\r\n\tIn particular, this book presents topics related to Audio Signal Processing based on the different perspectives of the following: pattern recognition on audio, audio processing, forensic audio, digital filtering, and frequency analysis, and digital signal processing chip for audio, although other topics can be included, too. The most innovative advances on Audio Signal Processing will be included in this book, in order to show the reader, the new researched and developed approaches.
\r\n
\r\n\tSpecific cases of voice applications are welcome, where the Voice over IP (VoIP), internet of things (IoT), deep learning (DL) approaches, etc., are very useful including the recent technologies applied on voice and audio.
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Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Carlos M. Travieso-González received his M.Sc. degree in 1997 in Telecommunication Engineering at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain; and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a Full Professor and the Head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC a. He is teaching in ULPGC from 2001 on signal processing and learning theory subjects and he has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. Thesis (9 more in the process), and 130 Master Thesis. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. 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1. Introduction
The definition of MSMEs differs across nations. In India, the limits for manufacturing/service enterprise, as notified by Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises are as mentioned in Table 1.
MSMEs are particularly important for emerging countries, mainly because of their potential in job creation. The Eleventh Five Year Plan reports that MSMEs have been recognised as engines of economic growth. The MSEs are more than just GDP earners; they are instruments of inclusive growth which touch upon the lives of the most vulnerable and the most marginalised. Being the largest source of employment after agriculture, the MSE sector in India enables 650 lakh people. MSEs also act as ancillary industries for large scale industries providing them with raw materials, vital components, and backward linkages. This sector seeks to empower people to break the cycle of poverty and deprivation. In addition to limited development of industries in NER, there is limited availability of data on whatever industries exist there. Around 54% of industrial units are concentrated in Assam among NE states. There were 37,356 registered MSME units in Assam providing employment to 2.05 lakh persons till the end of March 2013.
MSMEs need special credit policy especially at the start up stages. The study aims to find out the characteristics of MSMEs operating under rural villages in Assam and also the various problems encountered by them in obtaining finance from banks.
1.1. Registering with DIC
The District Industries Centre is the institution at the district level, which provides all the services and support facilities to the entrepreneur for setting up micro, small and medium enterprises. This included identification of suitable schemes, preparation of feasibility reports, arrangements for credit facilities, machinery and equipment, provision of raw materials and development of industrial clusters etc. The various schemes that are being implemented by the DIC, Kamrup to provide financial assistance to the MSME units are as follows:
Sarothi: The basic objective of the scheme is to provide financial assistance in the form of loan with Interest subvention @ 5% P.A through a designated bank.
Biponi: The objective of the scheme is to support to the micro & small enterprises to participate in different trade fairs and events within the state, in the country and abroad for marketing of their products and also getting the exposure.
Boneej: This is a special scheme to assist the rural industries of the state by providing special grant for rural industrial enterprises in traditional and micro sector in Assam. It is proposed to provide Rs. 25,000.00 (Rupees twenty-five thousand) as a grant to the industries located in Rural areas only where the annual turnover is less than Rs. 5 lakh.
Transport Subsidy Scheme (TSS, 1971)/Freight Subsidy Scheme (FSS), 2013: The transport subsidy scheme (TSS) was introduced on July 23, 1971 to develop industrialisation in the remote, hilly and inaccessible areas and re-introduced as freight subsidy scheme from 2013. Under the scheme, transportation cost on movement of raw material/finished goods to and from the location of the unit to the designated rail head is reimbursed for a period of 5 years from the date of commencement of commercial production. However, fresh registration has been discontinued from 2016.
Angel Fund Scheme: The angel fund scheme is designed to give gainful employment to the first generation entrepreneurs through providing soft loan. The purpose of the scheme is to provide easy loan to skilled as well as un-skilled entrepreneurs for starting or developing micro enterprises under Manufacturing & Service sector, Agriculture & Allied activities or any other sector for gainful employment.
North-East Industrial and Investment Promotion Policy (NEIPP), 2007: Under this scheme, all new units as well as existing units which go in for substantial expansion and which commence commercial production within the 10 year period from the date of notification of NEIIPP, 2007 will be eligible for incentives for a period of 10 years from the date of commencement of commercial production.
Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP): Government of India has approved the introduction of a new credit linked subsidy programme popularly known as DIC loan, by merging the two schemes that were in operation till March 31, 2008 namely Prime Minister’s Rojgar Yojana (PMRY) and Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP).
The limits of funding under PMEGP are as shown in Table 2.
Manufacturing sector
Enterprises
Investment in plant and machinery
Micro
Does not exceed 25 lakh rupees
Small
More than 25 lakh rupees but does not exceed 5 crore rupees
Medium
More than 5 crore rupees but does not exceed 10 crore rupees
Service sector
Enterprises
Investment in equipment
Micro
Does not exceed 10 lakh rupees
Small
More than 10 lakh rupees but does not exceed 2 crore rupees
Medium
More than 2 crore rupees but does not exceed 5 crore rupees
Table 1.
Limits of investments for micro, small and medium enterprises.
Categories of beneficiaries under PMEGP
Beneficiary’s contribution (of project cost)
Rate of Subsidy (of project cost)
Urban
Rural
General category
10%
15%
25%
Special (including SC/ST/OBC/Minorities/Women, Ex-servicemen, physically handicapped, NER, hill and border areas, etc.
5%
25%
35%
Table 2.
Funding under PMEGP according to categories.
The balance amount of the total project cost will be provided by Banks as term loan as well as working capital. As per RBI guidelines the project costing up to Rs. 5 lakhs under PMEGP loans are free from collateral security.
Though registering with DIC is not compulsory for the MSME units, doing so is beneficial for the economy and the MSMEs. It helps them avail some benefits for such units such as:
Credit direction (Priority sector lending)
Differential interest rates
Excise exemption schemes
Exemption under direct tax laws
Statutory support such as reservation and the Interest on Delayed Payments Act.
Gurjar and Sudindra [1] found through trend analysis that the registration of MSMEs in India has a fluctuating trend and declined in growth rate over the last few years. It has declined by 22% in 2007–2008, 21% in 2008–2009, 23% in 2009–2010, 31% in 2010–2011, 41% in 2011–2012, 33% in 2012–2013 and 14% in 2013–2014. Average growth rate of registered MSMEs has declined by 23%. Yadav [2] reported from annual MSME census that only 1.5 million MSMEs are in registered segment while the remaining 24.5 million that constitute 94% of the units are in unregistered segment.
2. Review of literature
Venkatesh and Kumari [3] states that the significance of MSMEs is attributable to their calibre for employment generation, low capital and technology requirement, promotion of industrial development in rural areas, use of traditional or inherited skill, use of local resources, mobilisation of resources and exportability of products. The sector generates around 100 million jobs through over 46 million units situated throughout the geographical expanse of the country. With 38% contribution to the nation’s GDP and 40 and 45% share of the overall exports and manufacturing output, respectively, it is easy to comprehend the salience of the role they play in social and economic restructuring of India. They further stated that only 4% of micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) fall within the purview of the Indian banking system and therefore the small scale industries need to be strengthened and supported. The numerous initiatives introduced in the past few years are a step in the right direction as they contribute to the well-being of the individuals engaged in small scale industries which positively affects the progress of the economy as a whole. Shilpi [4] found that the contribution of the micro, small and medium non-farm activities is substantial both in terms of employment and value added in Bangladesh. There are about 4.25 million MSM enterprises in Bangladesh and nearly 70% of them are located in rural areas. The rural financial markets in Bangladesh include formal and micro-finance institutions and informal sources and continue to be inadequate to meet the demand of the rural population. The author added that the transaction costs of providing and receiving financial services in rural areas are high, because of smaller loan sizes, more dispersed geographical coverage, lack of information about potential borrowers, high risk of default, and difficulty of enforcing contracts in the case of default.
Chauhan [5] wrote that the majority of India’s population resides in villages and agriculture and allied activities constitute their major occupation, but the traditional occupational structure of India got destroyed by replacement of agriculture and craftsman production by the British superimposed colonial mode of production. A SWOT analysis conducted by the author on micro and small enterprises in rural areas revealed one of their major weaknesses as high rate of interest on available modes of finance. Das [6] conducted a study in the District of Ganjam in Orissa, which found that the largest weakness for small business owners is to raise finance. The author stated that many small business owners were found to be forced to invest their own funds into their business because institutional lenders like banks and government financial corporations are unwilling to advance money to these small units. According to Barslund and Tarp [7], rural households strongly rely on informal credit arrangements with neighbours, friends and relatives to start a micro enterprise rather than the availability of formal credit institutes. They found that local access to formal finance does not seem to be an important factor when it comes to the individual decision to start a micro enterprise. Priscilla et al. [8] have found that most small business owners do not keep records, have limited access to financial services and are mainly dependent on unregulated financial institutions. Low levels of financial literacy of the small business owners make them more prone to business shocks and more difficult to sustain or stir a business to grow. Kumar and Sharma [9] stated that finance is the lifeblood of business but majority of Indian MSMEs are falling in unorganised sector and hence struggling for regular credit flow. MSMEs require timely and adequate capital infusion which is not feasible through informal sources but through term loans and working capital loans by formal sources. The author has noted that over the years there has been a significant increase in credit extended to this sector by the banks but there still exists a huge gap between credit supply and demand by the sector. MSMEs face problem with access to adequate and timely credit at a reasonable cost. The statistics compiled in the fourth census of MSME sector revealed that only 5.18% of the units had availed finance through institutional sources, 2.05% through non-institutional sources and 92.77% of MSME units dependent on self-finance of informal sources. Sambrani et al. [10] noted that the Indian rural entrepreneurs are been face some major challenges such as low scope for external funds mainly due to lack of ability to produce tangible security. Loan sanctioning is a tedious process and is time consuming. Rural entrepreneurs face lack proper financial knowledge and have very low access to financial training. Rural entrepreneurs are seen to prefer borrowings from local Zamindars (Landlords) or from regional rural banks who sometimes charge unreasonable interest rates.
Sohns and Diez [11] said that the mere existence of a bank in the village is not sufficient for starting a micro enterprise. They said that it is more important that the bank provides affordable micro loans. Kumar et al. (2014) in his study in Orissa observed that public sector banks are playing the dominant role in catering to the MSME sector. One reason behind this could be that PSU bank branch network has been growing at a much faster rate than their private sector counterparts especially in rural areas. Arsjah and Djamaris [12] inform that the Indonesian government encourages the banks to have at least 20% of their portfolio in small medium enterprise (SMEs). This policy requires a lot of commitment from banks as lending to this sector requires specific treatment. Developing microenterprises must be a priority in order to prepare the facing challenges. The clients’ limitation and the banks’ interest must be formulated such that the loans delivery mechanism can provide access for microenterprises without eliminating principles and prudential banking. Patnaik et al. [13] has tried to focus on how sometimes stringent banking requirements makes it difficult for MSME borrowers to obtain desired credit. Author has observes from MSME reports that 92% of the MSMEs have no finance, 5% are getting loan from institutional sources and 3% are receiving credit from non-institutional sources. Therefore he feels that simplification of documentation process can help to ease credit procurement and will certainly provide a big push for the sector. Mandalaa et al. [14] conducted a case study in a rural bank in Bali, which followed the procedure of submitting application, data verification and approval or disapproval decision for the credit assessment process. The data used by the bank for assessment are gender, age, credit amount, monthly income, expenditure of each month, current payment per month, savings, collateral types, collateral values, loan period, type of business activities, sources of funding and previous credit status/rating. Based on the results, the study found that collateral value is the most important criterion in credit assessment. Ikasari et al. [15] have subdivided the dimensions of access to finance as accessibility, eligibility and affordability. They have found that small business owners and banks in Indonesia and Thailand do not have issues with access to finance but are seen to have mutual trust issues. In Indonesian banks, it was found that collateral quality remained an issue whereas Thai banks did not express significant concern related to collateral. Paramasivam and Mari Selvam [16] feel that attitude of bank officials need to be improved while sanctioning loans to the MSME sector. Arora et al. [17] from their study in Punjab reveals that though all the nationalised banks have delved into microfinance, a lot of effort is still required to pave the way for microfinance in the commercial banking sector. The problem is how many target beneficiaries are aware of various schemes available and how many actually avail these schemes presents a dismal picture. Most bankers have reported that microfinance clients make up less than 5% of their total number of clients.
Gupta [18] has tried to address the issue of urban migration. The author has stated that 38% of migration happens for employment. Uncontrolled migration adversely affects both the origin place and the labour market of destination place. Migrants also affect income, expenditure pattern and investment and change relation at household and community level. He further highlighted how in a country like India where the 73% population are from rural or semi urban area, and more than 50% are working in agricultural and allied activity, the growth in rural to urban migration for various reasons can affect aversely the uniform growth of the nation. The main reason behind rural to urban migration is the industrial development in urban areas which gives more opportunities for employment. Therefore to control migration, development of MSMEs in rural area is one of the vital solutions because it could create income and employment opportunities to local people. Lavanya et al. [19] stated that as per OECD report 2005, rural areas are affected by problems of reduced employment opportunities in primary industries and an ageing population due to migration of young population to urban areas in search of employment opportunities. There exists a wide gap between rural and urban areas in terms of infrastructure, market and financial access etc. The author feels that development of rural areas is the only solution to solve these issues.
2.1. Research gap
From the literature review, it has been found that considerable problems exist in financing rural MSMEs all over the world. But there are very limited findings on this issue, especially in the state of Assam. Also, the author has found limited studies in Assam that has evaluated the role of DICs in improving the bank financing of MSMEs.
3. Objective
The study aims to find out:
A comparison between demographic and financial characteristics of registered and unregistered rural MSMEs.
A comparison between problems being experienced by registered and unregistered rural MSMEs in obtaining bank loans.
3.1. Limitations of the study
The study is not free from limitations such as:
The whole state of Assam could not be covered due to time and financial constraints.
The viewpoint of the bankers could not be taken.
There is possibility of personal bias in answering the questionnaire by the MSME units as respondents.
3.2. Scope for further study
The study can be extended geographically to include other districts of Assam. Also the bankers’ side of the story has not been included which could be a basis for a further study on the issue.
4. Research methodology
4.1. Geographical area
The geographical area for the study is Kamrup (rural), Nagaon (rural) and Dibrugarh (rural) districts in the state of Assam as combined they constitute more nearly 50% of MSME units in Assam.
4.2. Population
Population of the study includes registered and unregistered MSMEs operating within Kamrup (rural), Nagaon (rural) and Dibrugarh (rural) districts in the State of Assam.
4.3. Sampling design
4.3.1. Sample size
The study has taken the responses of 100 sample units, out of which 50 were registered under DIC and 50 were not registered. Out of each 50, 25 were from Kamrup district, 15 from Dibrugarh district and 10 from Nagaon district. The sampling unit is MSME units and sampling element is owner/s, proprietor/s, manager/s or competent representative.
4.3.2. Sampling procedure
For registered MSME units, Random Sampling method was used to select samples. The website stattrek.com was used to generate random numbers. The EM-II list of MSMEs compiled by DIC, Kamrup was consulted using the random numbers generated to select the samples for the study. For unregistered MSME units, snowball and convenience sampling method was used. The respondents were selected on the basis of location, availability and willingness to respond.
4.3.3. Data collection
Primary and secondary data were used for the study. The primary data collection was carried out with the help of questionnaires presented to MSME units. Secondary data was collected from published reports and other data source from websites and personal visits to offices, such as RBI reports, SLBC reports, reports and lists by District Industries and Commerce centres, Annual Reports by MSME Development Institutes, Planning Commission Reports, journals and articles.
5. Data analysis
5.1. Sample profile
The sample characteristics of MSME units as per their demographic characteristics as a comparison between registered and unregistered units are presented in Table 3.
Profile of respondents
Frequency
Registered units
Unregistered units
Gender of the owner
Male
23
35
Female
27
15
Age of the owner
Upto 30 years
1
7
F 30–40 years
21
29
F 41–50 years
24
11
Above 50 years
4
3
Education status of the owner
10th
2
1
10 + 2
20
19
Graduate
27
26
Post Graduate
1
4
Unit type
Micro
46
49
Small
4
1
Form of business
Proprietorship
29
38
Partnership
21
12
Nature of business
Manufacturing
28
19
Service
22
28
Both
0
3
Whether owned premise
Yes
48
44
No
2
6
Table 3.
Comparative profile of registered and unregistered MSMEs.
It can be observed from Table 3 that both registered and unregistered units have very similar demographic characteristics. The number of female MSME owners is higher in case of registered MSMEs possibly due to the fact that government has launched many schemes targeting women entrepreneurs in the past few years. Similarly there are more manufacturing units which are registered MSMEs, as government also has many schemes for the manufacturing sector.
From the financial profiling of MSME units (Table 4) it can be seen that there is a very similar pattern in case of amount of capital invested, yearly turnover and amount of loan sanctioned among registered and unregistered units. With respect to sources of finance we can see that more proportion of unregistered units have additionally obtained their funds from non-bank sources as compared to registered units. Informal sources of credit are not always healthy for a business and therefore more MSMEs need to be brought under the formal financial system as confirmed by many studies (Barslund and Tarp, 2008) [7, 8]. It is also observed that more unregistered units have utilised their loans for operational needs and repayment of previous loans. This could be because of the fact that majority of DIC’s schemes of bank finances are exclusively for new businesses only.
Profile of units
Frequency
Registered units
Unregistered units
Capital invested
Upto 100,000
19
25
100,001–500,000
28
19
500,001–1,500,000
1
4
15,000,001–2,500,000
2
2
Yearly turnover
Upto 100,000
28
31
100,001–500,000
17
18
500,001–1,000,000
5
1
Amount of loan applied
Upto 100,000
38
41
100,001–500,000
10
8
500,001–1,000,000
2
1
Source of finance (Other than banks)
Other formal finance institutions
0
2
Own funds
28
48
Funds from relatives and friends
19
23
Funds from moneylenders
4
15
Utilisation of loan
To start business
44
38
Operational needs
6
12
Repayment of previous loans
9
14
Business expansion
4
9
Table 4.
Comparative financial profile of registered and unregistered units.
After comparing firm and financial characteristics between registered and non-registered MSME units, we have found that possibly since DICs implement a number of schemes for women, there more female entrepreneurs who are registered. Also because of schemes specifically for the manufacturing sector such as Boneej and various subsidy schemes; we find a strikingly large number of manufacturing units registered under DIC. It is also found higher numbers of registered units seem to have used the loan to start the business which could be because DIC has more schemes for new units when compared to existing ones. This could be a reason why existing MSME units are not motivated to get registered under DIC.
5.2. Statistical analysis of data
In order to further fulfil our objectives various tests using SPSS has been done and the following are the results obtained:
5.2.1. Registration and satisfaction with source of finance
It is believed that registration will help in obtaining desired amount of loan. A chi-square test was done as shown in Table 5 to check for association. The hypothesis formulated was as follows:
H0 = There is no association between registration status of firms and satisfaction with source of finance.
H1 = There is an association between registration status of firms and satisfaction with source of finance.
Chi-square tests for registration status of firms and satisfaction with source of finance.
0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 11.50.
Computed only for a 2x2 table.
Since the p-value is more than 0.5, we do not have sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. It can be concluded that there is no association between registration status and satisfaction with source of finance.
5.2.2. Registration and time taken to sanction loan
It is expected that registration will help in obtaining bank loans quickly. A chi-square test was done as shown in Table 6 to check for association. The hypothesis formulated was as follows:
H0 = There is no association between registration status of firms and time taken to sanction loan.
H1 = There is an association between registration status of firms and time taken to sanction loan.
Chi-square tests for registration and time taken to sanction loan.
Two cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 0.50.
Since the p-value is less than 0.5, we reject the null hypothesis. It can be concluded that there is an association between registration status and time taken to sanction loan.
5.2.3. Registration and satisfaction with sanctioned amount
It is believed that registration will help in obtaining desired amount of loan. A chi-square test was done to check for association (Table 7). The hypothesis formulated was as follows:
H0 = There is no association between registration status of firms and satisfaction with sanctioned amount.
H1 = There is an association betweenregistration status of firms and satisfaction with sanctioned amount.
Chi-square tests for registration and satisfaction with sanctioned amount.
2 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.50.
Computed only for a 2x2 table.
Since the p-value is more than 0.5, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. It can be concluded that there is no association between registration status and satisfaction with sanctioned amount of loan.
5.2.4. Registration and difficulties faced
Here, 37 statements have been used in a Likert scale to identify whether MSMEs face difficulty in borrowing from banks. It has been attempted to try and find out whether those MSMEs which have registered with DIC experience same or different levels of difficulty in obtaining bank loan for MSMEs. Firstly, the aggregate difficulty scores for each respondent have been calculated by simple addition of difficulty response points assigned by the respondent. The difficulty response is a five-point Likert scale (Strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree).
Next an independent sample t-test was conducted as shown in Table 8 between difficulty scores and registration status to find out whether there is any effect of registration on difficulty scores.
Levene’s test for Equality of Variances
t-test for equality of means
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean difference
Std. error difference
95% confidence interval of the difference
Lower
Upper
Agg_diff
Equal variances assumed
0.688
0.409
0.329
98
0.743
1.000
3.042
−5.038
7.038
Equal variances not assumed
0.329
97.011
0.743
1.000
3.042
−5.038
7.038
Table 8.
Independent samples test between registration and difficulties faced.
The hypothesis formulated is as follows:
H0 = There is no difference between average difficulty score for registered and non-registered borrowers.
H1 = There is difference between average difficulty score for registered and non-registered borrowers.
Since the Levene’s test for equality of variance could not be rejected, it was assumed that there is equality of variance and select the p-value of t-test results accordingly. Since p-value >0.05, there is no sufficient evidence to reject null hypothesis. Therefore it implies that there is no significant difference between average difficulty scores for registered and non-registered borrowers.
6. Conclusion and suggestions
The following conclusions are arrived at from the study:
Registration status has no association with the satisfaction level of the borrowers with respect to their source of finance. DIC has therefore not been successful in influencing bank borrower’s experience.
Registration status has an influence over time taken to sanction loans. Registered units who wish to borrow through DIC have to go through a preliminary screening before being referred to a bank. The bank then performs its routine screening policy as per their individual policies. This may have influenced the total time taken by the bank is sanctioning the loans.
Registration with DIC also has no association with satisfaction with respect to amount of loan sanctioned by the bank for MSME borrowers. Therefore it is possible that bank’s decision of sanctioning amount of loan is not influenced by the registration status of the MSME unit.
Registration also was seen to have no influence over the average aggregate difficulty scores experienced in getting loans from bank. Therefore it is seen that borrowers were subjected to similar levels of difficulty whether or not they were registered under DIC.
From the study, it can be concluded that DIC has been able to influence only the time duration of the loan process. It has not been able to influence satisfaction level with source of fund, satisfaction level with amount sanctioned by the bank and difficulties with borrowing. In order to invite more registrations under DIC, there has to be benefits which can motivate the MSMEs. Therefore only with incorporation of stronger and better procedures to achieve their objectives of helping the MSME sector can be achieved. Studies on bank-MSME relationships have produces similar results in different states and countries highlighting the need for stronger customer bond with MSMEs [12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Banks being an important channel to bring MSMEs under the formal financial system, bank services need to be specialised for MSMEs.
\n',keywords:"rural MSME, MSME financing, bank loans, DIC",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/61033.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/61033.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61033",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61033",totalDownloads:352,totalViews:401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 13th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 19th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 3rd 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"MSMEs are particularly important for emerging countries, primarily because of their potential in job creation. The MSEs are more than just GDP earners; they are instruments of inclusive growth which touch upon the lives of the most vulnerable, marginalised, women and the most skilled. Being the largest source of employment after agriculture, the MSE sector in India enables 650 lakh people. MSEs also act as ancillary industries for large scale industries. Yet, lack of access to finance is a major obstacle to their growth. In addition to limited development of industries in NER, there is limited availability of data on whatever industries exist there. Around 54% of industrial units are concentrated in Assam among NE states. There were 37,356 registered MSME units in Assam providing employment to 2.05 lakh persons till the end of March 2013. The SLBC data showing the credit disbursals towards MSME sector by commercial banks inAssam do not show a favourable picture. Formal lending sector is always preferred over informal sector by the MSMEs. The study aims to find out the characteristics of MSMEs operating under rural villages in Assam and also the various problems encountered by them in obtaining finance from banks.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/61033",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/61033",book:{slug:"trade-and-global-market"},signatures:"Maumita Choudhury",authors:[{id:"245695",title:"Ms.",name:"Maumita",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhury",fullName:"Maumita Choudhury",slug:"maumita-choudhury",email:"momitachoudhury@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Registering with DIC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Review of literature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1. Research gap",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Objective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Limitations of the study",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Scope for further study",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Research methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Geographical area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2. Population",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3. Sampling design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.3.1. Sample size",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.3.2. Sampling procedure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.3.3. Data collection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Data analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.1. Sample profile",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.2. Statistical analysis of data",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"Table 7.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"Table 8.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22",title:"6. Conclusion and suggestions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gurjar P, Sudindra VR. Analysis of MSMEs (micro, small and medium enterprises) registered under entrepreneurs memorandum (Part-II) and Indian GDP. International Journal of Applied Research. 2016;2(6):625-630'},{id:"B2",body:'Yadav RJ. MSME finance: Viability study from bankers’ perspective. International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences. 2012;1(1):50-71. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/5450719/MSME_FINANCE_VIABILITY_STUDY_FROM_BANKERS_PERSPECTIVE'},{id:"B3",body:'Venkatesh J, Kumari LR. Performance of Mudra Bank: A study on financial assistance to MSME Sector. International Journal of Research in Economics and Social Sciences. 2015;5(7):185-191'},{id:"B4",body:'Shilpi F. Improving the Rural Investment Climate for Non-Farm Enterprises Transfor-ming Bangladesh into a Middle Income Economy. New Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd.; 2005. pp. 281-314. Print'},{id:"B5",body:'Chauhan B. Programme for promotion of village industry and MSE cluster-rural industry service centre (RISC)—A key driver for development of Khadi and village industry and MSE. International Journal of Trade and Commerce. 2013;2(1):125-137'},{id:"B6",body:'Das MP. SWOT analysis of micro, small and medium enterprises in rural society: A study conducted in the Ganjam District of Odisha. International Journal of Scientific Research and Management. 2017;8:6569-6575. DOI: 10.18535/ijsrm/v5i8.01'},{id:"B7",body:'Mikkel B. Tarp F. Formal and Informal Rural Credit in Four Provinces of Vietnam. The Journal of Development Studies. 2008;44(4):485-503'},{id:"B8",body:'Priscilla T, Provia T, Moreen N. Entrepreneurship and Financial Literacy: An Insight into Financial Practices of Rural Small and Micro Business Owners in the Rwenzori Region. 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291355844_ENTREPRENEURSHIP_AND_FINANCIAL_LITERACY_AN_INSIGHT_INTO_FINANCIAL_PRACTICES_OF_RURAL_SMALL_AND_MICRO_BUSINESS_OWNERS_IN_THE_RWENZORI_REGION'},{id:"B9",body:'Kumar A, Sharma P. Financial institutions role in developing of MSME\'s in India. International Journal of Engineering and Management Research. 2016;6(3):728-733'},{id:"B10",body:'Sambrani VN, Pol N. Challenges for rural entrepreneurship in India rural entrepreneurship: Trends, opportunities and challenges. Primax International Journal of Commerce and Management Research. 2016;(Special Issue):71-75'},{id:"B11",body:'Sohns F, Diez JR. Explaining micro entrepreneurship in rural Vietnam—A multilevel analysis. Small Business Economics. 2017. DOI: 10.1007/s11187-017-9886-2'},{id:"B12",body:'Arsjah MRJ, Djamaris A. Microbanking for rural entrepreneurship development. In: International Conference on Business and Banking, Indonesia; 2010. pp. 1-10. 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International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering. 2016;10(5):1661-1668'},{id:"B16",body:'Paramasivan C, Mari Selvam P. Bank Finance to Priority Sectors in Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. 2013. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259186801_BANK_FINANCE_TO_PRIORITY_SECTORS_IN_TIRUNELVELI_DISTRICT_TAMIL_NADU'},{id:"B17",body:'Arora, Sangeeta, Meenu. The banking sector intervention in the microfinance world: A study of Bankers\' perception and outreach to rural microfinance in India with special reference to the state of Punjab. Development in Practice. 2012;22(7):991-1005. DOI: 10.1080/09614524.2012.696092'},{id:"B18",body:'Gupta N. To study how MSME can contribute to overcome the problem of rural migration and helps in its development. IRC’s International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research in Social & Management Sciences. 2014;2(2):33-39'},{id:"B19",body:'Lavanya MS, Hemalatha S, Indumathi VM. Perspectives of rural entrepreneurship in India. Journal of Management Research. 2014;3(1):95-100'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Maumita Choudhury",address:"momitachoudhury@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Research Scholar, Department of Business Administration, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India
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Gallo, Elpidio Romano and Liberatina Carmela Santillo",authors:[{id:"11826",title:"Prof.",name:"Elpidio",middleName:null,surname:"Romano",fullName:"Elpidio Romano",slug:"elpidio-romano"},{id:"11827",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberatina",middleName:null,surname:"Santillo",fullName:"Liberatina Santillo",slug:"liberatina-santillo"},{id:"138996",title:"PhD.",name:"Mosè",middleName:null,surname:"Gallo",fullName:"Mosè Gallo",slug:"mose-gallo"}]},{id:"38486",title:"Optimizing Global Value Chain Activities by Diagonal Cumulation of Origin",slug:"optimizing-global-value-chain-activities-by-diagonal-cumulation-of-origin",signatures:"Romana Korez-Vide",authors:[{id:"139320",title:"Dr.",name:"Romana",middleName:null,surname:"Korez Vide",fullName:"Romana Korez Vide",slug:"romana-korez-vide"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65725",title:"On the Deviation of the Lunar Center of Mass to the East: Two Possible Mechanisms Based on Evolution of the Orbit and Rounding Off the Shape of the Moon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84465",slug:"on-the-deviation-of-the-lunar-center-of-mass-to-the-east-two-possible-mechanisms-based-on-evolution-",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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At the dawn of modern astronomy, Hevelius and Galileo established that the optical libration of the Moon in longitude leads to a small (50–80) seeming (for terrestrial observer) oscillations of the figure of our satellite in the East-West direction with a period in the anomalistic month. These oscillations disappear when the Moon is at perigee and apogee. Oscillations of a different kind—optical oscillations in latitude—occur with amplitude \n\n\n6\n0\n\n\n40\n′\n\n\n and a period of one draconic month with the disappearance of the deviation, when the Moon is at the nodes of the orbit.
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If the Moon was absolutely spherically symmetric, these optical librations would not have resulted in additional rotational oscillations of its body. But since due to the interaction with the Earth, the lunar body has tidal bulges, this leads to the appearance of moments of force from external celestial bodies. Newton [1] predicted that deviations of an elongated body of the Moon from the direction to the Earth must lead to real small rotational librations of the satellite relative to the inertial reference system. These small oscillations are called the physical libration of the Moon.
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It is necessary to understand that when moving along the orbit of the Moon, its main axis is not directed at the center of mass of the Earth-Moon system and, on the average, at the second (empty) focus of the lunar orbit [2, 3]. The latter will play an important role in our theory.
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Due to the proximity of the Moon in our time, the movement of our satellite is studied with such high accuracy that even a small asymmetry of its internal structure must be taken into account. This asymmetry is manifested in that the center of the Moon’s mass COM is offset relative to the geometric center of the lunar figure COF.
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This effect of shift is briefly mentioned in [4, 5]. Using astrometric data, an approximate numerical evaluation of the offset was given in [6] and in a more accurate version in [7]. A new approach based on the analysis of data obtained from the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment allowed in [8] clarifies the parameters of the shift of the Moon’s center of mass.
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Note that the definition of COF depends on the adopted model (sphere, ellipsoid, etc.), so that results of different researchers may be slightly different. However, according to many sources, it is reasonably safe to suggest that two points of the centers on the Moon really do not coincide.
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To consider the internal asymmetry of the mass distribution in the lunar body, we introduce a coordinate system with the origin at the center of mass of the Moon, where the X-axis is directed (approximately) to the Earth, the Y-axis to the left (if viewed from the Earth), and the Z-axis—downward. Then, according to the United Lunar Control Network (ULCN), which takes into account the findings of many studies, including information from spacecraft [9], the displacement of the center of the figure relative to the center of mass “COM/COF” is equal to [10]
Based on the results of a study of the topography of the lunar surface using laser altimetry from a satellite, the displacement of the “COM/COF” was determined more accurately [11]:
As follows from the analysis of observational data (1) or (2), the effect of displacement of the center of the figure relative to the Moon’s center of mass includes not only the shift of the center of mass toward the Earth \n\n0.001\n⋅\n\nR\n\n\n\n\n (\n\n\nR\n\n\n=\n1737.10\n\nkm\n−\n\n the average radius of the Moon) but also the spatial deviation of the line “COM/COF” to the North-West. Note that in the literature it often also speaks of the displacement of the center of mass of the Moon relative to the center of its figure; for the observer from the Earth, this shift of the center of mass occurs down (to the South) and to the left (to the East). Then, all the signs in (1) and (2) are reversed. According to (2), the total displacement of the lunar COM is equal to \n\nΔ\n≈\n\n1.935\n\nkm\n.\n\n
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Besides, the shifts (1) and (2) of the center of the Moon’s mass are global in nature, and, ultimately, they already include many different factors (see, e.g., [12]). Therefore, in particular, it is impossible to interpret the displacement of the center of mass only as a displacement of the lunar core alone.
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Despite the seemingly geometric simplicity of the problem, the offset of the center of the Moon’s mass remains an unexplored problem in the lunar science. The importance of this problem is that the Moon is close enough to the Earth and the accuracy of observations of its spin-orbital motion by the method LLR is now so much high that for correct interpretation of these movements it is necessary to take into account many celestial mechanical disturbances, including the indicated internal asymmetry of the Moon’s body.
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Here, we study the problem of the shift of the Moon’s center of mass to the East. To do this, we consider two geometric mechanisms that allow us to explain this important feature of the internal structure of the Moon and shed light on some of the currently controversial features of its evolution and origin (see also [13, 14, 15]).
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2. Optical libration of the Moon for the observer from the second focus
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Instead of the term “the direction of the Moon’s surface” often used in references, it is more accurate to speak of the direction of the main lunar axis of inertia, which only in two cases—at the position of the Moon at apogee and perigee—is directed to the center of mass of the Earth-Moon system. To do this, we first consider the optical libration of the Moon in longitude and place the observer in the point of the second (empty) focus of the orbit [2].
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Recall that in the first approximation the Moon moves on ellipse (now the eccentricity of the orbit is \n\ne\n=\n0.0549\n\n ), and this motion is synchronous, since there is the resonance 1:1 of periods of axial rotation and revolution of the Moon around the Earth. According to the Kepler’s first law, the motion is described by the formula
Here, a1 is the main semiaxis, and e is the eccentricity of an ellipse. The angle of the true anomaly \n\nυ\n\n is associated with the angle of the eccentric anomaly E
The time that has elapsed since the Moon was at perigee (\n\nE\n=\n0\n,\nυ\n=\n0\n\n), until the moment when the angles are equal \n\n\nE\nυ\n\n\n, is equal to
where T is the period of revolution on the ellipse. Since the lunar axial angular velocity \n\nΩ\n\n must be equal the mean motion \n\nn\n=\n\n\n2\nπ\n\nT\n\n\n, the rotation angle \n\nδ\n\n of the major axis of inertia of the Moon (see Figure 1) in the time t will be
The large ellipse is the orbit of the Moon \n\nM\n\n (for clarity, the ellipticity is exaggerated), and \n\nP\n\n and \n\nA\n\n are the points of perigee and apogee. The point of active focus \n\n\nf\n1\n\n\n is the center of mass of the Earth-Moon system, and \n\n\nf\n2\n\n\n is the point of the second (passive) focus.
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From the triangle \n\n\nf\n1\n\nMC\n\n (Figure 1) follows that
Therefore, the required distance \n\n\nΔ\n\na\n1\n\n\n\n from the point \n\n\nf\n2\n\n,\n\n which is a continuation of the lunar major inertia axis that crosses the apsidal line, is not, generally speaking, zero and equal to
Graph of deviation \n\n\nΔ\n\na\n1\n\n\n\n as a function of the true anomaly \n\nυ\n\n.
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It is important to emphasize that, according to formula (11), the effect of the deviation \n\n\nΔ\n\na\n1\n\n\n\n is already in the first approximation proportional to the square of the eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit.
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Thus, when the Moon is moving on the ellipse around the Earth, the end of the major axis of inertia will be approximately directed to the point of the second focus. Strictly speaking, this end of the axis will perform (without taking into account the very small physical libration of the Moon in longitude) oscillatory motions in the vicinity \n\n\nf\n2\n\n\n in the interval
In our era, in a linear measure, this is approximately
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\n\n−\n612\n\nkm\n≤\nΔ\n≤\n548\n\nkm\n.\n\nE13
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The results of calculations (12) and (13) show a small asymmetry oscillations (\n\n∼\n11\n%\n\n) relative to the right and left sides of the point f2. Emphasize that the physical libration of the Moon in longitude has a very small amplitude and with a large reserve of fits in the interval (13).
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3. Resolution alternatives to choose between two options for the lunar orbit evolution
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Since Darwin [16], many efforts were made to examine the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit,
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but so far it has not been established whether the orbit of the Moon in the past more or less oblate than now. In the literature, this issue is still under discussion. In this regard, the study of the shift of the Moon’s center of mass to the East may shed some light on this important issue.
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Many researchers agree that gravitational differentiation of the Moon occurred in the early era (see, e.g., [17]), with the result that the Moon’s center of mass is slightly \n\n\n\n∼\n0.001\n⋅\n\nR\n\n\n\n\n\n shifted toward the Earth. We shall not discuss here the question of the gravitational differentiation of the Moon and just to note that one of the reasons for the displacement of the Moon’s center of mass to the Earth can be some asymmetry of tidal forces from the Earth into two hemispheres of the Moon (Sect. 4.1). One of the manifestations of the offset center of mass can be a different thickness of crust in the near side and the far side of the Moon [18].
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Thus, the core of the Moon was formed during the gravitational differentiation, and then under the influence of a small asymmetry of tidal forces, the process of displacement of the lunar center of mass toward the Earth began to occur. This offset COM for the Earth observer can be characterized by the orientation angle E between the line \n\n\n\n"\n\nCOF\n/\n\nCOM\n"\n\n\n and the direction to the center of the Earth (Figure 3b).
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Figure 3.
(a) Orientation of the displaced center of mass S of the young Moon after the differentiation of the substance of its body. A large circle is the orbit of the Moon in the early epoch, and a small ellipse is the cross section of the Moon. Since the orbit is circular, the focuses f1 and f2 coincide with the center O. Relative sizes are not respected. The line \n\n\nO\n\'\n\nS\n\n is directed straight to the Earth; therefore, the Earth’s observer would see both points coinciding with each other from Section 2, the motion on the ellipse the line passing through the center of the Moon’s figure and its center of mass be directed to the second (empty) focus of the orbit. Therefore, in our era, when the eccentricity of the lunar orbit has increased to its current value \n\ne\n=\n0.0549\n,\n\n we will observe the picture as in b. (b) The orientation of the lunar center of mass S in our era in the first version of the evolution of the Moon’s orbit. The large ellipse is the orbit of the Moon, and the small ellipse is the cross section of the Moon. The Earth is in the first focus f1 of the lunar orbit. The angle E characterizes the orientation of the Moon COM S relative to the direction to Earth.
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3.1. On the difference on tidal forces from the Earth in near and far lunar hemispheres
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Assuming that the differentiation of the Moon occurred (according to cosmogonic times) rather quickly, it is necessary to require that the shift of the lunar center of mass toward the Earth occurred even before the Moon hardened.
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The real cause of the displacement of the Moon’s center of mass to the Earth could be some asymmetry of tidal forces. Let us perform the required calculations. After the capture of the Moon in resonance 1:1, it was possible to talk about near and far of its hemispheres. It is clear that the forces in the nearest and farthest points are, respectively, equal to
where R0 is the distance between the centers of the Earth-Moon and R is the distance from the center of the Moon to the near (far) points of its surface. The difference of these forces will be
In the era of its formation, the Moon could be much closer to Earth than in our era (see, e.g., [16, 18, 19]). Due to the proximity to the Earth of the young Moon, the difference in tidal forces (15) in both lunar hemispheres was much more in the early era than it is now. In the era of the differentiation of the Moon, it was this difference in tidal forces (15) that caused the displacement of the center of mass of the Moon toward the Earth. Based on these provisions, we note that the very solution to the question of the displacement of the Moon’s \n\nCOM\n\n to the East is closely related to the further secular evolution of its form and orbit. In particular, to find out how the lunar \n\nCOM\n\n would be located relative to the Earth’s observer in the modern era, when its orbit evolved and eccentricity acquired modern significance, consider two possible options with the initial eccentricity of the young Moon orbit.
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3.2. The first version: the evolution of the lunar orbit with increase in its eccentricity
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First, suppose that in the early epoch the orbit of the Moon was more circular than in our epoch. Consequently, during the secular evolution, the Moon’s orbit became more and more eccentric, up to its modern value of eccentricity \n\ne\n=\n0.0549\n.\n\n
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Recall now that the Moon’s\n\nCOM\n,\n\nalready shifted toward the Earth, after the solidification of the lunar body will be fixed relative to its main axes of inertia. Since in the early epoch the orbit of the Moon was almost circular, the line connecting the geometrical center of the figure of the Moon and its center of mass was directed exactly to the Earth (Figure 3a).
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However, since in this version of the secular evolution the orbit of the Moon becomes more eccentric, two foci appear (Figure 3b). In accordance with the laws of celestial mechanics, as we know
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From Figure 3b, it can be seen that, for the observer from the Earth (point f1), the center of mass S will now be located on the left (to the East) from the direction to the center of the Moon (see also Figure 5). Thus, in the first variant of the evolution of the Moon’s orbit, the modern Earth’s observer, in accordance withFigure 3b, will see the Moon’s center of mass displaced to the left (to the East) from the direction to the center of the figure. It is this location of the center of mass of the Moon relative to the center of its figure that we observe in our era.
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The contribution of this mechanism to the displacement of the Moon’s center of mass to the East will be made in Section 4.
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3.3. The second version of the evolution: from more flattened to less flattened lunar orbit
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If we assume that the orbit of the young Moon was more eccentric in the early era than it is now, that is, during the secular evolution, the Moon’s orbit was rounded; then in our era, when the orbital eccentricity decreased to the current value \n\ne\n=\n0.0549\n,\n\n instead of Figure 3b, we will see the location of the center of mass of the Moon, as shown in Figure 4.
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Figure 4.
The final configuration of the location of the lunar \n\nCOMS\n\n in the second version of the evolution of its orbit. The line \n\n\nO\n\'\n\n\nf\n1\n\n\n sets the direction (for the Earth observer) to the center of mass of the Moon in the early era, and the line \n\n\nO\n\'\n\n\nf\n1\n′\n\n\n sets the direction to the center of the figure of the Moon for the observer from the Earth in our time. In this version, the observer would see that the center of mass of the Moon \n\nS\n\n is shifted to the right (to the West, as indicated by the arrow) from the average direction to the center \n\n\nO\n′\n\n\n of the figure of the Moon.
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Thus, Figure 4 shows that in the second version of the evolution of the orbit a modern observer from the Earth would see that the center of mass of the Moon is shifted to the right (to the West) from the direction to the center of the figure. However, this is contrary to observations, so the second version of the evolution must be discarded.
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4. Correction factor to mechanism of orbit evolution
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Let us consider again (Figure 1) the motion of a satellite in an elliptical orbit around a body of greater mass. The equation of an ellipse is given by formula (3). From the triangle \n\n\nO\n′\n\n\nf\n1\n\n\nf\n2\n\n\n by the sine theorem, we find the relation
In particular, for the Moon’s orbit, the current value of eccentricity is equal \n\ne\n≈\n0.0549\n,\n\n and formula (17) gives
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\n\n\nE\n\n≈\n\n0.0700\n.\n\nE18
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Taking into account (18), in the framework of the first variant of the evolution mechanism of the lunar orbit from the circle to the ellipse with the modern value of eccentricity, we find that the ratio of the average angle \n\n\nE\n\n\n to the angle \n\narctg\n\n\nΔ\ny\n\n\nΔ\nx\n\n\n\n will be
Therefore, the first orbital evolution mechanism helps to explain approximately 18% of the observed current Moon’s offset COM to the East. In the linear measure, it is
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\n\n\n\nΔ\ny\n\n\n≈\n\n0.132\n\nkm\n.\n\nE20
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We emphasize that the conclusion of the theory that evolution of the orbit of the Moon occurred with increasing eccentricity is consistent with the fact that at the present time the eccentricity of the orbit of the Moon is really growing and, therefore, in the past it was less than today [20, 21] (see also [22, 23, 24, 25]).
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Besides, the following should be noted. As is well known, due to perturbations, all elements of the lunar orbit are subject to periodic perturbations [20, 26]. Thus, for several thousand years, the eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit changes due to solar perturbations in the range from 0.0255 to 0.0775. However, here we do not consider the periodic perturbations: throughout in this chapter, we are talking about tidal secular change in the average eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit, which is now equal \n\ne\n≈\n\n0.0549\n.\n\n
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5. Second mechanism of displacement of the Moon’s center of mass to the East
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Because of proximity of the Moon to Earth during an early era, which is offered by many researchers, the main factor of formation for the Moon is a tidal force from our planet. In the tidal field of the Earth, the figure of the early Moon stretched out, which was also facilitated by its capture in spin-orbit resonance 1:1. Therefore, for our approximate calculations, we can simulate the figure of the Moon using the elongated (toward the Earth) spheroid with the semiaxes \n\n\na\n1\n\n>\n\na\n2\n\n=\n\na\n3\n\n\n. The equation of the surface of this spheroid in Cartesian coordinates \n\n\nOx\n1\n\n\nx\n2\n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n is
The main symmetry semiaxis a1 of this spheroid was initially directed exactly to the Earth.
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Let us consider Figure 5. Due to the small orbit eccentricity, the angle E between the main axis of the Moon’s figure and the direction to f1 was also initially small. However, in the evolution of the Moon’s orbit from the less eccentric to the more eccentric, as was shown in the first mechanism, the angle E will increase monotonically. This factor changes the orientation of the figure of the Moon relative to the observer on the Earth, and the angle \n\nα\n\n will also increase. From a geometrical point of view, during the evolution of the lunar orbit, the angle E can change only in the interval of values \n\n0\n≤\nE\n≤\n2\ne\n≈\n\n0.11\n.\n\n Moreover, taking into account the averaging performed above (see form. (18)), the right part of the interval will be adjusted
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\n\n0\n≤\nE\n≤\n0.070\n.\n\nE22
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Figure 5.
Elongated figure of the Moon in the early era (its cross section of the plane \n\n\nx\n2\n\n=\n0\n\n is shown by the ellipse with the semiaxes \n\n\na\n1\n\n>\n\na\n3\n\n\n). The arrows represent the directions from the center \n\n\nO\n\'\n\n\n of the Moon to both foci f1 and f2 of its orbit around the Earth (the Earth in focus f1), as well as to the center of the mass S of the Moon. The angle \n\nα\n\n between the line on S and the line to f1 measures orientation of the Moon’s center of mass, and the angle \n\nE\n\n between the directions to the first focus f1 and second focus f2 measures the deflection of an ellipse from a circle.
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In addition, although the angle \n\nα\n\n can vary from zero (in the early era of lunar evolution) up to the current value \n\n\nα\n0\n\n=\narctan\n\n\n0.7311\n1.7752\n\n\n≈\n\n0.39\n,\n\n but also taking into account the action of the first mechanism, the interval will be changed:
We emphasize that because of inequalities (22) and (23), the center of mass of the Moon will have that arrangement which is shown in Figures 3b and 5.
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The problem consists in studying dependence between the angle \n\nα\n\n and the changing form of the Moon during the secular evolution in the gravitational tidal field of the Earth.
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6. Differential equation for evolution of the angle \n\nα\n\n\n
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As you know (see, e.g., [27]), a change in the shape of an ellipsoidal body can be described by a linear velocity field. In particular, the evolution of the prolate spheroid (21) in the moving frame of reference, whose axes coincide with the main axes of this body at any time, can be represented by the velocity field:
Here, the point above denotes the time derivative \n\n\nd\ndt\n\n\n. Since for incompressible figures the condition of volume preservation should be fulfilled (in this case—for the volume of the prolate spheroid (21)), we have the additional ratio
In the velocity field (25), the Moon’s shape will always remain a second-order surface, and the streamlines will be represented by pieces of hyperboles (Figure 6).
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Figure 6.
Streamlines at deformation of the Moon’s shape (the section is shown by ellipse). Arrows depict the direction of deformation at the stage of rounding the figure in the early era of evolution.
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Owing to symmetry, the elongation of the spheroid (21) is described by the only polar oblateness \n\nε\n=\n1\n−\n\n\na\n3\n\n\na\n1\n\n\n\n. Consider changing \n\nε\n\n for the Moon’s shape. In this case two components (first and third) of the velocity field in (25) taking into account a condition of incompressibility (26) will take the form
In the plane \n\n\nOx\n1\n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n, the condition \n\n\nx\n2\n\n=\n0\n\n is satisfied, and expressions for angles E and \n\nα\n,\n\n (see Figure 5) will be equal:
Here, \n\n\n\nx\n1\n\n\nx\n3\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nx\n1\n′\n\n\nx\n3\n′\n\n\n\n\n are the coordinates of the points of intersection of the Moon’s surface by the rays \n\n\nO\n′\n\n\nf\n1\n\n\n and \n\n\nO\n′\n\nS\n,\n\n respectively. Therefore,
8. Analysis of the solution (41) and estimation of the elongation of the lunar figure in early era
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In formula (41), the constant integration C is defined by the known observational data. As in the modern epoch of tidal evolution of the Moon the supplemented relations
Formula (44) represents the solution of the problem: it describes the change in the Moon’s oblateness \n\nε\n\n during the tidal evolution and establishes the dependence between \n\nε\n\n and the angle \n\nα\n\n. Recall that \n\nα\n\n is the angle between the directions (from the center of the Moon) to the first focus of the orbit and the Moon’s COM. As we already know, in the course of evolution, the angle \n\nα\n\n varied (in radians) within the limits given in (23).
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The graphic image of the function of two variables from (44) is shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 7.
3D image of the function \n\nε\n\nα\nE\n\n\n. The angle \n\nα\n\n is set in radians. The oblateness of shape of the Moon \n\nε\n\nα\nE\n\n\n in the early era very little depends on the value of the parameter \n\nE\n\n, and its value does not exceed \n\nε\n≈\n0.285\n\n.
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Graphs for the two extreme values of the angle E are shown in Figure 8. As seen in Figure 8, the oblateness \n\nε\n\n of the figure is very little depending on the angle \n\nE\n\n. Moreover, in the initial era, \n\nε\n\n for all \n\nE\n\n has the same value and could not exceed the value
The dependence of the oblateness \n\nε\n\n of the Moon shape from the angle \n\nα\n\n between the line \n\n\n\n"\n\nCOM\n/\n\nCOF\n"\n\n\n of the Moon and the mean direction to the Earth. The graph shows the change \n\nε\n\n during the tidal evolution. Two extreme angle values \n\nE\n=\n0.0\n\n (upper curve) and \n\nE\n=\n0.07\n\n are taken for comparison. The beginning and the end of the evolutionary process correspond to the values \n\nα\n≈\n0\n\n and \n\nα\n≈\n0.329\n\n.
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Thus, the second mechanism explains both the displacements of the center of mass of the Moon to the East and predicts that the oblateness of the Moon in the early era could not exceed the value\n\nε\n≈\n\n0.285\n.\n\n
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\n
\n
9. Some consequences: how close to the earth could the Moon be formed
\n
Above we established that on the known shift of the Moon’s center of mass to the East, we can find the oblateness (45), which the Moon could have in the epoch of its formation. The corresponding spheroid eccentricity will be equal to
\n
\n\ne\n≈\n\n0.70\n.\n\nE46
\n
Proceeding from (46) and using the theory of tidal equilibrium figures, it is possible to estimate how close to each other might be the Earth and the Moon in the early era. For this purpose, without loss of generality, we assume that the satellite is uniform (at the Moon, as we know, and now concentration of substance very small), and its mass in comparison with the mass of the Earth can be neglected. Then, in the tidal approach for the potential of the Earth, the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium of the satellite with synchronous rotation has the first integral [28]:
Here, \n\np\n\n is the pressure, \n\nρ\n\n is the density, \n\nφ\n\n is the quadratic internal gravitational potential of the satellite, \n\nΩ\n\n is the angular velocity rotation of the satellite, and \n\n\nR\n\n⊕\n\n\n\n\n is the distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon. For satellite with the form of the prolate spheroid (21), we have [27]
Substituting the value \n\ne\n\n from (46) into the right-hand side (53), we obtain the cubic equation
\n
\n\n\nκ\n\nx\n3\n\n\n=\n0.0324\n,\n\nE54
\n
from which we find the required distance
\n
\n\nx\n≈\n\n3.24\n.\n\nE55
\n
Thus, the Moon with oblateness (45) could form at a very close distance from the Earth: at a distance of only three and a quarter of the mean radii of the modern Earth. This result slightly corrects the one we received earlier [15].
\n
Note that the prolate spheroid with meridional eccentricity (45) is a stable figure of equilibrium. In fact, the instability of this type of figure occurs only when \n\ne\n≥\n0.883\n\n (see, e.g., [28]).
\n
\n
\n
10. Discussion and conclusions
\n
Here, it is necessary to add the following. As is well known, in the problem of secular perturbations, the perturbation function is replaced by its secular part. The influence of the Sun leads only to periodic perturbations of the eccentricity of the lunar orbit, which we do not take into account here. In this chapter, we ignore periodic oscillations and consider only tidal secular changes in the average eccentricity of the lunar orbit.
\n
As for the tidal influence of the Sun on the figure of the Moon, it turns out to be insignificant compared to the influence of the Earth. Indeed, the ratio of force \n\nΔ\n\nF\n\n⊙\n\n\n\n\n to force \n\nΔ\n\nF\n\n⊕\n\n\n\n\n from (15) is equal to
Therefore, to solve the posed problem within the framework of our model, the influence of the Sun can be neglected.
\n
In the theory of the tidal evolution of the Moon’s orbit and its form, we encounter problems that are difficult to give exact answers. Above, we examined some of the conclusions from those observational facts that the center of mass of the Moon is slightly shifted to the East. Two geometrical mechanisms have been developed to explain this shift.
\n
The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second orbital focus. According to this mechanism, only the scenario of secular evolution of the orbit with the increase of eccentricity leads to the desired offset of the center of the Moon’s mass to the East. It is important to note that this conclusion that the evolution of the Moon’s orbit occurred with an increase e is consistent with the fact that at present the eccentricity of the lunar orbit is indeed increasingly, and therefore in the past, it was less than today [20, 21] (see also [22, 23, 24, 25]).
\n
To fully explain the displacement of the center of the Moon’s mass to the East, a second mechanism was developed, which takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon as it gradually moves away from the Earth. The essence of the second mechanism is fully consistent with the fact that the distance between Earth and Moon is now really increasing and the Earth’s spin is slowing in reaction.
\n
In addition, the second mechanism predicts that the Moon’s figure flattening in the early era was very significant and reached the value of \n\nε\n≈\n\n0.285\n.\n\n In turn, based on the theory of tidal equilibrium figures, it allowed us to estimate how close to Earth could the Moon be formed as an astronomical body. According to formula (55), the Moon was formed in the ring zone at a distance of 3–4 medium radii of the present Earth. This result seems to be consistent with the modern view that the Moon was formed as a result of a gigantic impact in the immediate vicinity of the proto-Earth.
\n
Since the formation of the Moon as a celestial body and so far the Earth-Moon system has been and remains a binary planet, the physical laws of its development have always been the same. In the early era, however, the tidal forces between the Earth and the Moon were much more important. Indeed, now the tidal force has very little effect on the Moon, because of which it is removed from the Earth for only 3.8 cm per year. However, studying the evolution of the moon still requires a great effort of researchers.
\n
In summary, we can say that the method presented here really allows to take into account additional observational facts in the structure of the Moon. We have shown that from the hidden fact that in our era there is a slightly shift of the center of the Moon’s mass to the East, and not to the West, you can get valuable information about the evolution of the orbit of the Moon and its shape. This finding supports the scenario [29] that the Moon could be formed about 4.5 billion in the surrounding “donut” from the hot gas that appeared after the collision of Theia with proto-Earth.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"Moon, displacement of center of mass, formation and evolution, gravitation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65725.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65725.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65725",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65725",totalDownloads:177,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 26th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 16th 2019",datePrePublished:"February 19th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"It is known that the Moon’s center of mass (COM) does not coincide with the geometric center of figure (COF) and the line “COF/COM” is not directed to the center of the Earth, but deviates from it to the South-East. Here, we discuss two mechanisms to explain the deviation of the lunar COM to the East from the mean direction to Earth. The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second (empty) orbital focus. It is established that only the scenario with an increase in the orbital eccentricity e leads to the required displacement of the lunar COM to the East. It is important that high-precision calculations confirm an increase e in our era. In order to fully explain the shift of the lunar COM to the East, a second mechanism was developed that takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon at its gradual removal from the Earth. The second mechanism predicts that the elongation of the lunar figure in the early era was significant. As a result, it was found that the Moon could have been formed in the annular zone at a distance of 3–4 radii of the modern Earth.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65725",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65725",signatures:"Boris P. Kondratyev",book:{id:"8444",title:"Lunar Science",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Lunar Science",slug:"lunar-science",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Yann H. Chemin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8444.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:"H.",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"277909",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris P.",middleName:null,surname:"Kondratyev",fullName:"Boris P. Kondratyev",slug:"boris-p.-kondratyev",email:"work@boris-kondratyev.ru",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Optical libration of the Moon for the observer from the second focus",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Resolution alternatives to choose between two options for the lunar orbit evolution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. On the difference on tidal forces from the Earth in near and far lunar hemispheres",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. The first version: the evolution of the lunar orbit with increase in its eccentricity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. The second version of the evolution: from more flattened to less flattened lunar orbit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Correction factor to mechanism of orbit evolution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Second mechanism of displacement of the Moon’s center of mass to the East",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Differential equation for evolution of the angle \n\nα\n\n\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Solution of Eq. (33)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"8. Analysis of the solution (41) and estimation of the elongation of the lunar figure in early era",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"9. Some consequences: how close to the earth could the Moon be formed",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"10. Discussion and conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Newton I. Mathematical principles of natural philosophy. In: Bernard Cohen I, Whitman A, editors. A Guide to Newton’s Principia. University of California Press; 1999\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Kondratyev BP. On one inaccuracy of Isaac Newton. Kvant. 2009;5:38\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Murray K, Dermott S. Dynamics of the Solar System. M.: FIZMATLIT, 2010; p. 588 (trans. from English).\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Yakovkin AA. The radius and shape of the moon. Bulletin AOE. 1934;4\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Bohme S. Bearbeitung der Aufnahmen von F. Hayn zur Ortsbestimmung des Mondes. Astronomische Nachrichten. 1953;256:356\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Shakirov KS. The influence of the internal structure of the moon on its rotation. Izvestia AOE. 1963;34\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Lipsky YN, Nikonov VA. The position of the center of the figure of the moon. Astronomicheskii Zhurnal. 1971;48:445\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Calame O. Free librations of the Moon determined by an analysis of laser range measurements. Moon. 1976;15:343\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Archinal BA, Rosiek MR, Kirk RL, Redding BL. Completion of the Unified Lunar Control Network 2005 and Topographic Model. Virginia: US Geological Survey. 2006\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Iz H, Ding XL, Dai CL, Shum CK. Polyaxial figures of the Moon. Journal of Geodesy. 2011;1(4):348\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Barker MK, Mazarico E, Neumann GA, Zuber MT, Kharuyama J, Smith DE. A new lunar digital elevation model from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter and SELENE Terrain Camera. Icarus. 2016;273:346\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Lemoine FG, Goossens S, Sabaka TJ, Nicholas JB, Mazarico E, Rowlands DD, et al. GRGM900C: A degree-900 lunar gravity model from GRAIL primary and extended mission data. GeoRL. 2014;41:3382. DOI: 10.1002/2014GL060027\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Kondratyev BP. The deviation of the lunar center of mass to the east of the direction toward the earth. A Mechanism Based on Orbital Evolution. Astronomy Reports. 2018;62(8):542. DOI: 10.1134/S106377291808005X\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Kondratyev BP. The deviation of the lunar center of mass to the east of the direction toward the earth. A Mechanism Based on Rounding of the Figure of the Moon. Astronomy Reports. 2018;62(10):705. DOI: 10.1134/S1063772918100062\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Kondratyev BP. On the deviation of the lunar center of mass to the East. Two possible mechanisms based on evolution of the orbit and rounding off the shape of the Moon. Astrophysics and Space Science. 2018;186(186)\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Darwin GH. Tidal Friction in Cosmogony, Scientific Papers 2. Cambridge University Press; 1908\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Urey HC. Chemical evidence relative to the origin of the solar system. MNRAS. 1966;131:212\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Wieczorek MA, Neumann GA, Nimmo F, Kiefer WS, Taylor GJ, Melosh HJ, et al. The crust of the Moon as seen by GRAIL. Science. 2013;339(6120):671. DOI: 10.1126/science.1231530\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Zhong S. Origin and Evolution of the Moon. 2014. 2014IAUS, 298, 457Z. DOI: 10.1017/S1743921313007229\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Macdonald GJF. Tidal friction. Reviews of Geophysics. 1964;2:467. DOI: 10.1029/RG002i003p00467\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Goldreich P. History of the lunar orbit. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics. 1966;4:411\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Simon JL, Bretagnon P, Chapront J, Chapront-Touze M, Francou G, Laskar J. Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the moon and planets. A&A. 1994;282:663\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Chapront J, Chapront-Touzé M, Francou G. A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements. A&A. 2002;387:700\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Laskar J, Fienga A, Gastineau M, Manche H. La2010: A new orbital solution for the long-termmotion of the Earth. A&A. 2011;532(A89):15\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Folkner WM, Williams JG, Boggs DH, Park RS, Kuchynka P. The Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides DE430 and DE431. The Interplanetary Network Progress Report. 42-196. 2014. pp. 1-81\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Deprit A. The movement of the moon in space. In: Kopal Z, editor. Physics and Astronomy of the Moon. New York and London: Academic Press; 1971\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Kondratyev BP. Dinamika ellipsoidal\'nykh gravitiruiushchikh figure. Moscow: Nauka; 1989\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Chandrasekhar S. Ellipsoidal Equilibrium Figures. New Haven and London: Yale University Press; 1969\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Simon SJ, Stewart ST, Petaev MI, Leinhardt ZM, Mace MT, Jacobsen SB. The Origin of the Moon Within a Terrestrial Synestia. JGR. 2018. DOI: 10.1002/2017JE005333\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Boris P. Kondratyev",address:"work@boris-kondratyev.ru",affiliation:'
Sternberg Astronomical Institute, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
Faculty of Physics of the M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
Сentral Astronomical Observatory at Pulkovo, Russia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8444",title:"Lunar Science",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Lunar Science",slug:"lunar-science",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Yann H. 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Composed milk samples were obtained to detect subclinical mastitis and S. aureus infection and for characterization of phenotypes as follows: biotypes, capsular exopolysaccharide 5 and 8, ORSA/MRSA and MRSA strains; and in vitro phagocytosis neutrophil activity and apoptosis by S. aureus serotype 5. Results were evaluated by estimating proportions and chi-square test (p < 0.05). The microbial isolation rate was 46%; S. aureus isolation rate was 23.4–21.0% among cow herds; 39% of microbial isolates were in 1500–2500 cells/mL, with Wisconsin test. The phenotypes of S. aureus were: biotypes A and C are identified frequently that produce alpha and beta-hemolysin toxins, and a smaller proportion other hemolysins types. S. aureus isolates capsular serotypes 5 and 8 show differences in the in vitro neutrophil phagocytosis activity and apoptosis. The ORSA/MRSA isolates show that MRSA strains? mec A gene was confirmed by PCR. 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Milk quality and food safety concern in the consumers’ health and nutrition in public health surveillance prevent food-borne diseases, food poisoning, and zoonosis risk by raw milk and fresh dairy products. The aim of this work is focused on milk microbial contamination and its impacts on milk production and dairy industry with their implications in milk product quality, food-borne diseases from raw milk, and unpasteurized milk by food-borne pathogen microbial contamination and milk and dairy product spoilage. The microbial milk contamination source comes from herd hygiene and health status, mastitis prevalence, production environment, and milking parlor and milk conserving practices in dairy farm. Moreover, these facts are implicated in milk quality and milk spoilage and unsafe dairy products. 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\\n\\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact Dr. Anke Beck at anke@intechopen.com.
\n\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n
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European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
\n\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\n\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\n\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
\n\t
Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
\n\t
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
\n\t
Chinese Academy of Sciences
\n\t
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
\n\t
German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
\n\t
Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
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Australian Research Council (ARC)
\n
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