for achieving useful statistical data.
\nNumerous studies conducted over the decades have shed light on the biological response to infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves and associated symptomatic complaints. Due to space limitations, this discussion will only deal with some of the vascular and collagenous abnormalities, cardiomyocyte changes, and the hippocampus responses, as induced by different types of exposures. For reasons explained in the section “Introduction,” all studies using the dBA metric have been eliminated from consideration (with one exception in an occupational setting). Selected studies mostly focus on the cellular and tissue changes observed in laboratory, occupational, and residential settings, using light and electron microscopy. The sequence in which the studies are presented does not follow the classical anatomical order.
\nIn the mid-1960s, within a military setting, the immediate exposure to 10–60 Hz, at 118–140 dB, for 2 minutes, induced disturbances of the visual field as reported by all five human subjects [12]. In 1985, laboratorial animal studies exposed rats to tonal 8 Hz at 100–140 dB, 3 hours daily, for 5, 10, 15, or 25 days, and examined the blood and lymph networks of the palpebral (eyelid) and bulbar (eye globe) conjunctiva.
In a similar study, animals were exposed to 8 Hz at 100 dB, or to 16 Hz at 100 dB, 3 hours daily, for 1 month. Clinical and morphological evaluations were conducted at days 3, 7, 15, 30, and also post-exposure at days 30, 60, and 90.
Within an occupational setting (reinforced concrete factory), vessel changes in the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva, and in the retina, were investigated among 214 workers (age range: 20–58 years), with 1–30 years of employment. Workers were divided into two groups:
The exposed group was divided into subgroups as per years of professional activity. Table 1 describes each subgroup and the vessel abnormalities found. No such abnormalities were found in the control population [14].
\nOccupational exposure time | \n1–2 yrs | \n3–10 yrs | \n11–20 yrs | \n20–30 yrs | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Number of workers | \n21 | \n84 | \n36 | \n19 | \n
Palpebral and bulbar arteries (%) | \n||||
0 | \n82 | \n8 | \n0 | \n|
0 | \n17 | \n91 | \n100 | \n|
0 | \n80 | \n100 | \n100 | \n|
Retinal arteries (%) | \n||||
0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n|
0 | \n91 | \n100 | \n100 | \n|
0 | \n90 | \n100 | \n100 | \n|
Retinal veins (%) | \n||||
0 | \n87 | \n11 | \n0 | \n|
0 | \n13 | \n88 | \n100 | \n|
0 | \n75 | \n97 | \n100 | \n
Percentage of abnormal vessel changes seen in the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva and retina among occupationally exposed workers [14].
Within a different occupational setting (aircraft industry), ocular changes were studied in 23 male workers (average age: 42, range: 32–58 years). Lesions were observed in the blood-retinal barrier in 19 workers (lesion types: 13 inactive, 2 active, 4 mixed). Choroidal circulation was altered in 14 workers (late perfusion with chronic features). Changes in retinal circulation were observed in four workers (type: 1 occlusive, 1 exudative, 2 mixed). Three workers presented with optic neuropathy (1 papillitis, 2 optic atrophy), and one exhibited sensorial retinal macular detachment [15]. The immediate effects of tonal exposures with 8 Hz at 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 1, 7, 14 and 21 days, also revealed a breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier in the rat eye [16].
\nThese studies strongly suggest that under the impact of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves, a vascular response is mounted by ocular structures and could be related to decreased visual acuity in workers. Data in Table 1 seem to indicate that, as exposure time progressed, vessels that were initially enlarged ceased to exist, apparently being replaced with narrower and twisted vessels. Enlarged vessels usually suggest the need for an increased blood supply. However, given the sustained mechanical insult, making the vessels narrower and twisting them throughout the structures may, in fact, reflect a more efficient blood delivery system.
\nThis concept is further reinforced by the observation of narrow and twisted blood vessels in the gastric mucosa of rats, exposed to non-tonal, occupationally simulated (aircraft industry) acoustic environments characterized as 6.3–25 Hz at 70–90 dB and 40–500 Hz at 90–100 dB. Continuous exposure was applied, and evaluations occurred at 1, 3, 5, 9, and 13 weeks. In
Vascular changes were also identified in the liver structures of animals exposed to 2, 4, 8, or 16 Hz, at 90–140 dB, 3 hours daily, for 5–40 days. Exposures to 2 or 4 Hz induced less damage than exposures to 8 and 16 Hz.
Hemorrhagic events in the lung were documented as early as 1969, within the Soviet and US space exploration studies, in dogs exposed to occupationally simulated (spaceflight) wide-band frequency range at 105–155 dB, for 1.5 or 2 hours. Hemorrhages up to 3 mm in diameter were observed beneath the pleura. As exposure time and decibel level increased, the number of hemorrhages increased but never exceeded 3 mm in diameter. Microscopic analyses of the hemorrhagic sections disclosed ruptured capillaries and larger blood vessels [22]. In a laboratory setting, rats received tonal exposures to 2, 4, 8, or 16 Hz at 90–140 dB, 3 hours daily, for 40 days. Analysis time points were conducted after 3 hours, at 5, 10, 15, 24, and 40 days of exposure, as well as during post-exposure times.
The highly invasive bronchoscopic evaluation with biopsy was performed among a group of volunteer subjects, with occupational or residential exposures to infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves, as detailed in Table 2.
\nProfession/type of exposure | \nGender | \nAge | \nSmoking | \n
---|---|---|---|
Aircraft technician | \nMale | \n48 | \nMild | \n
Aircraft technician | \nMale | \n52 | \nNo | \n
Aircraft technician | \nMale | \n59 | \nMild | \n
Combat pilot | \nMale | \n61 | \nNo | \n
Helicopter pilot | \nMale | \n59 | \nModerate | \n
Aircraft pilot | \nMale | \n54 | \nNo | \n
Merchant marine | \nMale | \n37 | \nNo | \n
Military helicopter nurse | \nFemale | \n56 | \nNo | \n
Flight attendant | \nFemale | \n36 | \nNo | \n
Flight attendant | \nFemale | \n39 | \nNo | \n
Flight attendant | \nFemale | \n40 | \nNo | \n
Homemaker | \nFemale | \n54 | \nMild | \n
Homemaker | \nFemale | \n59 | \nNo | \n
Description of subjects who received bronchoscopic evaluations with biopsy [24].
Bronchoscopic observations in all patients revealed small submucosal, vascular-like lesions (“pink” lesions), located distally in both tracheal and bronchial trees, and uniformly distributed bilaterally near the spurs. Biopsies were performed on the abnormal mucosa (pink lesions) and on the apparently normal mucosa (outside of the pink lesions). In the non-pink areas, some vessel wall thickening was visible. In the pink areas, the basal membrane disclosed abnormal neovascularization, with thickened blood vessel walls and scarce lumen. No gender differences were identified [24].
\nCollagen, composed of triple-helix tropocollagen chains, is the most abundant protein in the human body, a key component of the fasciae, and is produced by fibroblast cells. It has long since been considered as the “steel” of the human body [25], but its energy storage capacity has been shown to be 10 orders higher than in spring steel [26]. Different types of collagen have different mechanical properties. Type IV collagen (increased in the exposed gastric mucosa [17]—see above), is organized into X-shaped structures and is commonly found in the basal membrane of arterial walls, hence its increased expression during angiogenesis.
\nIn
In the lungs of dogs studied within the scope of space exploration (see above [22]), focal enlargement of the alveoli involved the stretching of connective tissue structures of alveoli walls. In the biopsy images of the bronchoscopic study (see above [24]), non-pink areas disclosed a thickened basement membrane with abnormal amounts of collagen, while the pink areas disclosed an even thicker membrane with very large amounts of collagen. The abnormal neovascularization was embedded within collagen bundles. Retraction of structures neighboring the collagen fibers was not observed. A marked reinforcement of the cytoskeleton and intercellular junctions was seen in the pink areas, as compared to non-pink areas. The five individuals that disclosed images of collagen fiber degeneration and disruption also tested positive for antinuclear antibodies.
\nUnder an occupationally simulated acoustic environment, characterized as 20–200 Hz at 70–90 dB (aircraft industry), and occupationally simulated exposure schedules (8 hours daily, 5 days weekly, weekends in silence), focal interstitial fibrosis was found in the lung parenchyma of rats after a cumulative 4000-hour exposure. Additionally, thickened alveoli walls and dilated alveoli were observed [27]. Tracheal epithelium in similarly exposed rats disclosed significant subepithelial fibrosis [28, 29], and with longer occupationally simulated exposures, the subepithelial layer became composed of hyperplastic collagen bundles, some with a degenerative pattern. Cellular edema was also observed [28, 30].
\nWithin an occupational setting (aircraft industry) and investigating long-term outcomes, high-resolution CT scans of the lungs and respiratory function tests were provided to 21 nonsmoker male workers, who were divided into two groups: with (n = 7, average age: 42) and without (n = 15, average age: 36) complaints of airflow limitations. There was a significant relationship between the presence of symptoms and images of lung fibrosis through the CT scan. No differences existed among the groups when comparing the percentage of predicted values of lung function [31].
\nFasciae abnormalities have been most prominently studied in the pericardia of exposed workers, subsequent to autopsy findings in an aircraft industry worker that disclosed a grossly thickened pericardium [32]. Pericardial morphological changes were studied among 12 male workers: three aircraft technicians, four fixed-wing aircraft pilots, four helicopter pilots, and one long-haul truck driver. Pericardial samples were removed with informed consent of the patient and Ethics Committee approval, at the beginning of cardiac surgery (prescribed for other reasons by the National Healthcare Service). In all cases, there were no visual adherences, or inflammatory aspects and pericardia were grossly thickened. The classical, three pericardial layers were identified: serosa, fibrosa, and epipericardium. However, in all cases, the fibrosa had split in two and, in between, a new layer of loose tissue was observed, consisting of vessels, nerves, arteries, and lymphatics surrounded by adipose tissue. Both fibrosa layers were composed almost entirely by wavy, interwoven collagen bundles, surrounded by numerous cytoplasmic extensions (whose mother cell was difficult to identify), and interspersed with some elastic fibers. The new, loose tissue layer sandwiched in between the split fibrosa contained blood and lymphatic vessels, adipose tissue, and nerves. Both the loose tissue layer and the fibrosa layers contained macrophages and vascular hyperplasia, also seen in lymphatic vessels [33, 34, 35, 36]. Pericardial and cardiac valve thickening has also been confirmed through echocardiography studies in occupational settings (aircraft [37] and commercial-airline industries [38]), with thickness increasing with increasing exposure time. In residential settings, pericardial and valve thickening [39] and increased arterial stiffness [40] were observed in populations chronically exposed to military-training exercises [39], and transportation systems [40].
\nIn 1983, electron microscopy techniques were used to study animal myocardia exposed to single and multiple infrasonic exposures of 4–16 Hz at 90–150 dB, 3 hours daily, for 45 days, and post-exposure time points were included. No changes were observed with single exposures at 4–6 Hz and at less than 100 dB, when compared to non-exposed controls.
Cardiac injury was studied in rat cardiomyocytes exposed to tonal 5 Hz at 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 1, 7, or 14 days.
For three continuous months, rats were exposed to non-tonal, occupationally simulated (aircraft industry) acoustical environments characterized as 6.3–25 Hz at 70–90 dB and 40–500 Hz at 90–100 dB. Ventricular cardiac muscle and interstitial fibrosis were quantified and compared to non-exposed controls. Exposed rats disclosed a 97.5% increase in fibrosis in the left ventricle, an 81.5% increase in the interventricular septum, and an 83.7% increase in the right ventricle. No significant differences were found in the mean values of cardiac muscle in the left and right ventricles, when compared to non-exposed controls. However, the fibrosis-to-muscle ratio was significantly higher in the exposed rats, indicating significant ventricular myocardial fibrosis [44].
\nIn another study, rats were exposed to a non-tonal, occupationally simulated (textile mill) environment rich in infrasonic and lower frequency components, under an occupationally simulated schedule (8 hours daily, 5 days weekly, weekends in silence), for 1, 3, 5, and 7 months. Ventricular coronary artery caliber, artery wall thickness, and size of arterial perivascular tissue were quantified in a total of 130 arteries (61 exposed and 69 controls). No changes were observed in arterial lumen caliber, and in arterial wall thickness, when compared to non-exposed controls. Perivascular tissue was more prominent in the exposed samples and seemed to exhibit fibrotic development. Lumen-to-wall ratio showed no differences, while wall-to-perivascular-tissue ratio showed a significant increase, as compared to non-exposed controls [45].
\nIn animals exposed to 2–20 Hz peaking at 114 dB, for 28 continuous days, ventricular arteries were studied as to the dimensions of lumen, wall, and perivascular space. An additional group of animals received the same exposure but were treated with dexamethasone (a corticosteroid). Blind evaluation of 31 arteries disclosed increased perivascular spaces in the exposed groups, reflected in the significantly reduced wall-to-perivascular-space ratio, as compared to non-exposed controls. No changes were observed in the lumen-to-wall ratio. With dexamethasone treatment and exposure, no differences were observed in the wall-to-perivascular-space ratio, as compared to controls, suggesting an underlying inflammatory mechanism [46].
\nGap junctions are a fundamental component of intercellular communication, allowing inorganic ions and small water-soluble molecules to pass directly from one cell’s cytoplasm to another. Gap junctions are formed by protein complexes (connexons) each composed of six subunits made of the protein connexin. Cardiac connexin43 (Cx43) is a component of gap junctions, and its reduction in combination with increased collagen deposition and interstitial fibrosis has been associated with ventricular arrhythmias [47]. Within this context, rats were exposed to non-tonal, occupationally simulated (aircraft industry) acoustical environments characterized by 6.3–25 Hz at 70–90 dB and 40–500 Hz at 90–100 dB, for three continuous months. Immunohistochemical quantification of Cx43 was conducted on the left ventricle, interventricular septum, and right ventricle. Significantly decreased Cx43-to-muscle ratios were found in the exposed rats, as compared to non-exposed controls, suggesting the possibility of arrhythmogenic consequences [48].
\nPrior studies have shown that the hippocampus is involved in learning and memory impairment, such as that seen in rodents after infrasound exposure [49]. The hippocampus—located between the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem—was classically considered as part of the limbic system. The hippocampus proper is divided into four regions (CA1, CA2, CA3, and CA4), each with different input and output pathways. The Dentate Gyrus (DG) is an additional hippocampus structure and that contributes to the formation of new episodic memories, and spontaneous exploration of novel environments. In the central nervous system (CNS), neuroglia consists of the non-neuronal cells (oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and microglia) and is often referred to as the connective tissue of the brain. Glial cells surround neurons to hold them in place, supply them with oxygen and nutrients, insulate them from one another, destroy pathogens, and remove dead neurons.
\nGlial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is an intermediate filament protein expressed by numerous cells within the CNS, and although its exact function remains unknown, it appears to be involved in maintaining the mechanical strength of astrocytes. The expression of GFAP was studied in the brains of mice exposed to 16 Hz at 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 1, 7, 14 21, or 28 days. GFAP expression was increased in the hippocampus, cortex, and hypothalamus in a time-dependent manner [50].
\nCorticotrophin releasing hormone (CHR) is a peptide hormone involved in the stimulation of the pituitary synthesis of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) as part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis’ response to stress. Corticotrophin releasing hormone-receptor 1 (CHR-R1) has wide expression in the CNS. It plays important roles in fear learning and consolidation in the amygdala, in stress-related modulation of memory function in the hippocampus, and in arousal regulation in the brainstem. Prior studies showed that infrasound exposures caused an upregulation of CRH and CRH-R1 in neurons of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus [51]. Recent studies have also shown that CRH is expressed in activated microglial cells [52]. Within this context, rats and
The transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 4 (TRPV4) protein acts as a calcium channel that is also mechanosensitive. It plays important roles in the systemic regulation of osmotic pressure by the brain, in skeletal growth and structural integrity, in airway and lung function, retinal and inner ear function, and in pain. Animals were exposed to 8 or 16 Hz at 90, 100 or 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 14 days. Rat learning and memory abilities were most severely impaired with 16 Hz at 130 dB at days 7 and 14, with prominent loss of hippocampal CA1 neurons, as compared to non-exposed controls. Significant astrocyte and microglial activation was seen in the hippocampus after days 1 and 7, and before neuronal apoptosis became evident.
Neonatal rat hippocampal astrocyte cultures were exposed to 16 Hz at 130 dB for 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 240 minutes. Extra-cellular glutamate levels increased with increasing exposure time, and at 90 min, there was a 100% increase over baseline. The astroglial expression of Cx43 (connexin43—see above) was increased, as compared to non-exposed controls, as was the synthesis of Cx43 mRNA. Through additional evaluations using pharmacological and knock-out interventions, the authors concluded that infrasonic exposures induced astrocytes to release glutamate, and that Cx43 gap junctions were required for the exposure-induced glutamate release [54].
\nThe endocannabinoid system includes lipid-based retrograde neurotransmitters, expressed throughout the CNS, and involved in fertility, pregnancy, pre-and postnatal development, appetite, pain-sensation, mood, and memory. Animals were exposed to 16 Hz at 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 14 days. Cannabinoid (CB) receptors 1 and 2 in the CA1 hippocampal region of the exposed rats were downregulated in a time-dependent manner, as compared to non-exposed controls. Apoptotic cells in the CA1 only became obvious after day 5, and cell death coincided with the decreased expression of CB receptors. Through pharmacological intervention, activation of CB receptors significantly reduced the number of apoptotic cells, ameliorated the behavior performance of exposed rats, and reduced the infrasound-elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines. These data suggest that CB receptors could potentially serve as promising targets for future treatments against infrasound-induced injury [55].
\nFibroblasts synthesize extracellular matrix (glycosaminoglycans, reticular, and elastic fibers) and collagen, and, in addition to their structural role, fibroblasts are also important for mounting the immune response to tissue damage. Fibroblast growth factors (FGF) signal through fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR). The fibroblast growth factor 2/fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGF2/FGFR1) signaling pathway was investigated in animals and in cultured astrocytes, exposed to 16 Hz at 150 dB, 2 hours daily, for 1, 3, or 7 days. In both experimental models, astrocyte activation increased with exposure time and astrocyte-expressed FGFR1 was downregulated as compared to non-exposed controls. Pharmacological intervention using FGF2 exerted an inhibitory effect on infrasound-induced astrocyte activation, inhibited the elevation of proinflammatory cytokines, upregulated the expression of FGFR1, and alleviated neuron loss in CA1 hippocampus region. Inhibition of the FGF2/FGFR1 pathway aggravated astrocyte-mediated inflammation after infrasonic exposure. The authors concluded that astrocyte-mediated inflammation was involved in infrasound-induced neuronal damage and that the FGF2/FGFR1 pathway played a key role [56].
\nIn a laboratory setting, rats were exposed to tonal 8 Hz at 140 dB, 2 hours daily, for 3 days. A post-exposure, 1-week time point was also established. Significant damage of hippocampus morphology was observed in exposed rats, and recovery was seen after 1 week of post-exposure. Neuronal apoptosis was significantly increased after 24- and 48-hour exposures, as compared to non-exposed controls, and then decreased after 1 week post-exposure. Expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) peaked at 24 hours and was decreased at 48 hours [57].
\nExposure to infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves can cause cellular and tissue damage depending on frequency, dB-level, and exposure time, while the viscoelastic properties inherent to biological tissues impart a nonlinear response to this type of acoustic stressor. The complex mechanosensitive and biochemical cellular signaling pathways mediating this cellular damage have not yet been pinpointed, although fasciae structures and connective tissues (including the neuroglia) seem to be the most sensitive under longer term exposures. Immediate exposures appear to induce inflammatory processes that do not seem to be maintained with longer exposures.
\nWidespread vascular involvement (not limited to the biological structures addressed herein) was observed in palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva and retina, gastric mucosa, liver structures, lungs, pleura and tracheae, alveoli, pericardia, and coronary arteries. This vascular response may (unsuspectingly) be the underlying cause of many symptomatic complaints. Cognitive deficits oftentimes documented within residential field laboratories may not merely be due to sleep deprivation, but also to hippocampal neuronal damage. Fasciae morphogenesis speaks to the demand on the whole-body structural integrity elicited by this type of external mechanical insult, while collagenous growths and hemorrhagic events of a focal nature may reflect concomitant resonance phenomena.
\nRecovery periods are not linear, and 2-hour daily exposures imply a 22-hour nonexposure period. This presents a problem for continuous exposures, such as those encountered in some professional activities and most residential environments. The underlying objectives of most of the studies discussed herein are related to occupational exposures and do not consider continuous exposures at less than 90 dB, nor are pressure pulsed trains presented within the laboratorial acoustic environments. In residential environments, however, these attributes are often present. The simulation of residential exposures does not appear to have yet been integrated into laboratory settings and protocols.
\nThe whole-body response also elicits the immune system, affects organs of the reproductive system, changes receptor cells in the vestibular semicanals and auditory cochlea, and induces genotoxic effects, including teratogenesis. This is a pioneering field of science, still in its infancy and urgently requiring scientists from multidisciplinary areas of study because, ultimately, the health of human populations and their offspring must be protected.
\nNone.
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',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
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\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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