\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64327",title:"Biochemical and Pharmacological Properties of Biogenic Amines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81569",slug:"biochemical-and-pharmacological-properties-of-biogenic-amines",body:'\nBiogenic amines found in animals, plants, microorganisms, and humans are formed by the decarboxylation of amino acids or amination and transamination of aldehydes and ketones during the standard metabolic processes.
\nBiogenic amines, having several critical biological roles in the body, have essential physiological functions such as the regulation of growth and blood pressure and control of the nerve conduction. Besides, they are required in the immunologic system of intestines and in maintaining the activity of the standard metabolic functions, and when taking the nourishment in high concentrations, they cause disorders in nervous, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems and allergic reactions as well. In this chapter, biosynthesis of biogenic amines, their toxic effects as well as their physiological functions, and their effect on health will be presented.
\nCO2 and biogenic amine occur as a result of the enzymatic reaction catalyzed by pyridoxal phosphate to decarboxylate the amino acid (Figure 1) [1]. Biogenic amines are biologically active molecules, as they are formed by decarboxylation of amino acids or amination and transamination of aldehydes and ketones during standard metabolic processes [2]. Biogenic amines take charge of the proliferation and differentiation of cells and their metabolism by entering into the structure of hormones, cobalamin (vitamin and aminoacetone), and coenzyme A in the body [3]. They have importance regarding the environment by causing water pollution, as their formations pertain to the amino acid and microorganisms [3, 4]. Biogenic amines may cause intoxications when taken in high amounts [5].
\nDecarboxylation of amino acids.
Biogenic amines are organic nitrogen compounds having a low molecular weight [5, 6]. Their chemical structure can be classified as (i) aromatic and heterocyclic (histamine, tryptamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, and serotonin); (ii) aliphatic di-, tri-, and polyamines (putrescine, cadaverine, spermine, spermidine, and agmatine); and (iii) aliphatic volatile amines (ethylamine, methylamine, isopentylamine, and ethanolamine) (Figure 2) [7, 8]. Besides, their amine group classifications include (i) monoamine (phenylethylamine, tyramine, methylamine, ethylamine, isopentylamine, and ethanolamine), (ii) diamine (histamine, tryptamine, serotonin, putrescine, and cadaverine), and (iii) polyamine (spermine, spermidine, and agmatine) [7, 8, 9].
\nClassification of biogenic amines according to their chemical structures.
Biogenic amines generally occur as a result of free amino acid decarboxylations with the microbial enzymes. Amino acid decarboxylation happens by removal of the α-carboxyl group [10]. Their occurrences are as below: histamine from histidine amino acid, tyramine from tyrosine amino acid, tryptamine and serotonin from tryptophan amino acid, phenylethylamine from phenylalanine amino acid, putrescine from ornithine amino acid, cadaverine from lysine amino acid, and agmatine from arginine amino acid (Figure 3) [11, 12, 13].
\nFormation mechanism of biogenic amines.
Biogenic amines play an essential role in cell membrane stabilization, immune functions, and prevention of chronic diseases, as they participate in the nucleic acid and protein synthesis [14]. Besides, they are compounds created as the growth regulation (spermine, spermidine, and cadaverine), neural transmission (serotonin), and inflammation mediators (histamine and tyramine) [6, 15].
\nHistamine, a standard component of the body, consists of histidine amino acid as a result of histidine decarboxylase activity depending on pyridoxal phosphate (Figure 3) [16]. Histamine distribution and concentration found in the tissues of all vertebrates are very unsteady [17, 18]. Histamine takes charge of some functions related to balancing the body temperature and regulating the stomach volume, stomach pH, and cerebral activities [19] as it participates in the essential functions such as neurotransmission and vascular permeability [20, 21]. However, it also plays a role in starting the allergic reactions [22, 23].
\nTryptamine consists of tryptophan amino acid as a result of the aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase activity (Figure 3) [24, 25]. Tryptamine is a monoamine alkaloid found in plants, fungi, and animals [26]. Tryptamine, found in trace amounts in mammalian brains, increases blood pressure [10, 27] as well as plays a role as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator [26].
\nThe amino acid of phenylalanine synthesizes phenylethylamine through the aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase in humans, some fungi, and bacteria as well as several plants and animal species (Figure 3) [28, 29, 30]. It functions as a neurotransmitter in the human central nervous system [31, 32].
\nTyramine, consisting of tyrosine amino acid as a result of tyrosine decarboxylase activity, is generally found in low amounts (Figure 3) [33, 34, 35, 36]. Tyramine leads to several physiological reactions such as blood pressure increase, vasoconstriction [37], tyramine active noradrenalin secretion, etc., as the sympathetic nervous system controls several functions of the body [38, 39]. Tyramine, stored in the neurons, causes the increase in the tear, salivation and respiratory as well as mydriasis [39].
\nTryptophan synthesizes serotonin as a result of tryptophan hydroxylase and aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase enzyme activities (Figure 3) [11, 40]. Serotonin, one of the crucial neurotransmitters of the central nervous system, plays a role in plenty of critical physiological mechanisms such as sleep, mood disorders, appetite regulation, sexual behavior, cerebral blood flow regulation, and blood-brain barrier permeability [41, 42].
\nPutrescine consists of ornithine amino acid as a result of ornithine decarboxylase activity. Besides, it may be synthesized by arginine through the agmatine and carbamoylputrescine (Figure 3) [12, 39, 43, 44]. Putrescine, produced by bacteria and fungi, contributes to the cell growth, cell division, and tumorigenesis [45, 46] as it is the preliminary substance of spermidine and spermine [12, 47].
\nCadaverine, synthesized by lysine as a result of lysine decarboxylase enzyme activity, takes charge of the diamine and polyamine formations (Figure 3) [45, 48, 49].
\nSpermidine synthase catalyzes spermidine formation from putrescine (Figure 3) [50, 51]. Spermidine is a precursor of other polyamines such as spermine and structural isomer thermospermine [45, 52]. Spermidine, regulating several crucial biological processes (Na+-K+ ATPaz), protects the membrane potential and controls the intracellular pH and volume [53]. Besides, spermidine, a polyamine found in the cellular metabolism, has a role in the neuronal nitric oxide synthase inhibitions and intestinal tissue developments [54].
\nSpermine, whose precursor amino acid is ornithine, is formed from spermidine through the spermine synthase enzyme (Figure 3) [51]. Spermine is present in several organisms and tissues, as it is a polyamine that is found in all eukaryotic cells and has a role in the cellular metabolism [52, 55]. It plays a role in the intestinal tissue developments and stabilizes the helical structure in viruses [52, 56, 57].
\nAgmatine is a biogenic amine formed by arginine decarboxylase enzyme activity of arginine amino acid (Figure 3) [12, 44, 58]. Agmatine participates in the polyamine metabolism over the putrescine hydrolyzed by the agmatine enzyme and has several functions such as nitric oxide synthesis regulation, polyamine metabolism, and matrix metalloproteinase and enzyme activity leading to H2O2 production [59, 60].
\nThe detoxification system, splitting the biogenic amines in the human body, consists of monoamine oxidase (MAO), diamine oxidase (DAO), polyamine oxidase (PAO), and histamine-N-methyl transferase (HNMT) [17, 61, 62].
\nBiogenic amines have several important biological roles in the body and constitute the first step of protein, hormone, and nucleic acid synthesis [61, 63]. The polyamines such as putrescine, spermine, and spermidine are the unique components of living cells. Besides, the polyamines were stated to require maintaining the intestinal immunologic systems and healthy metabolic function activities [52, 64, 65, 66, 67]. The biogenic amines cause respiratory disorders, headache, tachycardia, hypo- or hypertension, and allergic reactions when taken in high concentrations together with nutrients [68].
\nBiogenic amines are vasoactive components, and taking them in high amounts leads to change in blood pressure in humans and animals. The amines bear essential psychoactive or vasoactive effects, as they have the biological activities such as histamine, tryptamine, tyramine, and phenylethylamine [33]. Histamine is a biologically active amine and quickly scatters to the tissues through blood circulation and leads to several reactions. However, in the case where aminoxidase enzyme inhibitors are present in the environment, the biogenic amine prevents detoxification, and health problems (erythema, edema, rash, headache, burning, etc.) show up [17, 68]. Histamine also has essential metabolic functions such as a role in the nervous system functions and blood pressure control. It mainly takes effect by binding to the cardiovascular system (vasodilatation and hypotension) and cell membrane receptors in several secretory glands (such as gastric acid secretion) [22, 23]. In addition to them, it may lead to some neurotransmission disorders and causes headache, flushing, gastrointestinal disorders, and edema by giving rise to blood vessel dilatations [61, 69]. Histamine intoxicates when orally taken in amounts of 8 mg and above [3]. Individuals generally have lower intestinal oxidase enzyme activities according to the healthy persons, as they hold the gastrointestinal problems such as gastritis, stomach and colonic ulcers [6, 69].
\nIntestinal mucosal injuries may decrease the enzyme functions by detoxifying the biogenic amines [17, 63]. The DAO activity disruption causes histamine intolerance and also allergic reactions as a result of the drug utilization, as it is caused by genetic and gastrointestinal diseases or DAO inhibition [17, 70]. It was found to increase the histamine toxicity by preventing the histamine oxidation of putrescine, cadaverine, and agmatine in humans [71].
\nBiogenic amines lead to hypertension, as they have vasoconstriction effects such as tyramine, phenylethylamine, and tryptamine [37, 68, 72]. Consuming tyramine-rich nutriments was found to react with the tyramine MAO inhibitor drugs and cause hypertensive crisis and also migraine in some patients [73]. Tyramine is revealed to inhibit MAO, tryptamine DAO, phenylethylamine DAO, and HNMT enzymes [74, 75].
\nIn the case of deficiency of putrescine, found in the high concentration in brains, is stated to develop the depression and also useful in the depression physiopathology [3, 76].
\nThe pharmacological effects of putrescine, cadaverine, spermine, and spermidine are at lower levels according to histamine, tyramine, and phenylethylamine [77]. Putrescine, causing hypotension, bradycardia, and lockjaw, creates carcinogenic heterocyclic compounds including nitrosamine, nitrosopyrrolidine, and nitrosopiperidine as some biogenic amines such as cadaverine, spermine, and spermidine react with the nitrite [5, 10, 39, 78].
\nPolyamines are known to lead to low-dose colon cancer by affecting the cell developments and differentiation [79, 80]. In addition to them, putrescine, cadaverine, spermine, and spermidine were also found to induce apoptosis and inhibit cell proliferation. The high-dose putrescine was found to induce apoptosis and prevent the spread [81, 82]. This putrescine effect pertains to increasing the nitric oxide synthesis, inhibiting the redox reactions and binding directly to the carcinogenic agents [82].
\nEating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa disrupt the function of brain serotonin [83]. Albumin deficiency shows up due to inadequate nutrition, and tryptophan transition from the blood-brain barrier increases, as it could not connect to the albumin. As a consequence, an increase occurs in the brain serotonin concentration [84, 85]. The drugs (MAO inhibitors) are used, as they change the serotonin levels in the depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and social phobia treatments [86]. The MAO inhibitors, used in treating these diseases, increase the brain concentrations by preventing the neurotransmitter (serotonin) disruptions [73, 86].
\nAgmatine shows a nephroprotective effect by increasing the glomerular filtration rate, and it also has a hypoglycemic impact as a result of several molecular mechanisms taking place in the blood glucose regulation [56, 87]. Besides, the agmatine level of schizophrenia patients was shown to be higher compared to that of healthy humans [88].
\nThe present information related to biogenic amines having different physiological functions and similar chemical structures and metabolic pathways was updated, undesirable effects were considered more comprehensively for human and animal health, and information was submitted about the essential diseases caused by biogenic amines.
\nLocalization of ground water is a national and global issue at the priority basis. The fragility of water for various uses is a serious problem, which can be resolved by geological and Vertical Electric Soundings (VES) studies [1, 2, 3]. The problem arises when the geological information is not enough and accurate in the location of wells, resulting into dry wells. This problem is mostly frequent in volcanic areas, where the areas covered by alluvial material do not allow to observe the possible structures that contain underground water. In this study, we present a methodology for the location of this resource in arid volcanic zones, especially in the Central Mesa of Mexico. The methodology is based on a basic knowledge of Geology, the study of the magnetic field (air and ground) and the application of the electrical resistivity method, in two modalities, that is, sections and SEV [2].
\nThe methodology was applied to solve serious water problem in the rural population of La Dulcita town, Municipality of Villa de Ramos, which is located at the Northwest of the capital of San Luis Potosí and state of Zacatecas (\nFigure 1\n). The population of La Dulcita in 2005 was reported with 750 inhabitants [4] and their water was supplied by a single well located at 5 km South of La Dulcita town, with its capacity measured less than 1 L/s, which was not sufficient for the entire population. In addition, the State Water Commission (CEA, for its acronym in Spanish), State of San Luis Potosí, had drilled three wells and all of them were dry.
\nSatellite image of study area, that is, La Dulcita, villa de Ramos, state of San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
The rocks that form the aquifers are characterized by their physical properties such as porosity, permeability and water content [5, 6]. The present methodology allows locating the zones and the degree of fracture and measure if these can be associated to moisture from the surface.
\nThe Geology of the study area is represented mainly by the alluvial deposits approximately to the south of the La Dulcita, an outcrop of basaltic rocks exist in this area, whose height is approximately 15 m from the ground level (\nFigure 2\n). In the East, there are outcrops of the Caracol Formation, of the Upper Cretaceous [7] forming hills that protrude from the plains (\nFigure 3\n). It consists of shales of a greenish color, sometimes very dark gray. In the area of the Villa de Ramos, there is a large granite extension, which has almost a North-South course and constitutes a tectonic pillar that presents mineralization in some areas. In addition, also towards the North of Villa de Ramos, there are outcrops of marine sedimentary rocks [7].
\nGeological map of the Villa de Ramos area modified after Labarthe and Aguillón [7].
Elevation digital model where La Dulcita (1) Villa de Ramos (2) and the H2O well (3) are located, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
La Dulcita area is located in a tectonic pit where the base must be represented by marine sedimentary rocks and probably basaltic lava flows.
\nFirst, a compilation of the existing geological information that already exists of the State of San Luis Potosí that was published by the Institute of Geology, Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi and the Mexican Geological Service is performed. Once the existing information has been compiled, a geological survey of the study area is carried out to locate the geological units that can exist in the area under the study and a digital elevation model formed (\nFigure 3\n). In addition, \nFigure 4\n indicates a geological map of the study area and an idealized diagrammatic model where the main structures and existing geological units are indicated.
\nGeological block of the La Dulcita-villa de Ramos area, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
The geophysical study is comprised of several stages; first, the aeromagnetic information of study area is analyzed. This is done by applying a series of mathematical algorithms (filters) to the aeromagnetic data, which allow highlighting certain characteristics and dismiss others on the study area. The filters applied are known as International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) [8], which is calculated every 5 years and the immediate inferior should be applied to the date of the aerial survey (e.g., the aeromagnetic flight of our study area was carried out in 1995, the IGRF must be subtracted is that of 1990) [9]. To obtain the intensity values of the total magnetic field (TMF), which are obtained when flying, the contribution of the main dipole is subtracted, which exists in the terrestrial nucleus, thus obtaining the values of the residual magnetic field [RMF, Eq.( 1)].
\nSince the magnetic field is a vector (defined by magnitude and direction), the magnetic anomalies in these latitudes are displaced from the sources that produce them. Therefore, this is the reason why other mathematical algorithms must be applied for a filter, which simulates our study area, where the magnetic inclination is 90° and the declination is 0°. This algorithm named Baranov and Naudy [10] is better known as reduction to the magnetic pole field (RMPF) and assures us theoretically that magnetic anomalies will be located in the sources that produce them. The data matrix, thus generated, is the basis for the application of other filters or mathematical algorithms.
\nIn arid volcanic areas, one of the opportunities to locate groundwater is in the confined aquifers on faults. A filter is a mathematical tool to guide us, if we want to know the fracture, faults or the contacts zones in the geological units a filter that provides us with guidance is the Henderson and Zietz [11]. This filter is known as vertical derivatives of first or second degree, because it is going to indicate the areas of high gradients which are normally associated with the geological structures mentioned above. Another filter that has been applied to aeromagnetic information is the Henderson [12] that allows us to change the plane of observation, when we rise, the high frequencies tend to attenuate and highlight the low frequencies, which are associated with the geological structure of the subsoil. This filter is known as the magnetic field upward continuation.
\nIt is possible to interpret the location of the superficial and deep permeability zones with the analysis of the magnetic contour maps through each of these filters [13, 14].
\nThe next step of the methodology, after the aeromagnetic information has been analyzed, is to perform a land magnetometry survey in the areas that have presented some possibility of being associated with fracturing and/or faulting and/or geological contacts [15, 16]. This stage is called anomaly verification.
\nThe orientation of the land magnetic profiles should be as far as possible perpendicular to the structure that is inferred. The processing and analysis of the ground magnetic information is similar to the one made to the aeromagnetic data, a RMF is obtained from the TMF, later RMPF is generated and to this field, the filters of derivatives and upward continuation are applied.
\nThe magnetic information analysis is up to a one-point simple. This method is based on the fact that the whole Earth behaves like a large magnet that would be in the center of it [17, 18]. For a specific area, it is considered that the magnetic field strength (H) is the same, and that the value of the magnetic intensity will be a function of the magnetic susceptibility of the rocks [k; Eq. (2)], which is defined as the capacity of these to acquire magnetization, such that:
\nThis magnetization (I) constitutes the induced magnetization. Additionally, the effects of the remnant magnetization are present. In volcanic and intrusive rocks, this magnetization can be of greater intensity than the induced effects [18, 19]. If we consider that volcanic rocks contain ferromagnesian and is without fractures, it will generate a magnetic response characterized by having an anomaly represented by a magnetic high and a low. That is, the magnetic response has a positive and a negative side. If we make the simile that the rock is a magnet, and fractured it in two parts, we would generate two anomalies, which would have two magnetic highs and lows in a sequence, high-low-high-low magnetic, and so on. If we have a slightly fractured and/or faulty area, it will give us a magnetic response with highs and lows sequenced, with medium frequencies. In contrast, if we have a zone with highly fractured and/or high faulting, it will give us a magnetic response characterized by high frequencies and by a series of sequenced of magnetic highs and lows [16]. These areas are interpreted as zones where two of three of the properties that identify the aquifers are present, as they have porosity and permeability.
\nOnce the secondary permeability zone in the volcanic rocks has been identified, the next step in the methodology is to prove that the zones associated with humidity, which is achieved with the application of electrical methods; in our case, we use direct current.
\nThe electric DC methods are based on Ohm’s law [2], which establishes that the resistance is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the intensity of the electric current:
\nwhere R (Ohm, Ω) is the electrical resistance, V (Volts) the potential and I (Amp) in the electric current.
\nThe previous relationship (Eq. 3) is valid for any electrical circuit, in studies of the underground, the relationship changes since the resistance is a function of the nature and the geometry of the conductor (Eq. 4), in this case the Earth:
\nThe equation in which ρ represents the nature of the conductor and is called resistivity, L is the length in m and S the conductor section in m2. If we replace and isolate the variable, then the following equation is given by:
\nIn geoelectrical exploration, the resistivity of the underground is normally measured with an electrode arrangement of four electrodes, with the electrodes AB being the emission electrodes (current) and MN the potential electrodes.
\nIn this case, the resistivity (Eq. 6) is given by:
\nwhere K is the geometric factor (1/AM-1/BM-1/AN+1/BN) of the electrode array, the subscript “a” in the resistivity indicates that the calculated value is apparent.
\nThe resistivity is an inverse property of the electrical conductivity and in exploration, its units is ohm per meter (Ω/m).
\nIn geoelectric exploration, the variation of the resistivity is studied horizontally by means of profiles in which the electrode array is moved as a whole to the different stations. Conversely, equispaced or the vertical variation of the resistivity can be studied by means of vertical electric soundings (VES). At a certain point, for this, the current electrodes (AB) are increasingly opened and the measuring or potential electrodes (MN) are opened only when the measured values are very small (Schlumberger electrode array). In such manner in which data exist in one or two points with different MN opening for the same values of AB, there is an overlap or “cluth” during the measurement of the SEV [1].
\nA quick way to know the electrical behavior of the underground in a given area is to make profiles of electrical resistivity of two electrode openings, for example, at 200 and 400 m opening of the current electrodes with the Schlumberger electrode array (AB/2 at 100 and 200 m). In this way, we have knowledge of the variation of electrical resistivity in a horizontal direction.
\nIf the resistivity behaves similar to both electrode array separations, it will imply that the entire electrically scanned area is the same. If the resistivity of the profile generated with a larger electrode aperture is higher than that generated at a smaller aperture, it will indicate that at depth the possibility of detecting humidity is zero. On the other hand, if the resistivity is lower at larger electrode aperture, it will have greater chances of detecting humidity. If the profiles of apparent resistivity show an irregular behavior, it will have greater possibilities of detecting a resistive resistance where the resistivity at the largest aperture changes form more resistive to less resistive and indicates that the area under study shows in the underground, where the current circulates more easily and will be an area where the variation of resistivity with depth must be studied, which is done with vertical electric sounding (SEV, [20]).
\nThe VES’ must be interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively. Firstly, the morphology of the VES curve must be defined [21] which in order to be associated with humidity, must necessarily have a correlation with the H-type curves (ρ1 > ρ2 < ρ3), which indicates that there is a lower resistivity contrast between the central layer and those that enclose it. The VES curves can also be KH (ρ1 < ρ2 > ρ3 < ρ4), QH (ρ1 > ρ2 > ρ3 < ρ4) or some of the curves that show a portion of type H.
\nThe quantitative interpretation is carried out using commercial software that allows an inversion of the resistivity data [22]. It is convenient to perform a VES in wells where its stratigraphic column is known, in a way that the VES can be calibrated.
\nOnce the previous stages have been carried out, the zones that are chosen for drilling must have a magnetic response which correlates with a fractured zone (permeability) and electrical methods (resistivity) with an area that has a relation with a humid area, represented by a resistive contrast that contains a minimum between two resistivity maxima.
\nThe procedure described above has been applied to an area, which is located in the Mesa Central, Mexico, specifically to a rural population called La Dulcita, municipality of Villa de Ramos, San Luis Potosí.
\nThe area under study was flown by the Mexican Geological Service, using an Islander aircraft BN2-A21, equipped with a Geometrics G-822 magnetometer, of cesium vapor optical pump, with a sensitivity of 0.25 nT, and an acquisition system of P-101 Picodas data, Automax video camera, 35 mm. A Geometrics G-826A magnetometer was used, with a sensitivity of 1 nT as the base station. Also, Sperry altimeter radar was also used.
\nThe course of the flight lines was N-S, with a distance between flight lines of 1000 m and a height above ground level of 300 m, the navigation was controlled with an Ashtech GG24 GPS system and the data was subtracted from the IGRF 1990 reference.
\nThe total magnetic field intensity in the central portion was 44,858 nT, with an inclination of 50°43′ and declination of 8°13′ for July 1995.
\nThe magnetic field behavior analysis began with the generation of the RMF map (\nFigure 5\n), which as mentioned in previous paragraphs, is obtained by subtracting the IGRF from the total magnetic field. Based on the RMF, the RMPF was calculated (\nFigure 6\n). In the W portion of the RMPF, there is a “trend” of magnetic highs (red) that represent the W limit of an area of the graben that exists with a general direction N-S and is characterized on the map with anomalies associated with magnetic lows (blue color). Towards the central portion, two “trends” of magnetic anomalies with direction NE–SW and NNW–SSE are shown that are possibly associated with the geologically multiple intrusive “El Socorro” [7]. The Dulcita area is located on the first step of the graben and alignments (\nFigure 7\n) with direction N-S and E-W towards its portion W is observed, which can be geologically associated with zones of faults and/or fracturing and/or contacts. The area investigated in general shows preferential aeromagnetic alignments in an N-S direction, also existing in the NE–SW direction, with few showing NW-SE direction.
\nMap showing the isovalues contour of the residual magnetic field of the Dulcita area, Villa de Ramos, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
Map showing the isovalues contour of the reduced to the pole magnetic field of La Dulcita, Villa de Ramos, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
Map where the magnetic alignments are observed based on the isovalues contour of the first vertical Derivativ upwards continuation 250 m from the reduced to the pole magnetic field.
The analyzed area in general shows the existence of up to 10 AMD’s, each characterized by different amplitudes and wavelengths. The area where the water is extracted for the population of La Dulcita, is correlated with the AMD II that is associated with a tectonic pit area, characterized by low values of magnetism. The graben is limited by AMD I to W and by AMD’s IIII and IV to the E. In AMD I, a highly productive well was located for the area (16 L/s) at a distance of 2.3 km SW of La Dulcita outside the ejido boundaries.
\nLa Dulcita area is located in the aeromagnetic domain map (AMD), zone that show similar magnetic susceptibility (\nFigure 8\n) and is situated between the limits of AMD’s I, II and IX, which allows us to interpret possibilities of the existence of permeability in the zones of the contacts.
\nMap of the aeromagnetic domains (AMDs) interpreted in the isovalues contour of the magnetic reduced pole field.
From above interpretation of the aeromagnetic information, four ground magnetic sections were programmed with reading stations of the total magnetic field (TMF), during every 20 m, by using two magnetometers, one GEM-GSM-19 and another Geometrics G-856 A, to perform the measurements, in which they were corrected by daily and hourly drift and a residual was obtained by subtracting a zero-degree polynomial from the TMF.
\nTwo of the sections had NW-SE orientation and two NE–SW (\nFigure 9\n) with the population of La Dulcita being in the central part of these profiles.
\nMap showing the location of the ground magnetic sections. The water well that appears to the north of the map where the population of La Dulcita is supplied with a yield of less than 1 L/s.
The magnetic section 1 (\n\nFigure 10\n) displays four terrestrial magnetic domains (TMD): first station 0 to 54 was characterized by a series of magnetic anomalies related to short wavelengths (20–40 m), high frequencies and amplitudes of 160 nT. It was geologically correlated with a highly fractured zone, while the horizontal gradients give values of up to 11 nT/m. Second, TMD 2 is located between stations 55 and 78, and it is defined by presenting a normal magnetic field, where no abnormal areas are observed. Third TMD 3 is located between stations 79 and 87 and shows an anomalous zone limited by two magnetic anomalies that have amplitudes of 33 and 65 nT and horizontal gradients of 2.6 and 6 nT/m, respectively. Geologically, it is correlated with an area of medium fracture possibilities. The last, TMD 4 is limited between stations 88 and 135, in general it shows a discretely disturbed magnetic field where it is not considered with the possibility of associating at depth with permeability.
\nGround magnetic profile 1, with a NW-SE orientation. At the upper part, the residual magnetic field (RMF) is plotted (red); the horizontal gradient of the RMF is plotted at the lower part (blue), and at the bottom a qualitative interpretation of the percentage of probabilities of association with fracturing in the underground is shown. NF, not fractured; F, fractured.
The magnetic section 2 is located towards the E portion of La Dulcita (\nFigure 9\n), it presents five TMD’s (\nFigure 11\n), the first one limited between stations 0 and 32 shows a normal behavior of the RMF, where magnetic anomalies are distinguished. The TMF 2 is located between stations 33 and 45 and does not show areas of high frequencies that can be correlated with fracturing effects at depth. The TMF 3 is located between stations 46 and 84, it is identified by presenting a magnetic response characterized by anomalies with short wavelengths (60–100 m), high frequencies and amplitudes of the order of 28–41 nT and horizontals gradients from 2.7 to 2.3 nT/m, respectively. It correlates an area with average possibilities that associating with the existence of secondary permeability. The TMD 4 is identified between stations 85 and 113 and has short wavelengths (20–80 m) high frequencies and amplitudes of 18 at 29 nT and horizontal gradients of 0.4–1.5 nT/m, respectively. They are geologically associated to an area with average possibilities of correlation with permeability in the underground. The TMD 5 is delimited between stations 114–133, characterized by showing short wavelengths (20–40 m), high frequencies and magnetization amplitudes of 54 nT up to 160 nT, with horizontal gradients of 6.5 nT/m up to 14.7 nT/m, is geologically correlated with an area of strong fracture and permeability.
\nGround magnetic profile 2, with a NE–SW orientation. At the upper part the residual magnetic field (RMF) is plotted (red); the horizontal gradient of the RMF is plotted at the lower part (blue), and at the bottom a qualitative interpretation of the percentage of probabilities of association with fracturing in the underground is shown. HF, highly fractured; LF, light fractured; NF , not fractured.
The magnetic section 3 is located in the NW of La Dulcita (\nFigure 9\n) shows two TMD (\nFigure 12\n). The first domain is located between stations 1 and 16 is identified by presenting a series of magnetic anomalies. These are characterized by short wavelengths (20–100 m), high frequencies and amplitudes from 32 to 107 nT and horizontal gradients from 2.9 to 7.6 nT/m, which correlates with average possibilities of being associated in the underground with fracturing. The second TMD is located from station 17 to 75 and shows a normal magnetic field where the possibility to correlate with fracturing at depth zero.
\nGround magnetic profile 3, with a NE–SW orientation. At the upper part the residual magnetic field (RMF) is plotted (red); the horizontal gradient of the RMF is plotted in the lower part (blue), and at the bottom qualitative interpretation of the percentage of probabilities of association with fracturing in the underground is shown. F, fractured; NF, not fractured.
The magnetic section 4 located outside La Dulcita, the NW portion (\nFigure 9\n), shows two TMD (\nFigure 13\n), neither of them of interest to be associated with fractured zones in the underground.
\nGround magnetic profile 4, with a NW-SE orientation. At the upper part the residual magnetic field (RMF) is plotted (red); the horizontal gradient of the RMF is plotted at the lower part and at the bottom a qualitative interpretation of the percentage of probabilities of association with fracturing in the underground is shown. NF, not fractured.
Two electrical sections (or profiles) of apparent resistivity, induced polarization and self-potential were made with the Schlumberger type electrode array (\nFigure 14\n), using two electrode spacings AB/2 = 100 and 200 m and a Syscal R-2 resistivity instrumental (\nFigure 15\n). The sections were made in the same directions as the magnetic profiles 1 and 2, which were showed more possibilities of associating with fracturing in the underground.
\nThe Schlumberger electrode array diagram, used for the realization of vertical electric sections and soundings (VES). The maximum openings of the VES were AB/2 of 1500 and 2000 m.
Electrical instruments used for vertical electric soundings and sections.
The W-E electrical profile shows in general an increase in resistivity with depth except two areas, from station 400 to 500 and 750 where the conductivity is higher. The induced polarization in these profiles generally shows a decrease in chargeability, except for two areas of station 450–500 and 750, where the load capacity tends to increase. The spontaneous potential is observed to decrease in general with larger separations of AB/2 (\nFigure 16\n).
\nElectrical profile 1, with a NW-SE orientation, where (a) the apparent resistivity is plotted; in (b) the induced polarization and in (c) the self-potential. These electrical profiles were located on the zones showing high frequencies (fracture, permeability) in profile 1 (\nFigure 10\n) of magnetometry.
The S-N electrical section, presents values of apparent resistivity lower at depth for the most part, except from station 450 to 550 where there is a small increase in resistivity to separations greater than AB/2. The chargeability values in the induced polarization are observed in contrast throughout the section, increase to greater separations of AB/2 in the areas of station 0–150, 350, 550–900 and in the station 1100. The spontaneous potential (SP) in this section behaves similarly to both electrode separations between stations 0 and 550, where at higher separations of AB/2, the values (mV) increase slightly from station 600 to 900, the values decrease for AB/2 = 200 m and from station 950 to 1300, the SP is changing (\nFigure 17\n).
\nElectrical section 2, with a NE–SW orientation, where (a) the apparent resistivity is plotted; in (b) the induced polarization and in (c) the self-potential. It is located on the magnetic section 2.
Five vertical electric soundings (VES’) were made with maximum openings of the current electrodes (AB/2) of 1500 and 2000 m, four of them are located in identified zones (magnetometry) with possibilities of associating depth permeability. One of the SEVs was carried out on a producer well that was located 2.3 km SW of La Dulcita and geologically located in the zone of the sunken block and aeromagnetically associated with the AMD I, which served as calibrator for the interpretations.
\nThe qualitative interpretation of the VES’ morphology showed that the producer was well associated with a KQH curve (VES 4), among four remaining SEVs two were from the QQH family (VES 2 and 5), one was HKQH (VES 1) and the other HKH (VES 3).
\nThe VES’ were processed and interpreted with the commercial program Resix Plus that solves the inverse problem based on the Ghosh method of the inverse filter [22]. Each of the VES was compared with the VES (4) of the producing well (\nFigures 18\n and \n19\n).
\nGraphs of vertical electric soundings (VES) 1 and 2 and their comparison with VES 4, related to a well with an expenditure of the order of 25 L/s. note the thickness (170.4 m) correlated with the aquifer horizon (28.7 Ωm) possibly due to a sandy unit, overlying a clay horizon (2 Ωm).
Graphs of the vertical electric soundings (VES) 3 and 5 and its comparison with the VES 4, related to a well, with an yield of the order of 16 L/s. Note that VES 3 shows a sequence of geological units (~ 53 Ωm) confined by clay horizons (3–4 Ωm), while VES 5 shows a decrease in resistivity to depths of the order of 700 m.
\n\nFigure 18\n indicates that the data interpreted in the VES 4 (KQH) for producing well and calibrator clearly indicates that at the base of the aquifer there is a clay unit (2 Ωm) and correlates with the resistivity of 28.69 Ωm with a thickness of 170.4 m, hence the well produces about 16 L/s. In this comparison, the VES 1 (HKQH) shows a horizon (23.23 Ωm) with a thickness of 33.5 m, possibly associating a sandy unit with moisture content at a depth of the order of 24 m. The VES 2 (QQH) shows a unit with a resistivity of 18.65 Ωm at a depth of less than 3 m with a thickness of 30 m.
\n\n\nFigure 19\n shows the results of interpreting the VES’ 3 and 5, they are also compared with the VES 4 (well). The VES 3 (HKH) shows the existence of a geological unit (53.20 Ωm) bordered by two clay horizons (4 and 3 Ωm) at a depth of the order of 61 m and a thickness of 34 m. It presents very good resistive contrast and the unit can be a fractured basalt horizon. VES 5 (QQH) shows a horizon possibly associated with a clay-sandy unit (14.8 Ωm) at a depth of 15 m and a thickness of 29 m. A large layer (> 700 m) of clay (9.2 Ωm) that starts to make an interpretation at a depth of 45 m.
\nOnce the information was interpreted and analyzed, in some areas and communal land holding close to La Dulcita, a zone that meets the standards that are associated to the aquifer were found. It aeromagnetically shows the existence of alignments in N-S and E-W orientation and their location on top of the graben structure. It is represented in an aeromagnetic map by the magnetic lows (blue color) the pit area and magnetic highs (color red). Thus, La Dulcita area is located in the limits of three aeromagnetic domains, which already indicates in ground magnetic measurements and should necessarily have a magnetic susceptibility contrast that will be reflected with significant differences in the amplitude of the magnetic field.
\nThe ground magnetic sections indicate the zones that can be associated with permeability and the zones that do not have association with this physical property. The magnet simile is parameter for the interpretation of fracture in the underground. It will generate a simple anomaly if not related with fracture and provide a series of anomalies, which will be characterized by high frequencies. The calculation of the horizontal gradient of the magnetic field is completely resolutive to be able to observe fractured (permeable) zones of relatively healthy zones. In the magnetic section 1, the different physical behaviors that exist in the underground are clearly shown in the first portion of a highly fractured area contrasted with the rest of the section, which indicates that the magnetic susceptibilities of each terrestrial magnetic domains are associated with different units.
\nWith the aerial and terrestrial magnetism, it was easy to find areas with high possibilities of being associated with fracturing (permeability).
\nWith the electrical sections, it was possible to quickly scan the areas with possibilities of being associated with permeability and verify if they could also be associated with humidity. Producer well is key to facilitating the interpretation of vertical electric soundings, which in order to be associated with humidity should have as part of their morphology a portion type H.
\nIn the area that was most likely to be associated with permeability and humidity in the underground (\nFigure 20\n) where a drilling was carried out by the State Water Commission of San Luis Potosí, with production of 4 L/s. Furthermore, if we take into account the previously three dry wells, which had been drilled then it can be said that this methodology has met the objective.
\nThe graphs that support the existence of a fractured area and with humidity in the underground are shown. The magnetism intensity graph (a) shows a clearly fractured zone towards the NW portion of the section. In the geoelectric profile (B), a contrast in resistivity is observed towards station 400, it decreases to openings of AB/2 = 200 m with respect to AB/2 = 100 m. the SEV 3 (C) shows association with type H curves.
With the help of the above methodology, the trained eye of the field geologist is strengthened with this methodology that uses scientific instruments, whose function is to detect the variation in the physical properties. For example, the magnetic susceptibility and resistivity of the rocks that are hidden below the Surface. Undoubtedly, the usage will certainly increase the percentage of successful drilled wells.
\nThis work was funded by the State Water Commission, San Luis Potosí and COPOCYT-SLP. My sincere gratitude goes to Ing. Víctor J. Martínez Ruíz for his support to drawing geological map. I also thank David E. Torres Gaytán for his contribution in the preparation of this work. Also my sincere gratitude to Dr., Sanjeet Lumar Verna and Lucia Aldana Navarro for their comments on writing.
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