Facts and effects of various types of bacteria present in GM
\r\n\tModern radiotherapy techniques, such as intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) and volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT) associated with the concept of image-guided radiotherapy (IGRT), can offer an accurate radiation dose delivery in order to protect radiosensitive organs without compromising target coverage. In the future, efforts should be made to discover new strategies to improve the outcome of patients with head and neck cancers.
\r\n\tWe intend to achieve a consensus for the guidelines concerning head and neck modern radiotherapy. This book will cover the following research: Principles of modern radiotherapy; Radiobiology; Treatment planning; Organs at risk and tolerance o tissues; Central nervous system; Sensorial organs (orbit, ear, nose, lip, skin); Nasopharynx. Oropharynx; Hypopharynx; Larynx; Oral cavity; Pneumatic cavities (maxillary, ethmoid, nasal sinuses); Salivary glands; Thyroid and thymoma; Lymphomas; Palliative and emergency radiotherapy; Benign tumors.
Our quality of life and health status are modulated by our food habits and lifestyle. Hence several metabolic disorders and are the greatest global health issues are influenced by improper diet and lifestyle [1]. The other factors that are involved in the development of metabolic disorders and diseases are environmental factors, maternal health, and host genetic makeup. The resident microorganisms in our gastrointestinal tract are collectively collected as the gut microbiota (GM). GM consists of bacteria, fungi, Archaea, protozoa, and viruses. In case of mammals, GM comprises of four main phyla: Firmicutes (64%), Bacteroidetes (23%), Proteobacteria (8%), and Actinobacteria (3%). These phyla are important for the regulation of host metabolism and physiology [2]. The total number of both prokaryotic cells and host eukaryotic cells in the gut is approximately 100 trillion, which is three times that of the total number of human body cells [3]. Hence, our unique gut environment is considered as a functional and measurable organ [4]. However, the composition of GM varies along the gastrointestinal tract, and differs within and between individuals depending on the gestational age, mode of delivery, breastfeeding, antibiotic exposure, dietary lifestyle and nutritional status of the individual status of [5, 6]. The colonization of GM is limited in stomach and small intestine, but quite dense and diverse in the colon owing to the absence of digestive secretions, slow peristalsis, and rich nutrient supply [7]. This variety in composition of GM and its function is influenced by the consumption of improper diet, which in turn affects the health condition of the host. GM regulates the energy homeostasis, intestinal integrity and immunity against invading pathogens by participating in the digestive process and energy production, hampering pathogen colonization, and modulating the immune system; hence GM can modulate the overall health status of the host. Gut microbiome also influences an individual’s metabolic status such as calorie derived from indigestible dietary substances and storage of calories in adipose tissue, which regulates incidence of obesity in an individual. Studies from germ-free and wild type mice showed alteration in homeostasis in kidney, liver, and intestine in germ-free mice depicting the fact that GM influences whole body metabolism [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. GM also plays a vital role in vitamin production, energy harvest and storage, fermentation and absorption of undigested carbohydrates. The distribution of GM is determined by diet to a large extent as evident from individuals who follow a diet high in animal fat have dominance of Bacteroides in GM, whereas those who follow a carbohydrate-rich diet have a
Gut microbiota | \nFacts and effects | \n
---|---|
Bifidobacteria | \nPopulation reduces in high fat-fed mice gut increasing endotoxemia [14] | \n
Bacteroidetes | \nPopulation high in the gut of people consuming animal-based food rich diet [15] | \n
\n | \nPopulation high in the gut of people consuming plant-based food rich diet [16] | \n
\n | \nBreak down bile acid in the intestine to its secondary metabolites like deoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid. These metabolites bind to TGR5 receptor (G-protein-coupled receptor) present in the endocrine glands, adipocytes, muscles, immune organs, spinal cord and enteric nervous system, and stimulates the secretion of incretin hormone GLP-1 and insulin [19] | \n
\n | \nThey are capable of reducing T2D markers like serum glucose, glycated hemoglobin and c-peptide in high-fructose-fed rats along with reduction in inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α in adipose tissue and down-regulated forms of GLUT 4 and PPAR-γ [58] | \n
\n | \nThey can increase lipopolysaccharide-binding protein expression in plasma and diminishes endotoxemia [63] | \n
\n | \nThey can restrict bacterial translocation in intestine alleviating bacteremia in early stages of T2D [64] | \n
\n | \nOral administration can ameliorate impaired glucose tolerance in hyperinsulinemic rats induced by high-fructose [65] | \n
\n | \nOral administration is positively correlated with expression of CB2 receptor [76] | \n
\n | \nOral administration is negatively correlated with CB2 expression probiotics control GM through CB2 receptor expression [76] | \n
\n | \nImpairs inflammation by altering the intestinal permeability [80, 81] | \n
Bacteroidetes:Firmicutes ratio | \nLow in GM of obese patients [112, 113] | \n
Butyrate-producing bacteria ( | \nLow population in GM of T2DM patients [113] | \n
Firmicutes (Gram-positive) and Bacteroidetes (Gram-negative) | \n90% of the bacterial species present in gut [15, 16] | \n
Proteobacteria and particularly | \nHigh in T2D patients [113, 121] | \n
Enterobacteriaceae | \nPopulation elevated by T2D drugs [122] | \n
\n | \nPopulation lowered by T2D drugs [122] | \n
\n \n | \nMetformin increases the populations of | \n
Facts and effects of various types of bacteria present in GM
Several reports have shown that the metabolites derived by GM from fermentation of food play a key role in maintenance of the host metabolism. Clostridium and Eubacterium from our GM break down bile acid in the intestine to its secondary metabolites like deoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid. These metabolites bind to Takeda G protein coupled receptor-5 TGR5 receptor (G-protein-coupled bile receptor) present in the endocrine glands, adipocytes, muscles, immune organs, spinal cord and enteric nervous system, and stimulates the secretion of incretin hormone GLP-1 and insulin. Hence these metabolites in turn promote energy expenditure (Table 1) [19]. Long chain fatty acids, for example linoleic acid produced by the GM regulates our lipid profile finally resulting in obesity [20]. Short chain fatty acids (SCFs) another secondary metabolite of gut microbial fermentation is formed by the digestion of indigestible polysaccharides and oligosaccharides that are neither digested nor absorbed in the proximal jejunum [21]. SCFs mainly acetate and propionate contributed by Bacteroidetes and butyrate produced by Firmicutes balance the host metabolism by influencing energy homeostasis, lipid accumulation and appetite [22]. SCF produced in the gastrointestinal tract are also known to control the pH of the lumen by increasing the absorption of nutrients. SCFs also act as a source of nutrition for GM due to high carbon content [23]. Butyrate is the main source of energy for colonocytes. It aids in the proliferation, maturation, maintenance of colonocytes and also protects the colon by enhancing mucin expression and immune response [24]. Acetate and propionate can cross the liver epithelium, and propionate gets metabolized in the liver, whereas acetate stays in the peripheral circulation [25]. SCF also regulates epithelial barrier integrity by maintaining the tight junction proteins like claudin-1, occludin, and Zonula Occludens-1. Suppression of these proteins leads to invasion of bacteria and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) stimulating an inflammatory response [26]. Hence SCF acts as energy source and also regulates host biological responses including inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune response toward Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and colorectal cancer [27, 28]. Host metabolism is activated by SCFs by direct stimulation of G-coupled receptors like free fatty acid receptors 2 and 3 (FFAR2/GPR41 and FFAR3/GPR41) occurring mainly in the gut epithelial cells. They also activate host metabolism by inhibiting nuclear class I histone deacetylases (HDACs) present in the epithelial cells [27]. FFAR2 acts as the receptor for acetate and FFAR3 is the receptor for butyrate and propionate. Activation of these receptors regulates the level of satiety hormones like ghrelin (orexigenic peptide), glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1), and peptide YY (PYY) (anorexigenic peptide) [29]. Ghrelin secretion occurs pre-meal, while GLP-1 and PYY are secreted post-meal, which in turn stimulates insulin production in the pancreatic 𝛽 cells. GLP-1 and PYY also reduce food intake, normalizes weight loss and maintain the balance of energy intake. Increase in the production of SCFs enhances the secretion of PYY and GLP-1 but decreases secretion of ghrelin, which ultimately leads to increased satiety and reduction in food intake [30]. The other factors inducing reduced appetite is mediated by butyrate and propionate by (i) enhanced expression of leptin in adipocytes, direct regulation of body weight and energy homeostasis by decreased food intake and upregulated energy expenditure [31], (ii) promoting gluconeogenesis in the intestinal cells [32] and (iii) inhibition of histone acetyltransferase and deacetylases which exhibit anti-inflammatory responses, epigenetic modification necessary for proliferation and differentiation of immune cells, activated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway synchronised adiponectin secretion, induction of mitochondrial biogenesis and fatty acid oxidation [33]. In healthy subjects SCF regulates integrity of gut, secretion of hormones, and immune responses, while in metabolically unhealthy subjects SCF implements protection from diabetes, ulcerative colitis, colorectal cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders [24, 34].
\nRecent studies targeting metagenomics have disclosed that approximately 90% of the bacterial species in the GM of adult humans are Bacteroidetes (Gram-negative) and Firmicutes (Gram-positive) [35, 36]. A healthy person fosters 500–1000 bacterial species at a single time and almost 1012–1014 colony-forming units (CFU) with a total mass weight of about 1–2 kg in the total gut [37] with 109–1012 CFU/ml in the colon, 101–103 CFU/ml in jejunum and 104–108 CFU/ml in the ileum [38]. Transfer of microbiota from mother to embryo takes place in utero or during birth and attains strength by the 2 years. Composition of GM is shaped by host genetics, environmental factors and early exposure to microbes during birth. The other factors that regulate formation of a stale GM are exposure to vaginal microbiome during normal delivery, skin microbiota during cesarean sections, breast-feeding and antibiotics in neonatal or early childhood.
\nNormal diet of a healthy human contains a considerable percentage of carbohydrates comprising of monosaccharides, disaccharides and complex polysaccharides. The difference lies in the absorption of the sugars, for example common sugars like cane sugar and fruit sugars are readily absorbed in the intestine, disaccharides like maltose, lactose and sucrose and complex polysaccharides like pectin, starch and hemicellulose are broken down into monosaccharides in the ileum with the help of bacterial enzymes like glycosidases before being absorbed [39]. After food intake consisting of carbohydrate-rich diet, glucose levels in the blood rise, and later are strongly regulated and kept at a homeostatic level by the help of two hormones, insulin and glucagon. Carbohydrate digestion and absorption occurs in the upper digestive tract via glucose transporters called GLUTs (glucose transporters) located on the epithelial cells [40]. GLUT proteins uptake glucose into the pancreatic β-cells. Metabolization of glucose stimulates insulin secretion due to increased ATP/ADP ratio, membrane depolarization and closure of potassium channels, resulting in calcium dependant exocytosis of insulin [41].
\nThe role of gut environment and gut associated lymphoid tissue plays a pivotal role in T2D [42]. T2D is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by fasting serum hyperglycemia, non-responsiveness of insulin and insulin insufficiency [43]. Insulin resistance or non-responsiveness occurs in the liver and skeletal muscle cells when they undergo failure to sense insulin. Other factors in T2D are non-responsiveness or deficiency of incretins, amplified lipid catabolism, increased glucagon levels in circulation and increased salt and water renal retention [43, 44]. High-fat-diet-fed germ-free mice, wild type mice and standard diet fed mice exhibit different metabolic and immunological characters depending on diet and GM [45, 46]. Also mice belonging to same genotype and diet exhibit different metabolism of glucose depending on their GM [47].
\nIn the earlier sections it has been discusses that our GM plays a key role in digestion and absorption of food. Increased population of Bacteroidetes lead to increase in energy production. The population of Bifidobacteria reduce in high fat-fed mice gut increasing endotoxemia. Prebiotic supplementation can restore Bifidobacteria levels in the mouse gut [48, 49]. Bacteroidetes are more widespread in the gut of people consuming animal-based food rich diet.
Low-grade inflammation is a key pathophysiological factor behind the progression of type 2 diabetes (T2D), and incidence of hyperglycemia and insulin resistance [55]. Progression of T2D occurs along with reduced GM diversity and increased gut inflammation. Gut inflammation includes innate immune responses via toll-like receptors, (TLRs) secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and increased endotoxemia. Also during high-fat diet induced obesity, intestinal Gram-negative bacteria translocates in the circulatory system, adipose tissue and cause endotoxemia [56].
\nProbiotics enhance production of interleukin-10 (IL-10) an important regulatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine in diabetic mice. Increased IL-10 down-regulates proinflammatory cytokines like interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and interleukin-2 (IL-2)/interleukin 1-β (IL-1β) preventing inflammation and incidence of diabetes [56, 57].
Influence of gut microbiota in various physiological responses [
Increased gut permeability provides the relation between high-fat diet and LPS by causing LPS entry into circulation via the portal system in T2D patients [66]. Animal model studies have provided evidence between increased intestinal permeability and progression of obesity and insulin resistance [67, 68]. Consumption of prebiotics increase gut microbiota, rectify intestinal permeability, diminish inflammation, alleviate endotoxemia and ameliorate glucose tolerance [68]. High-fat diet induce decrease in tight junction proteins regulating epithelial integrity of gut lining and gut permeability such as zonula occluden-1 (ZO-1) and occludin. Dietary fatty acids activate toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2) and toll like receptor 4 (TLR-4) signaling pathways. TLR-4 leads to LPS translocation into intestinal capillaries and induces insulin resistance in mice [69, 70, 71]. Altered gut permeability and plasma LPS levels are related with distribution of ZO-1 and occluding and endocannabinoid (eCB) system. Gut microbes selectively modify expression of the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) in colon also affecting zona occluding ZO-1 and occludin [72]. Administration of probiotics changes the gut microbiota resulting in reduced gut permeability in obese mice. Antibiotic exposure induces metabolic endotoxemia in mice fed with high-fat diet, along with increased gut permeability, secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, and incidence of diabetes and obesity (Figure 1). Modulation of the eCB system is connected with inflammation and diabetes [72, 73]. Moderation of GM controls eCB expression in gut, thereby regulating gut permeability and plasma LPS levels through the CB1 receptor [72]. Changes in the gut microbiota due to prebiotic feeding reduce gut permeability in obese mice. Modulation of gut permeability occurs through the distribution of tight junction proteins through eCB systems [55]. Activation of cannabinoid CB2 receptor and blocking of CB1 receptor improves glucose tolerance [74, 75].
GM has a close association with host obesity, since the increase in total body fat in wild type mice is high when compared to germ free mice consuming more food. Transplanting of cecum-derived microbiota induced an increase in body fat mass and insulin resistance, adipocyte hypertrophy, and increased level of circulating leptin and glucose [78]. Germ free mice when fed with a diet rich in fat and sugar content showed lean phenotype however wild type mice who were fed with the high sugar and high fat diet turned obese. Also the germ free mice showed enhanced insulin sensitivity, leading to improved glucose tolerance and altered cholesterol metabolism diminishing cholesterol storage and increasing cholesterol excretion via fecal route. GM alters intestinal permeability, causes endotoxemia, enhances calorie provision, stimulates endocannabinoid system (eCB), regulates lipid metabolism by increasing activity of lipoprotein lipase and lipogenesis resulting in host obesity. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), present in the cell membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, stimulate low-grade inflammation and incidence of insulin resistance (IR). LPS reaches the circulation from gut by diffusion either by enhanced intestinal permeability or absorption after association with chylomicron [79]. LPS acts as a ligand for toll-like receptors TLR-4 occurring in immune cells, liver and adipose tissue. LPS activated TLR-4 prompts conformational changes recruiting adapter molecules like myeloid differentiation primary factor MyD88 protein, IL-1 receptor associated kinase IRAK, TNF receptor associated factor TRAF6, and NF-κB inducing kinase NIK, phosphorylating and degrading inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa B kinase IKKB, inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells NF-κB. Activated NF-κB translocates to the nucleus triggering expression of inflammatory proteins and various pathways like janus kinase JNK, p38 microtubule associated protein kinase MAPK, and extracelluar signal regulated kinase ERK finally resulting in insulin resistance (Figure 1). Colonization of
Bile acids affect glucose homeostasis via activation of nuclear farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and the membrane-bound G protein coupled receptor, TGR5. These receptors are expressed in liver, ileum and pancreas [85]. Some bile acids act as agonists for FXR, and others are FXR antagonists [86, 87, 88]. Known FXR agonists are CDCA, lithocholic acid, deoxycholic acid, and cholic acid [89]. The antidiabetic effects exhibited by vertical sleeve gastrectomy, bariatric surgery, occurs through FXR [90]. Also, intestinal FXR agonist treatment can improve insulin sensitivity [91]. In the ileum, activation of FXR leads to the production of fibroblast growth factor-19, a hormone that affects glucose tolerance through mechanisms that are largely independent of insulin [92, 93]. Activation of TGR5 produces glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) from ileum improves both energy and glucose homeostasis [94]. Activation of FXR in pancreas regulates insulin transport and secretion [95], and protects the islets from lipotoxicity [96]. FXR activation in liver improves insulin sensitivity in T2D patients [97]. The GM can modulate the amount and type of secondary bile acids produced via FXR and TGR5 signaling. GM enzymes such as bile salt hydrolase for deconjugation, 7-alpha dehydroxylase for dihydroxylation and 7α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase for epimerization of bile acids are reduced in T2D patients compared to healthy controls [98]. Bile acid concentrations in the circulation show a diurnal pattern since they increase after food intake [99].
\nOur body metabolism, inflammatory processes and innate immune system are regulated by dietary lipids [100]. The dietary lipids can also act as (proinflammatory) ligands which can bind to nuclear receptors [101]. The nuclear receptors are peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) and liver X receptors (LXR) which regulate metabolic and inflammatory pathways. Hence the dietary lipids can improve insulin action and down-regulate secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines [102, 103]. Lipids can also activate G-protein coupled receptors (Gpcr) such as Gpr43 when activated by dietary-metabolite acetate lipolysis in adipocytes is decreased leading to reduced plasma-free fatty acids. Gpr43 can be considered as a potential target for regulation of lipid metabolism [104]. Inflammation and lipid accumulation are characteristic features of atherosclerosis [105]. Recent evidences provide sufficient link between atherosclerosis and GM variety [106]. Short-term antibiotic administration can alter the composition of GM which can convert dietary choline and l-carnitine to trimethylamine (TMA). TMA is later oxidized into TMAO by the action of hepatic Flavin monooxygenases [107]. Dietary choline is highly available in foods rich in lipid phosphatidylcholine, lecithin, such as in eggs, red meat, milk, poultry, liver, and fish [108]. Bile acids are key modulators of lipid and cholesterol metabolism, and they facilitate intestinal absorption and transport of nutrients, vitamins, and lipids. Production of bile occurs in the liver and 95% of bile acids are reabsorbed in the ileum. Later the bile acids are re-absorbed in liver, entering the enterohepatic circulation. GM converts primary bile salts to secondary bile salts by bile acid de-hydroxylation [109]. Bile acids can also result in the release of GLP-1 from enteroendocrine L cells via activation of Takeda G protein coupled receptor-5 (TGR5) (Figure 1). This phenomenon affects insulin secretion sensitivity [110]. Bile acids have another receptor called farnesoid X receptor (FXR) present in liver, intestine, and pancreatic beta cells [111]. Hence, bile acids improve our metabolism in the long term after bariatric surgery by enhancing intestinal hormone secretion.
\nThe GM of T2D patients exhibit low population of Firmicutes and Clostridia and high ratio of Bacteroidetes:Firmicutes (Table 1) [112, 113]. However, the GM of T2DM and obese patients are not always identical because the GM of obese patients show decreased Bacteroidetes:Firmicutes ratio [113, 114, 115, 118]. GM of T2DM patients also show low population of butyrate-producing bacteria. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate, acetate, and propionate are fermented from dietary fiber in large intestine by GM. SCFAs regulate energy metabolism, immune responses and tumorigenesis in gut. Butyrate is the energy source for colonic epithelial cells. Butyrate perpetuates intestinal integrity and thereby avert translocation of Gram-negative intestinal bacteria across the lumen of the gut. This phenomenon ultimately leads to endotoxemia triggering a low-grade inflammation during T2D [15, 113, 115].
\nThe major risk factors behind T2D are genetic predisposition, less physical activity, fetal programming, obesity and altered GM [114, 116]. Total weight of GM in the distal gut is about 1.5 kg and it is considered as a microbial organ. The GM consists of embers from Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya and viruses, but a large part of the population includes anaerobic bacteria. 90% of the bacterial species present in gut are grouped into the two bacterial phyla Firmicutes (Gram-positive) and Bacteroidetes (Gram-negative) (Table 1) [15, 16]. An average adult fosters a minimum of 160 bacterial species and a set of genes in the GM is obligatory for proper functioning of the GM [15]. The GM gives protection from disease causing pathogens and facilitates the immune system. GM also help in production of vitamin K and many B-vitamins like folate, vitamin B12. Metagenomic studies about sequencing of T2D patients exhibit dysbiotic GM and less butyrate-producing bacteria (
Antibiotics have become very popular for elimination of pathogenic bacteria. However, antibiotics are also harmful to the local population of beneficial GM. Hence excess use of antibiotics must be prevented for healthy maintenance of GM. Bacterio-therapeutic use of antibiotics in farm animals has increased increase growth and food production, but has taken a toll of their metabolic pathways [115]. Excess of usage of antibiotics in early infancy show chronic effects on GM diversity, overweight in infants, obesity in adults. For example, excess of bacterio-therapy with vancomycin has increased the incidence of obesity in adults. Even, short-term treatment with vancomycin impeded peripheral insulin sensitivity and other related metabolic syndromes affecting GM (Table 2) [115]. Hence, even short-term treatment with oral antibiotics harness intense and chronic damage to GM diversity and function.
\nTypes of cure | \nEffects | \n
---|---|
Antibiotics | \n\n
| \n
Prebiotics and probiotics | \n\n\n | \n
Dietary modulation | \n\n
| \n
Metformin | \n\n
| \n
Fecal microbiota transplant | \n\n\n | \n
Bariatric surgery | \n\n\n | \n
Types of treatments for T2D involving modulation of GM and their effects.
Recently prebiotics and probiotics have gained a lot of popularity among individuals as a healthy substitute for antibiotics. Prebiotics are actually indigestible carbohydrates that improve the growth and function of colonic bacteria boosting host health. Prebiotics include oligosaccharides which cannot be digested in the upper GI tract. These oligosaccharides are fermented, producing SCFAs in the colon and result in stimulation of growth of colonic. Prebiotics can be obtained from a large number of dietary elements like barley, garlic, asparagus, wheat bran and onions and both prebiotics and probiotics can be obtained from pickled and fermented foods like sauerkraut, kimchi, miso, yogurt [15, 16]. Probiotics obtained from food and supplements contain some very popular strains like bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. These bacteria alter the composition and function of GM as well as host system activity. The prebiotics and probiotics compete with pathogenic bacteria, intensify the intestinal barrier by secreting some antimicrobial substances and enhances the immune system (Table 2) [15, 16, 115].
\nChanges in diet plan can modulate activity of GM and host metabolism. A fat and carbohydrate restricted diet increased the ratio of Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes in obese patients with T2D [118]. Also calorie deficient diet plans or diet plans rich in high-fiber macrobiotics like complex carbohydrates, legumes, fermented products, sea salt, and green tea and free of animal protein fat, and added sugar improved dysbiosis, increased GM ecosystem diversity, and enhanced SCFA producers in T2D patients. Macrobiotic diet can more efficiently reduce fasting and postprandial glucose, A1C, serum cholesterol, insulin resistance, BMI, waist and hip circumferences than the control diet. Also macrobiotic diet could effectively reduce pro-inflammatory bacterial strains (Table 2) [124].
\nMetformin, already a well-established drug for T2D, has recently been known to have bacterio-therapeutic effects on microbial composition and production of SCFA. Several recent reports have shown that metformin affects GM of T2D patients like increasing the levels of butyrate-producing bacteria. Metformin can also decrease the levels of Lactobacillus which remains high in T2D patients (Table 2) [125].
\nFecal microbiota transplant, or stool transplant also called bacteriotherapy, which is the process of replacing fecal bacteria from a healthy individual into a host individual has been quite effective in restoring GM composition. Fecal microbiota transplant is used in treating recurrent
Bariatric surgery, or Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGBP), is removal of a portion of stomach and re-routing the small intestine to a small stomach pouch. It is performed on people as an efficient tool to treat obesity. After bariatric surgery huge changes occur in the GM, Proteobacteria rises and Firmicutes and Bacteroides lowers, BMI reduces by 15–32%, C-reactive protein decreases and T2DM is attenuated. However, increase in some bacteria are highly significant than the normal levels in lean controls, which means these alterations are linked with GM modification, and not body weight (Table 2) [112, 117, 118].
\nThe GM makes one of the largest organs in human body and remains the reason behind various metabolic disorders such as obesity, atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes and so on. The alterations in GM is very susceptible to changes in our diet and environment which makes them vulnerable and ultimately ends in the incidence of diseases. Reversal of the GM alterations can restore the normal physiological functions and health. Hence further investigation is required in order to get a detailed scenario of the composition of various GM and their detailed function. Scrutiny of the composition of the GM and the change in their population in various metabolic disorders can create new avenues in finding out the treatment for those diseases. Deeper insights in the composition and function of GM can also provide more ideas for development of various techniques and drugs for the enhancement of the GM for better physiological responses and treatment of diseases.
\nAM is thankful to the Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB), Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India, for her JRF fellowship (Grant No. ECR/2017/001028). DC thankful DBT for JRF. SD thanks UGC, New Delhi for SRF. The authors are thankful to Dr. Rakesh Kundu for technical assistance and constant encouragement.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors thank to the Head of the Department of Zoology, for providing the assistance in their research work.
\nThe first, and probably one of the most important steps in construction projects, from which the organization of construction works starts, impacting the entire course of the project life, is to get all appropriate building materials.
Imagine the following situation. The basic raw materials used to erect buildings include stone, brick, lime, sand, and wood. Brick, as an innovative material, is becoming more and more popular. It begins to displace wood, which until now has been the main material used in constructions. Even though new ceramic technology is developing rapidly and successfully, not all investors use it. The poorer rural areas are still dotted here and there with thatched cottages. The use of stone remains wide, usually for the needs of foundations. Lime and sand are components of binders without which it would be impossible to permanently connect separated elements of the structure, called semifinished products. It is worth noting that feudalism effectively limits the development of quarries and brickyards. However, the effective transport of purchased goods depends mainly on the distance from the factory to the built-in location. Transportation of building materials is extremely expensive and requires the provision of a sufficiently high number of means of transport, i.e., horse-drawn or oxen-drawn wagons. Transport accounts for a significant percentage of construction costs and sometimes equals or even exceeds the value of transported materials. These reasons cause that the construction industry suffers from a permanent shortage of materials. Insufficient production capacity can be evidenced by the common recovery of demolition building materials [1]. This process is an alternative to the linear production model, in which the deficiencies described earlier effectively limit the development of societies.
This could be a perfect genesis of the idea of circular economy (CE) in the construction sector. The realities presented in the source texts dating back to the Middle Ages are close to those present in the twenty-first century. Unfortunately, in the meantime, there have been some twists and turns that on the one hand effectively limit thinking about construction as an eco-friendly industry and on the other hand that there is no turning back from radical moves and changes.
One of the turning points was the successful research on polymers carried out in the twentieth century. Since the 1950s, it is the moment when mass production of plastics began; over 8000 million metric tons (Mt) were produced in total [2]. The lion’s share of this production goes to the construction industry [3] in the form of materials and packaging. Their advantages often overcome the disadvantages that are unacceptable from an ecological point of view. Synthetic materials disintegrate for a very long time, and from the point of view of even several consecutive generations, a majority of them are practically not degradable. Globally, the majority of plastic waste goes to landfills, not always legal ones, and from there to the seas and oceans. The increase in pollution caused by the presence of plastic in the water is frightening [4, 5, 6]. The augmented mortality of marine life (fish, marine mammals, flora), as well as the potential threat of the presence of microplastics in the food chain (of which human being is a part), caused that the problem really begins to be discussed. Political decisions are inevitable, but personal habits require a drastic, immediate change.
Households are subject to some consistent waste management policies in many countries. Unfortunately, construction sites are not restrictively treated as, e.g., individual properties, there are not so many fractions, and the garbage received is often mixed and unsuitable for reuse or further processing. But negative externalities of the construction industry are not just solid wastes. There are other pollutants and emissions generated throughout the entire life cycle of construction projects. The problem has been increasing step by step.
That is why the European Union bodies decide to significantly change its legal regulations or to create new guidelines which are focused on encouraging authorities and individual people to return to sustainable development. Since 2010, the European Commission has been sharing lessons learned on green public procurement (GPP) to show how public authorities in the European Union have successfully “greened” public tenders and procurement processes. GPP was defined in the Communication entitled “Public procurement for a better environment” as “a process whereby public authorities seek to procure goods, services and works with a reduced environmental impact throughout their life cycle when compared to goods, services and works with the same primary function that would otherwise be procured” [7].
This chapter concentrates on the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry and its impacts on the environment. All issues related to the concept of circular economy and green public procurement were shown in the light of this sector which is treated as the most significant source of contaminants. The research covers a literature review on the CE concept and GPP. The results of the study on the ecological quality of construction processes were included too. Besides, a contribution of the chapter is to show a proposal of the eco-friendly vision of AEC supported by CE-based procedures implemented in GPP strategy in the European Union.
Many concepts limiting a negative impact on the environment are nowadays promoted all over the world. Circular economy has become a solution that theoretically provides significant relief to nature. To make this concept not just a substitute for a somewhat diminished “sustainable development,” it is expected that radical changes in shaping natural resource management policies are created.
According to Ellen MacArthur Foundation, a famous worldwide trendsetter of the concept of a circular economy, a transition from a linear model of production to closed-loop variant helps to work effectively at all scales [8]. It does not cover only some adjustments aimed at reducing the negative externalities of the traditional economic paradigm. It simply represents a systemic transition that builds long-term resilience and provides environmental and social reliefs.
AEC, as a sector with high resource consumption, is a good example for explaining how far CE may be useful. It is one of the world’s largest waste generators [9]. At the same time, it consumes 40% of the materials entering the global economy and generates 40–50% of the global output of greenhouse gas emissions [10]. Therefore, this sector cannot be considered as environmentally friendly. However, due to recent observations, even in the AEC sector, decision-makers are wondering how to implement some radical changes aiming to reverse the fate of the impending environmental disaster.
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation underlines that the term of circularity has a deep historical and philosophical background. However, with current advances, information technology has the power to support the transition to a circular economy by radically increasing virtualization, transparency, and feedback-driven intelligence. CE model promotes the notion to make more sustainable production models, which are based on careful management of resources and the reduction of negative impacts. Its applications can foster significant improvements in the sustainability of the AEC sector.
There are different perspectives for analyzing the problem of circular economy in the construction sector: from technological issues, to the constructability of the solutions based on the zero-waste attitude and management perspective (only what gets measured gets done [11]), to system problems concerning the whole life cycle of the projects [12] and strategic perspective. In addition, it has to be said that planning the colonization of space requires solid rudiments. It seems that CE can be also applicable to such long-range plans of humanity.
Scientists are building the theoretical rudiments for the new concept [13]. New CE-related professions emerge. Therefore, proper preparation for such a revolution is needed. The methods of selecting suitable candidates for the position of circular economy manager were developed [14]. Systemic changes are also needed [15, 16].
The following concepts like biomimicry [17], industrial ecology [18], cradle to cradle [19], and design for deconstruction [20] are inseparably connected with the concept of CE in the AEC sector.
It turns out that CE is becoming an exemplary attitude for decision-makers when it comes to public procurement.
For almost 10 years, the European Commission has been promoting a voluntary instrument connected with good practice experiences on green public procurement. It helps to illustrate how public authorities all over Europe have successfully “greened” a public tender/procurement process. There are many ideas, methods, and tools to expand environmentally friendly attitudes towards business and public development. Among others, they are circular economy concept, sustainable innovations, life cycle costing, etc. Therefore, GPP can be treated as a strategy in which public institutions try to obtain goods, services, and works whose environmental impact during their whole life cycle is smaller than other variants of identical purpose that would be ordered otherwise. It tries to encourage market players to convert their ways of thinking into more sustainable. It attracts decision-makers’ interest in the possible alternatives in terms of making the best offer selection more effective. As a part of the new solution, there are good practice cases published online [21], accessible to all interested parties, which provide some suggestions for replicating experiences. There are 22 sections, ordered alphabetically, where one can find different case studies described carefully and focused on making procurement processes less harmful to plants, animals, and other organisms that live on Earth.
According to the European Commission [22], green public procurement can provide public authorities with financial savings. Taking into account the cost of ordered products or services throughout their life cycle can reveal that a selection based only on the price of the purchase can mislead the decision-makers and encourage them to choose not the best offer. However, an awareness of public authorities is rather low. While GPP stays a voluntary procedure, it is important to educate people responsible for procurement processes and explain to them what really pays off. For example, buying products with low-energy or water consumption can lead to a significant reduction in utility bills. Lowering the share of hazardous substances in purchased products (goods or services) can limit the cost of disposal or recycling. Moreover, the bodies responsible for the GPP implementation will be prepared to meet changing environmental challenges as well as to achieve targets for reducing CO2 emissions and increasing the energy efficiency of products manufactured in the European Union.
Each EU member state has to follow some legal regulations. There are basically three areas in the field of legislation related to green public procurement: national law, EU law, and other laws. As for national law, the member states introduce laws together with a number of regulations as implementing acts to those legal acts that specify the nature of public procurement proceedings. Their content is adapted to promote GPP. Then, there is the EU law, which is conditioned by the Directive 2014/24/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on public procurement and repealing Directive 2004/18/EC [23]. It addresses environmental issues in the following areas:
Award criteria
Contract performance conditions
Environmental management standards
Grounds for exclusion
Labels
Life cycle costing
Qualification criteria
Technical specifications
Other laws are formal records related to GPP but not necessarily connected with the core of procurement matter. These are:
Regulation (EU) 2017/1369 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2017 setting a framework for energy labelling and repealing Directive 2010/30/EU
Directive 2012/27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and repealing Directives 2004/8/EC and 2006/32/EC
Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings
Regulation (EC) No. 66/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the EU Ecolabel
Regulation (EC) No. 1221/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the voluntary participation by organizations in a community eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS), repealing Regulation (EC) No 761/2001 and Commission Decisions 2001/681/EC and 2006/193/EC
Regulation (EC) No. 1222/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the labelling of tires with respect to fuel efficiency and other essential parameters
Directive 2009/33/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of clean and energy-efficient road transport vehicles
Regulation (EC) No. 106/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 on a Community energy efficiency labelling program for office equipment
The European Commission has taken some steps to create common criteria for GPP that can be used in all EU member states. They were developed for those product groups that were considered as the most suitable for GPP implementation. The criteria are the result of close cooperation between the services of the European Commission and other stakeholders. An application of the criteria is nonobligatory. They were formulated so that, after some minor changes, they could be included (partly or fully) in the procurement documentation by a body. In the AEC sector, the most relevant criteria are for:
Sanitary tapware [24] (last update, 2013)
Toilets and urinals [25] (last update, 2013)
Waste water infrastructure [26] (last update, 2013)
Water-based heaters [27] (last update, 2014)
Road design, construction and maintenance [28] (last update, 2016)
Office building design, construction and management [29] (last update, 2016)
Paints, varnishes and road marking [30] (last update, 2018)
Road lighting and traffic signals [31] (last update, 2018)
Road transport [32] (last update, 2019)
Public space maintenance [33] (last update, 2019)
All the above requirements generally aim to find a balance between environmental performance, economic effectiveness, market availability, and controlling accessibility.
In order to understand the European development model based on GPP and CE, theoretical considerations on ecology should be presented.
Practical applications of the theory of ecology are connected with a scope of ecological engineering. This phenomenon can be understood as a field of applied sciences, which is the basis for rational use and protection of the environment as well as natural and anthropogenic resources. It can be described as a design of sustainable ecosystems that integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both [34]. Being the nexus of ecology and engineering design, ecological engineering is a distinct engineering discipline [35]. It is used for the ecological development of societies. Ecological engineering deals with the development of new procedures in case where the classical ones are based on assumptions that cannot be real. At the same time, it is based on theoretical knowledge in the field of the general theory of ecology. Ecological engineering solutions also generate issues for general considerations, developing the theory of ecology covering life and technical science, economy, and social science. A complementarity of engineering and ecology theory is presented in Figure 1.
Ecological engineering and its connections with the theory of ecology as well as practice and general theory.
On the other hand, according to Allen et al. [36], environmental engineering is an extension of the engineering process that considers the environment in as many aspects as are thought to be relevant. Environmental engineering, as opposed to ecological engineering, works only with the structure; it lists its components and evaluates the effects of the ecosystem on the components. As a result, environmental engineering then remains a part of engineering, although having an awareness of ecology.
Odum and Odum [37] maintain that environmental engineering develops the technology for connecting society to the environment. However, technology is only one part of interference with the environment. The other part is provided by the ecosystems as they organize themselves to adapt to the special conditions. Ecological engineering takes advantage of the ecosystems as they link natural resources and outputs from the economy to generate useful work.
The theory and practice, despite dialectical unity, can be distinguished by a number of specific features, among which are a degree of generalization of problems, assumptions, a subject of analysis, etc.
A goal of knowledge management is, in general, to inform and influence decision-making in the organization. Knowledge is recognized as the most important resource of the organization. In fact, maps of knowledge are helpful tools in knowledge management. They are usually created on the basis of audits [38].
The management of an organization’s environmental programs in a holistic and documented manner is often called the environmental management system (EMS). In 1996, the International Organization for Standardization adopted a new international standard for EMS-ISO 14001 [39]. The actual language of the standard is that the information should be communicated to facilitate effective environmental management [40]. According to Kacsmerk [41], there are several subjects of environmental management:
Creation of biological infrastructure, which contains all components of environment conditioning life forms on Earth
Creation of ecological and technical infrastructure, in which all components of the natural environment dominate, as a set of conditions accompanying production and determining its proper processes
Resources conditioning the continuity of economic processes
Production functions, including individual components of the natural environment
Culture-forming and civilization functions related to the impact of the natural environment on the non-economic sphere of human activity, influencing the creation of the value system of a given society
Hamdoun et al. [42] maintain that there are clear relationships between quality management, environmental management, knowledge transfer, and innovation. It can be noted that quality management has a positive effect on environmental management. Then, quality management and environmental management positively influence innovation, and what is interesting is that both quality management and environmental management positively influence knowledge transfer. It was also revealed that there is a positive effect of knowledge transfer on innovation.
A combination of “management” and “civil engineering” disciplines delivers foundations of knowledge management in construction companies. The knowledge must relate to problems connected with the nature of construction processes, whose implementation is embedded in closer and further economic environment. The management staff of construction companies must be able to use market opportunities to get involved in the implementation of construction projects in a way that ensures achieving the organization’s strategic goals. They should also be able to create the operational prospects for anticipated forms and ranges of participation of the company in construction projects. Experience accumulates organizational knowledge and, along with the ability to predict economic principles, also at the global level, allows to transform construction enterprises into learning organizations. Seeing that the construction industry is increasingly competitive, and demanding improved inter-organizational relations, construction companies cannot use out-of-date business philosophies, if they want to remain in business [43]. Practical knowledge about construction projects starts with choosing the right place for buildings or nonbuilding structures. A building plot should have the right size and shape. It is also worth to check out if the location is near wetlands or floodplains and whether the plot has access to a public road. Formal issues also include a verification of the local development plan documents and other statements.
The next part of this chapter will be devoted to the relationship between ecological quality and construction processes.
Raising the level of environmental sensitivity leads to the implementation of environmental management principles at various levels of human activity. This applies, in particular, to the AEC industry. Construction processes consume substantial amounts of resources, (raw) materials and energy, and leave their products (buildings, roads, etc.) with many years of life, what requires special consideration of complex relationships between construction production processes and environment.
In recent times, in many countries, there is an increased interest and progress both in the theory of environmental quality management and in the practical application of new environmental management concepts in entities operating in the business environment. Practical effects are brought by the national environmental protection plans and other specific institutional measures. These effects are observed in the form of reducing pollution from various sources. An example of systemic management of environmental protection can be found in many countries. A clear pro-ecological activity, at the level of environmental quality management, is the creation of global standard regulations. The International Organization for Standardization introduced environmental standards of the ISO 14000 family. These documents, despite a lack of their mandatory character, have been widely used so far. Production systems are an essential source of ecological risk, due to the multifaceted connections with the natural environment. The progress, in which advances in technology, science, and social organization produce an improvement in entire societies, carries a number of potential environmental threats. The emerging production plants operating in the natural environment benefit from environmental goods, but unfortunately, on the other hand, are the source of emissions and waste. The outcomes of production processes are also a question mark for the environment. Relations between particular elements of production systems are presented in Figure 2.
Production processes ecosystem.
The implementation of environmental management strategies is possible provided that the information about the environmental system is adequately processed. This applies to both modelling or creating mappings of elements of production systems, as well as the quality of input information, including mainly the specification of places where environmental risks are created. The methods of presenting processed information and interpreting results are also important. In particular, one can mention a way of constructing the model of the environmental impact of production, completeness of threat specifications, variability of threats, significance of the impact of threats on individual features of ecosystems, a method of estimating critical values, and data accuracy (accuracy of measurements, accuracy of readings, distortion). It must be remembered that insignificant changes slowly accumulate in tendencies, and therefore models of environmentally friendly decision-making should be dynamic. From the point of view of places of occurrence of threats that cause ecological risk, it is possible to classify environmental risk factors (externalities) of production systems, as in Table 1.
Type of impact factor | Place of occurrence and source of threat | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exterior of production system | Interior of production system | ||||||
x | Natural processes | Processes stimulated by human activity | Ecological disasters | Forces of nature | Increased consumption of natural resources | Failures of the system components | Mistakes of decision-makers |
Systematic factors | Changes in the environment cumulating in trends (e.g., greenhouse effect) | Increase in emission of solid pollutants, dust, gases, radiation, noise (on input to the system) | x | Incapacity of the forces of nature to absorb waste | Depletion of resources, increase of waste | Damage to elements of technical systems | Ecological policy |
Non-systematic factors | Incorrect estimation of input data to the system | Development of new techniques and technologies generating new threats | Sudden damage to technical systems in the environment (e.g., explosion at a nuclear power plant) | Anomalies of nature (e.g., floods) | Cumulative effects of resource consumption (including water, energy) | Failures of technical systems | Errors in modelling phenomena and estimating data |
Characteristics of sources of environmental threats.
The ecological quality of construction production must be considered in an initial (conceptual planning) phase: e.g., by adjusting the management of the production processes to the ISO 14000 standards. These standards are a set of guidelines, which is in some descriptive documents helpful in the implementation of the so-called cleaner production. A systemic approach to managing the ecological quality of construction production is a prerequisite for obtaining positive environmental effects. A condition of effective environmental management is the systematic collection of information about a state of the environment, as well as the sources of potential hazards in production systems.
Geographic information systems (GIS) can be treated as a tool for creating a comprehensive model of these phenomena. Digital maps can be an excellent source of information for making strategic decisions in the spatial management on the regional, macro-regional, country, or international level. Such complementary data can be very useful in making decisions in environmentally managed production systems (with a significant impact on environmental protection). Modelling the ecological quality of construction production, with particular emphasis on ecological risk identification, aims to show the directions of preventive activities in relation to the predicted threats to ecosystems. The discovery of nature, and the place of occurrence of threats, as well as the level of risk in ecosystem modelling, is conducive to making accurate decisions in the field of environmentally friendly actions.
The implementation of environmental management principles, including ecological risk, may bring a number of effects, i.e., more efficient use of (raw) materials, and energy leading to the reduction of consumption. Improvements in manufacturing processes lead to a minimization of waste and reduction of costs and enable for the creation of new products and technologies based on environmentally friendly processes (“cleaner production” modes). Also avoiding high costs related to environmental damage (insurance premiums, costs of actions to remove damages) is another effect of intelligent environmental management. Environmental management in construction production, with particular emphasis on the identification of environmental risks, aims to show the directions of preventive actions in relation to the anticipated threats to ecosystems. In the following part of this chapter, the results of our own research on the vision of AEC as an environmentally friendly sector will be presented.
This research was carried out in the form of interviewing technique in which the respondent used an electronic device to answer the questions (computer-assisted personal interviewing). A pilot survey was launched on www.surveymonkey.com platform in January 2019. Thirty participants of construction processes employed by construction companies were asked to complete the questionnaire. They were supported by the researcher. A leading role of respondents is illustrated in Figure 3, and their experience is illustrated in Figure 4.
Leading role of respondents.
Experience of respondents.
The questionnaire consisted of the two questions about a sample description, and the rest were focused on obtaining an answer consistent with the respondent’s own conviction regarding the particular areas surveyed, with a degree of compliance on a five-point Likert scale, where “1” means “strongly disagree” and “5” “strongly agree.”
The respondents commented on the basic attributes of eco-friendly construction. According to their conviction the most important are:
Use of low-energy technologies for the construction of buildings and nonbuilding structures (weighted average = 3,63)
Limiting labor intensity (weighted average = 3,57)
Ecological quality of design variants for buildings and nonbuilding structures (weighted average = 3,53)
Use of low-cost technologies for maintenance of buildings and nonbuilding structures (weighted average = 3,53)
However, the rest are also significant (weighted average over 3,0):
Use of renewable energy in the whole life cycle of buildings (weighted average = 3,30)
Limiting water consumption during the entire life cycle of buildings (weighted average = 3,27)
Use of recyclable building materials (weighted average = 3,13)
Application of just-in-time (JIT) method in construction works (weighted average = 3,10)
In the scope of the research was also to extract knowledge about the desired individual skills expected from employees working in eco-friendly construction. The most important, according to the respondents, are:
Ability of decision-making under risk
Experience in project management
Interpersonal skills
Knowledge about building materials used in eco-friendly construction
Knowledge about decision-making process
Knowledge about the ecological quality of construction technology
Knowledge about the natural environment
Openness to innovation
Systems thinking skills
The set of skills with their significance is shown in Figure 5.
Desired individual skills of employees working in eco-friendly construction.
According to the respondents, the most important skill demanded from employees of eco-friendly construction is the openness to innovations. However, the rest eight qualities present a similar level of significance (3,6–3,9).
As the main factors of the ecological quality of construction processes in the design and construction phase, there are:
Designing and accounting for water consumption
Designing buildings according to BIM standards
Designing low-energy houses
Low-energy building techniques
Organization of logistic processes according to just-in-time (JIT) criterion
Reduction in waste of building materials
Taking into account the idea of circular economy in the design phase
Use of energy-saving construction machinery and equipment
Use of recyclable building materials
Use of reusable building materials
These results are collected in Figure 6.
Factors for assessing ecological quality in the design and construction phase.
The respondents maintain that two first phases of construction projects (design and construction) bring some difficulties in judging which factors are the most important for assessing ecological quality in projects.
At the end of the research, the respondents were asked to respond to ecological quality in the maintenance and end-of-life phase. The following have been indicated as the most important:
Complying with recommendations of building management
Demolition of buildings with respect for circular economy requirements
Demolition of buildings with respect for ecosystem
Monitoring the consumption of raw materials
Noise regulation
Reduced energy consumption
Reduced water consumption
Regular building management
Use of renewable energy
These results are presented in Figure 7. Opinions of the respondents about the two last phases of construction projects (maintenance and end-of-life) also bring some difficulties in judging which factors are the most important to assess ecological quality in construction projects. Their weighted averages vary between 3 and 4.
Factors for assessing ecological quality in the maintenance and end-of-life phase.
One of the most important challenges for authorities and policymakers is to convince the construction market that being environmentally friendly, and becoming an eco-friendly company pays off. This requires learning innovative ecological technologies, which is to start implementing innovative processes for the cleaner production of ecological products.
Although the research is still in its embryonic stage, it gives an insight into some crucial problems connected with a hierarchy of attributes of eco-friendly construction and ecological quality factors in particular phases of construction projects.
The conducted research enabled to create the eco-friendly vision of AEC sector. In the next part of this chapter, the relationship between GPP model and CE policy in the European Union will be presented.
Described before, good practice cases available online, accessible to all interested bodies responsible for public procurement were divided into 22 sections. Among them, there are eight areas directly connected with the AEC sector. These are:
Buildings (30 cases, accessed January 2020)
Furniture (12 cases, accessed January 2020)
Gardening products and services (3 cases, accessed January 2020)
Indoor lighting (4 cases, accessed January 2020)
Office building design, construction, and management (3 cases, accessed January 2020)
Street lighting and traffic signals (6 cases, accessed January 2020)
Road design, construction, and maintenance (2 cases, accessed January 2020)
Water-based heaters (2 cases, accessed January 2020)
The rest can be treated as areas indirectly connected with the AEC sector.
Thanks to the publication of information on the course of the selection process of the best offer under procurement procedures and detailed descriptions of the background of the contract, the adopted objectives, selection criteria used in tenders, obtained results, as well as the achieved environmental impacts, the European Union disseminates information on good practices that may be replicated in the future by other public institutions. The authorities may use lessons learned that are given in the reports.
More and more suggestions promoted by the European Commission are connected with circular economy. In the eight areas, mentioned before, there are five pure examples of applying CE principles to procurement procedures [21]. Two of them are coming from the Netherlands (“Circular Procurement of Furniture for the City Hall of Venlo,” “Circular Procurement of Furniture for the City of Wageningen”) and one from Denmark (“Circular procurement for a sustainable learning environment,” Aalborg), Sweden (“Furniture framework applying circular economy principles,” Malmö), and Switzerland (“A low carbon, circular economy approach to concrete procurement,” Zurich).
According to the repeating conclusions from the sustainable procurement processes, there is a need to carry out a thorough analysis of the whole process before starting the procedure. Moreover, it is necessary to collaborate closely with all stakeholders involved in the process, whereas sometimes some extra training sessions are needed to increase awareness of the business partners. However, all case studies testify to the rightness of the chosen pattern of conduct in relation to public procurement. The European Union wants to promote its own, improved over the years, economic development model among all its member states.
Nevertheless, there are different models of development seen all over the world. The key players try to adapt a need for sustainable development to local circumstances. For instance, an interesting comparison of urban planning models from Sweden and China has been published so far [44]. It seems that the European Union’s model is like the Swedish one which prefers slower but more resilient development of urban areas, rather than a vertical mode, which produces fast results along with all negative consequences, including the environmental pollution and the negligence of sustainability.
The European Union, by promoting GPP, raises awareness of environmental issues among public authorities, as well as sets an example to private consumers.
The rich experience of European countries in the implementation of green public procurement, numerous examples of good practices, and the multitude of educated public clerks mean that the example of the European Union can be set as a role model for others. By promoting GPP, the European Union is developing its policy based on circular economy principles.
AEC is a sector of the economy with a significant influence on the environment. Buildings and other structures shape our surroundings and “consume” many resources throughout their life cycle. Contractors have to be sensitive to environmental issues.
In the chapter, based on considerations taken from the literature review as well as direct interviews with experts of the construction sector, it was revealed that knowledge management system in every construction company should cover also, and maybe primarily, the environmental knowledge. In order to indicate significant contents of such knowledge, a survey was conducted among construction engineering experts. The respondents pointed out the subjective role of companies and described it as crucial, indicating a number of individual skills required in eco-friendly construction. The study allowed to discover the buildings’ life cycle approach to the creation of environmental knowledge of construction companies.
The chapter identifies the circular economy as an element of the strategic policy of the European Union. Treated as an effective mechanism for sustainable development, CE has become a pillar of GPP.
Despite the nonobligatory nature of the rules related to GPP, the European Union focuses on educating decision-makers, directly public and indirectly private ones. It is worth noting that the GPP model includes not only CE but a number of other solutions supporting sustainable development. The European Union policy results from the need to respond to the deteriorating condition of the natural environment. The growing environmental threats from industry and services require an immediate response. However, changes in improving production conditions take time.
On the other hand, there are often numerous restrictions affecting the risk of such activities. The most serious threats include the low adaptability of other players, limited knowledge of sustainable development, GPP and CE, as well as reluctance to change. It seems that one of the most serious risk factors—apart from those mentioned earlier—is the routine of public authorities and the lack of willingness to go beyond the usual framework of existing legal procedures related to public procurement.
Sometimes safety, provided by well-established patterns of conduct, can be illusory. It is worth taking a risk and turning towards GPP, which give the opportunity to achieve even better results than before.
To use the full potential of GPP, along with many environmentally friendly mechanisms (including CE), one should use the model promoted in the European Union and presented in this chapter. Some decision-makers can share their experience with others. In addition, a crucial remark is that the cooperation of all participants of investment and construction projects and all players from the AEC sector is necessary.
It is worth remembering that contemporary economic activity has an impact on these and future generations. Sometimes it is worth considering how we can stop the processes that have a negative impact on the natural environment. Maybe it is worth thinking about GPP, maybe CE is not an odd idea, especially when the temperature outside is positive, although it is usually frost and snow.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Many thanks to professor Pedro Núñez-Cacho Utrilla from the University of Jaén (Spain) who inspired me to treat the construction sector as a subject of the circular economy thinking.
Moreover, I would like to thank IntechOpen editorial office who helped in handling the article preparation process.
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Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",authors:null},{id:"73729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:604,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. The chapter calls for the value of government measures that incorporate energy conservation and renewable energy.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan"}]},{id:"67105",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:1011,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"67084",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86278",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1365,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2226,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1548,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:962,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"852",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11974,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"11478",title:"Recent Advances in the Study of Dyslexia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11478.jpg",hash:"26764a18c6b776698823e0e1c3022d2f",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 30th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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