Daily dietary intake of Cd (mg kg−1 day−1) through consumption of Cd contaminated vegetables.
\r\n\tThis field has grown exponentially over the past decade resulting in less postoperative pain, risk of complications, and recovery times. Arthroscopy has evolved from a diagnostic tool to a therapeutic tool capable of treating a wide range of injuries and disorders in most of the joints. Many injuries, particularly those that at one time would have been career-ending for athletes, can now be addressed with arthroscopy allowing a quicker return to a competitive level. While arthroscopy has resulted in an overall decrease in morbidity compared with open techniques, it is still an invasive procedure and inherently involves risks.
\r\n\r\n\tWith this book, we attempt to summarize the most common arthroscopic procedures, diagnosis, risks, and complications.
\r\n\tAll of the above aspects are addressed in this book, which describes the current applications of arthroscopy, explaining the mechanisms of injury for each condition, and describing the role of arthroscopy in diagnosis and treatment.
\r\n\t
Nowadays, to satisfy the increase of internet demands and requirement, two multiplexing techniques are used: WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplex) and TDM (Time Division Multiplex). WDM still more used than TDM. However, for practical system applications, such as optical CDMA (Code Division Multiplex Access) and OTDM (Optical Time Division Multiplex) systems, high speed optical communications require light sources with a repetition rate control. In this area, pulsed fiber lasers have become very attractive.
Fiber lasers have a number of qualities which make them very attractive for ultra short pulses generation via Q-switching, active or passive mode locking mechanisms. The gain bandwidth of rare-earth-doped fibers is large, typically tens of nanometers, which allows the generation of femtosecond pulses. The high gain efficiency of active fibers makes possible such lasers to operate with fairly low pump powers and tolerate intra cavity optical elements with relatively high optical losses. Fiber laser setups are very compact and can be done with a low cost. Furthermore, mode locked fiber lasers can rely on telecom components.
Storing ions in a higher energy level can be achieved by limiting ions flow to the bottom level. So, it’s necessary to prevent stimulated emission prevalence.
By means of light modulators able to generate high optical powers when transiting between the off and on states, we prevent light propagate within the laser cavity. For a radiative transition, the only possible drain to the bottom level is caused by spontaneous emission (see Fig. 1). The E2 level population very significant, the cavity losses are suddenly reduced and the oscillation becomes possible. The stimulated emission becomes prevalent and the laser starts emitting abruptly. All ions stored up go down emitting stimulated photons (see Fig. 2).
Q-switching first step.
Q-switching second step.
At a given time, there is no way for stimulated emission to happen and the cavity is emptied by resulting losses of the output mirror (see Fig. 3).
The abrupt variation of the number of photons into the cavity results in emitting a high peak power optical pulse. Generally, several journeys between the two mirrors are necessary to completely depopulate the up-level and empty the cavity. So, the pulse width would be higher than the time of a coming and going through the cavity. With lengths lower than one meter, it is possible to generate nanosecond pulses. The repetition rate varies between few hundreds of Hz and few hundreds of KHz.
The Q quality factor of a laser cavity describes its capacity to store the energy light in standing waves. The factor Q is the ratio between the stored and the lost energies after each round trip through the cavity. In fact a Q-switch device is an optical modulatorable to control the energy losses of the cavity with generally a repetition rate varying between 1 and 100 KHz [1].
Q-switching third step.
In a laser cavity, frequencies circulating into the resonator and having more gain than losses are called longitudinal modes. They can be considered as an assembly of independent oscillators. These modes gain increases after each round trip through the cavity. These modes are separated by ΔF = 1/TF = v/2L for a linear cavity case of Fabry Perrot cavity or v/L for a loop cavity case of fiber laser.L is the cavity length and v is the light speed. When these modes oscillate independently of each other, the laser emits continuously. Fig. 4 illustrates a laser cavity output signal resulting on the propagation of three independent longitudinal modes. However, when a fixed phase shift exists between the various modes, the cavity emits a pulses train and becomes phase locked. Fig. 5 shows a mode locked laser cavity output signal resulting on the propagation of three phase dependent longitudinal modes. In fact,the mode locking technique consists in creating a certain phase relationship between the different modes oscillating into the cavity.
Output signal from laser operating without mode locking mechanism.
Mode locked laser output signal.
If we consider M=2S+1 optical modes with S an integer and Aqthe complex envelope of mode q, the complex wave of the q mode and the total signal propagating into the cavity are respectively:
The resulting light intensity is:
Fig. 6 shows the resulting output pulses sequence of a mode locked laser cavity allowing the oscillation of M longitudinal modes. The mode locking mechanism allows having pulses train with peak power M-times more significant than the average power.
Mode locked laser output I(t,z) [2].
In case of fiber laser, the 100% reflective mirror is replaced by the optical fiber loop, the output mirror by an output coupler and the active laser medium by an optical amplifier such as Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier. Many sophisticated resonator setups have been used particularly for mode-locked fiber lasers, generating picosecond or femtosecond pulses. A fiber laser can contain an electro-optic modulator, an acousto-optic modulator or a saturable absorber to actively or passively mode lock the different longitudinal modes oscillating in the cavity.
Different types of pulsed fiber lasers.
Passively mode locked fiber lasers have the advantage of being entirely consisted of optical components. They do not require external electrical components and the mode locking mechanism in the cavity is carried out automatically [3-4-5]. However, these lasers can’t reach high pulses repetition rates. In fact, the repetition rate of generated pulses depends mainly on the cavity length [6-7]. The laser resonator may contain a saturable absorber such as SESAM (Semiconductor Saturable Absorber Mirror) to passively mode lock the cavity (see Fig. 8).
Saturable Absorber passively mode locked fiber laser.
The effect of NLPR(Non Linear Polarization Rotation), as illustrated in Fig. 9, or a nonlinear fiber loop mirror, as illustrated in Fig. 10, can be used as artificial saturable absorbers [8].
NLPR mechanism.
A nonlinear loop mirror is used in a “figure-of-eight laser”. A schematic diagram of the 8FL (Eight Fiber Laser) is shown in Fig. 10. The 8FL overall design is that of a ring cavity with a Sagnac interferometer with a gain medium placed asymmetrically in the loop. By addition of pulses through the central coupler, the NALM (Non linear Amplifying Loop Mirror) transmits highest intensities of pulse and reflects the lowest ones [9-10]. The nonlinear fiber loop amplifies, shapes and stabilizes the circulating ultra short pulse [11]. With the P-APM (Polarization-Additive Pulse Mode-Locking), the polarization state of a pulse propagating through an optical fiber differs from the peak to the wings and the transmission through a polarizer can be adjusted to eliminate the wings [12-13]. The SAs act as intensity dependent elements. The wings of the pulse exhibit more losses than the peak [14].
Figure of eight fiber laser.
The PCs (Polarization Controllers) set the input signal in an arbitrary polarization state. The azimuth and elliptical parameters define the polarization state of the output signal. Considering Einx and Einyas the polarization components of the input signal, the output signal is:
Where k is the power splitting ratio parameter and δyx(t) is the phase difference between the x and y components. The optical isolator is inserted into the loop to allow light circulate only in one direction. The major disadvantage of 8FL is that it requires a special management of the various parameters of the cavity [15]. In the steady state, the various linear and non linear effects are in balance and the pulse output power and width are unchanged or often even nearly constant after each completed round trip. Assuming a single circulating pulse, the pulse repetition rate corresponds to the resonator round-trip time.
In actively mode locked fiber lasers, as shown in Fig. 12, the pulses frequency depends on the electro-optic or the acousto-optic modulator inserted in the cavity [16-17-18]. Generally, these types of laser cavities provide typically pulses larger than those provided by a passively locked laser. This can be explained by the fact that no compression techniques are applied [19]. The most used optical modulator to actively mode lock the different modes oscillating into a fiber laser cavity is the MZM (Mach Zehnder modulator). It’s an intensity modulator based on an interferometer principle. It consists of two 3dB couplers which are connected by two waveguides of equal length (see Fig. 11). By means of electro-optic effects, an externally applied voltage can be used to vary the refractive indices in the waveguide branches. The different paths can lead to constructive and destructive interference at the output, depending on the applied voltage. Then the output intensity can be modulated according to the voltage. A Mach Zehnder Modulator has often only one optical exit, the second one is hidden.
Mach Zehnder Modulator.
Actively mode locked ring fiber laser.
Aiming to profit at the same of the two configurations advantages: a rather low width and a sufficiently high repetition rate of pulses, new prospects and configurations of fiber lasers, using both the passive and active mode locking techniques, have been proposed. This new generation of pulses generator is called hybrid type mode locked fiber laser [20]. Fig. 13 shows hybrid type mode locked fiber laser using both a machZehnder modulator to actively mode lock the cavity and a non linear amplifying loop mirror to passively mode lock the cavity.
Hybrid type mode locked 8FL.
Being 90% made of fiber; light propagation through a fiber laser can be modeled by the Split Step Fourier Method.
Light propagation within optical fiber may be expressed by the Generalized Non Linear Schrödinger Equation (GNLSE) as follow:
β2 and β3 are the second and the third order dispersion terms, α is the attenuation coefficient of the fiber, T is the related time given by T=t – z/vg where z and vg are the longitudinal coordinate and the group velocity corresponding to the central wavelength λ and γ is the nonlinear parameter of the fiber given by γ=2πn2/ λAeff. n2 is the non linear refractive index and Aeff is the effective area of the fiber. When studying the propagation into an EDFA, the GNLSE become:
The gain of the Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) can be estimated as G=exp(gl) where l is the length of the doped fiber and g the gain coefficient.
The SSFM consists on transforming the GNLSE as the sum of linear and nonlinear operators:
The SSFM relies on that propagation in each segment of the optical fiber is divided in three steps: two linear and one non linearsteps (see Fig. 14). The nonlinear step is inserted between the two linear steps [21-22].
Principle of Split Step Fourier Method SSFM.
So, linear and nonlinear effects are supposed to be applied in the whole segment of the fiber. The linear operator is used in the frequency area and the non linear one is used in time area.
FT is the Fourier transform.
The EDFA is based on a two-level Er3+ system assumption that is usually adapted to model erbium-doped fiber amplifiers. The lifetime transition from level 4I11/2 is of the order of microseconds for silicate hosts. Therefore, it is reasonable to neglect the population density N3 in the rate equations description. A two-level system approximation is used in this case. Under the assumption of the normalized population densities N1 and N2 at the ground and metastable energy level, 4I15/2and 4I13/2 populations are calculated by numerically solving the rate and propagation equations [23]:
Where the optical powers are expressed in units of number of photons per unit time, τ is the metastable spontaneous emission lifetime, N is the number of channels taken into account in the simulation (including signals, pumps, and ASE bins), ρ is the number density of the active erbium ions, α is the attenuation coefficient (which takes into account the background loss of the fiber), Δν is the frequency step used in the simulation to resolve the ASE spectrum, and Aeff is the effective doped area given by πb2, where b is the Er doping radius (it is considered a uniform distribution of erbium ions in the area given by the Er doping radius region). The nth channel of wavelength λn has optical power Pn(z,t) at location z and time t, with emission and absorption cross-section σne and σna respectively, and confinement factor Γn. The superscript symbols + and – are used respectively to indicate channels travelling in forward (from 0 to LEDFA) and backward (from LEDFA to 0) directions. For beams travelling in the forward direction un=1 and for beams in the opposite direction un=-1. The overlap integrals Γn between the LP01 mode intensity distributions doped region areas are given by:
Normally, when designing extremely high output average and peak power fiber laser generating ultra short pulses, the best solution that can be adopted is to enhance the non linear effects in the cavity. This can be achieved either by pumping the piece of doped fiber amplifier with a high input power rate or enhancing the SPM, XPM and FWM effects by reducing the average dispersion of the cavity and the effective area of the different fibers used. In this section, managing the pumping input powers level, the dispersion and the effective area of different microstructured optical fibers inserted into a passively and an hybrid type mode locked 8FLs, we prove that enhancing non linear effects does not lead necessarily to better results. It depends also on the type of mode locking mechanism used. The highest peak powers and the narrowest pulse widths are obtained only for specific parameters.
In spite of their singularities and particularities in managing linear and non linear effects, the exploitation of MOFs in laser cavities has remained a subject of research bit addressed. In fact, MOFs offer many degrees of freedom in the management of dispersion and effective area
A schematic diagram of the first passively mode locked 8FL is shown in Fig.15. It consists of two loops: a ring cavity and a non linear amplifying loop mirror NALM connected to each other through a 50% central coupler. The linear cavity is made up of 10m of PDF (Positively Dispersive Fiber: β2=20ps2/km) having 85µm2 as effective area and aiming to maintain balance between anomalous and normal dispersion within the 8FL, a 10% output coupler and a polarization insensitive optical isolator to ensure the circulation of light only on the clockwise direction. The NALM includes a MOF (Microstructured Optical Fiber) and a 10m EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier) having 0.24 as numerical aperture forward and backward pumped by two 980nm pump laser diodes coupled to the loop through two 980/1550nm WDM couplers. The Er3+ ions density is 700ppm.
Configuration of passively mode locked 8FL.
The second configuration, shown in Fig.16, is a hybrid type mode locked 8FL. It differs from the first one by the presence of a MZM (Mach Zehnder Modulator) as an electro-optical modulator into the linear ring cavity.
Configuration of hybrid type mode locked 8FL.
By modelling the light propagation through the various components by the SSFM (Split Step Fourier Method), we studied the influence of varying nonlinear parameters of the cavity on the output pulses shape. Light pulse propagation in the 8FL may be expressed by the NLGSE (Non Linear Generalised Schrödinger Equation) and the transfer function of the different components used [12]. The central coupler is a cross-coupler for combining or splitting the optical signal. It is bidirectional, with wavelength independent coupling, insertion loss and return loss. If we consider Ein, Eout, E3 and E4 respectively the input, transmitted, NALM clockwise and counter clockwise circulating light powers, after propagating into an L length loop made of EDFA and MOF, considering only the non linear effects, E3L and E4L are expressed as follow:
Where k is the power splitting ratio parameter, G is the EDFA gain, λ is the signal wavelength and Aeffis the MOF effective area. For each round trip through the fiber laser, the transmitted power circulating into the ring linear cavity is:
A single secant hyperbolic input pulse with 1mW of peak power and 200ps FWHM (Full Width at Half Maximum) is launched in the first configuration through the WDM coupler. At the beginning, we studied the output pulses shape for different EDFA pumping power levels and differ4ent MOF effective area’s values. The pumping threshold is about 300mW. In fact, as illustrated in Fig.17 and Fig.18 below, when increasing the pump power of the EDFA, the pulses peak power increases whereas the width decreases. However for very small effective areas like 5µm2 and 10µm2, the pulse width reaches a minimum value at a specified pump power level before growing up proportionally to the laser diodes pump powers. In these cases the lowest values of the pulse width are reached respectively for 400mW and 700mW of pump powers.
A second approach to study the non linear effects impact in a fiber laser cavity is to use longer portion of the non linear optical fiber used. Fig.19 and Fig.20 show the output pulses peak power and width for different lengths and effective areas of MOF. The pump power delivered by each laser diode is equal to 700mW.
As shown in Fig.19 and Fig.20, enhancing dramatically the non linear effects, by increasing the MOF length and decreasing its effective area, does not lead necessarily to optimal results. In fact, for each length of one selected fiber there are two optimal effective areas. The first corresponds to the one leading to the highest peak power and the second corresponds to the one leading to the lowest pulse width and conversely. However, there is always an intermediate value of the effective area leading to a high peak and a low pulse width. For 10m of MOF, the intermediate effective area is 7.5µm2. The peak power is equal to 16W and the pulse width to 39.7ps. However, the highest peak power 18.25W and the lowest pulse width 39ps are obtained respectively for 5µm2 and 10µm2 effective areas. For 20m of MOF, the intermediate effective area is 15µm2. The peak power is equal to 17.25W and the pulse width to 38.5ps. However, the highest peak power 20W and the lowest pulse width 37.5ps are obtained respectively for 10µm2and 17.5µm2effective areas. For 30m of MOF, the adequate effective area is 15µm2.
Thus, by reducing the mean dispersion of the cavity with an appropriate choice of the MOF optimal length and effective area, generated ultra short pulses would have the highest peak power and the lowest width.
Unlike the passively mode locked 8FL carried out above, in case of hybrid type 8FL shown in Fig.16, no input pulse is inserted in the cavity to release the cavity oscillation. The first handling aimed to study the average pulses output power fluctuation according to the pump powers of the two lasers diode for different MOF’s effective areas. The MOF length and dispersion are respectively 30m and -10ps2/km. The PDF length and dispersion are respectively 10m and 20ps2/km with an effective area of 85µm2. The electrical signal frequency injected into the MZM is 20GHz. As shown in Fig.23, more the effective area is small and the pumping powers are high more the mean power of output signal is high. So, by increasing non linear effects, we increase the output pulses power.
Peak power vs launched pump powers (LMOF=10m, β2MOF=-10ps2/km).
Width vs launched pump powers (LMOF=10m, β2MOF=-10ps2/km).
Peak power vs MOF’s effective area and length.
Width vs MOF’s effective area and length.
About pulses shape depending on group velocity dispersion, Fig.21 and Fig.22 show that the best results correspond to MOF having negative chromatic dispersions.
Peak power vs MOF chromatic dispersion.
Width vs MOF chromatic dispersion.
Mean power vs launched pump powers.
The repetition rate and the width of output pulses are fixed by the electro-optical modulator characteristics.
The repetition rate of pulses depends directly on the frequency of the electrical signal injected into the MZM. Fig.24 illustrates the variation of the width of output pulses according to the electrical signal frequency.
Width vs Repetition rate.
Fig.25 shows hybrid type output pulses with a repetition rate of 20GHz.The second handling aimed to study the average pulses output power fluctuation from a hybrid type 8FL according to non linear effects by varying the length and the effective area of the MOF.
Curves shown in Fig.26 illustrate that more the MOF is long and its effective area is small more the exit power of the laser is significant. However, a significant increase of the MOF length and the effective area leads to a fast power fall. We can also notice that for all different MOF’s lengths there is a particular value of the effective area leading always to the same result. In this case, it corresponds to 12µm2.At the end, we studied the hybrid type 8FL behaviour when decreasing the average chromatic dispersion of the cavity. Contrary to passively mode locked 8FL, the maximum values of exit power, for a hybrid type 8FL, are reached for normal dispersion of the MOF β2MOF>0 (see Fig.27).
GHz hybrid type 8FL output pulses.
Mean power vs MOF length and effective area (β2MOF=-10ps2/km).
Thus, increasing the average exit power of hybrid type 8FL, operating at any pulses repetition rate, can be reached by choosing a rather long MOF having small effective area and normal dispersion.
Mean power vs MOF chromatic dispersion.
We summarized different techniques used to generate ultra short pulses from a fiber laser. Using the Split Step Fourier Method algorithm to model light propagation within a loop cavity, we described some operating process of different kind of mode locked fiber lasers. We also focused on some optical components operating process used in fiber laser to passively or actively mode lock the different modes oscillating within a laser cavity. In addition, we focused on Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier operating process. We highlighted the improvement of fiber laser performances does not depend only on the management of the non linear parameters of the cavity. In fact, it depends tightly on the mode locking mechanism used. A passively mode locked 8FL and a hybrid type 8FL do not respond the same way to non linear effects increase. In fact, in case of passively mode locked 8FL, for each length of the high non linear fiber, correspond two associated optimal effective areas: one leading to the highest peak power and one leading to the lowest pulse width. Whereas, increasing the non linear effects by using a rather long high non linear fiber having a reduced effective area leads to the best output results in case of hybrid type 8FL. Moreover, contrarily to hybrid type 8FL, reducing the average dispersion of the cavity leads necessarily to better output passively mode locked 8FL pulses shape. In fact, this work aims to illustrate the existing interaction between non linear effects and mode locking mechanism in fiber laser.
Cadmium (Cd) is an element which is extremely toxic to humans and can cause adverse effects even in small doses. Cadmium is a non-essential trace metal, which plays no recognized role in human, plant and animal development and growth. Various Environmental Protection Agency classified Cd as one of the pollutant element and include it in the list of 126 priority pollutants [1]. Lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere take part in the exchange of Cd in its bio-geo-chemical cycle [2]. The aggregate industrial emission of Cd is vast and significantly contributed to bio-geo-chemical cycles, resulting Cd deposition in many ecosystems and hastening buildup of Cd both in nature and human food chain. Therefore, a variety of detrimental health effects of Cd have been identified in various parts of the world and these symptoms are increases progressively [3]. Cadmium (Cd), a hazardous heavy metal, falls into Group IIB of the periodic table and, its amounts ranging from 0.1 to 1 mg kg−1 in environment [4]. According to recent data collected in 2011, 7500, 2500 and 2000 t of Cd was emitted by China, Republic of Korea and Japan whereas globally it was 21,500 t yr.−1. After the industrial revolution, man-made activities have greatly intensified the CD level in environment. The produce and use of Cd containing batteries, dyes, electroplating, combustion of crude oil, paints (Cd use as stabilizer), phosphate fertilizer processing and waste water applications have added 3–10 folds higher Cd than natural methods to the ecology. The release of Cd into to the soil environment is responsible for some natural disasters, such as volcanic eruption, sea salt spray, wild fires, weathering of Cd containing minerals and rock, transportation and accumulation of Cd-polluted soil by water and wind [5]. Cadmium, resulting from occupational and non-occupational contact, has detrimental impact on human health through build-up of Cd in human body. Occupational contamination is primarily observed by the extraction and smelting of non-ferrous metals, the manufacturing and handling of composite-containing CDs, and e-waste recycling activities. Non-occupational Cd contamination is mainly done by smoking, feeding behavior and atmospheric Cd particles [5]. Cadmium is ingested into multiple organs within the human body i.e., kidney, liver, lungs, thymus testes, heart, epididymis, prostate, and salivary glands, leading to malfunctioning of multi-organ and ultimately death [6, 7]. The Itai-Itai epidemic with 184 patients and 388 possible victims was a well-known environmental hazard associated with Cd infection. Faulty farming practices and the use of hazardous plant agro-chemicals allow Cd to invade the food chain of humans. Commonly, trace elements level is typically higher in the roots, however in certain leafy vegetables (e.g., lettuce and spinach), Cd is accumulated in plant leaves owing to its fast absorption and mobility within the plant system [8]. The estimation of quantities of Cd content in food materials indicates that vegetables and grains are the key factor of Cd in the food material, even though they are often present in animal products with a low quality. It is estimated that the everyday Cd ingestion by food material is 10.0–30.0 μg for adults in various countries [9, 10] (Table 1). Satarug et al. [20] reported that Cd level in vegetables varied from 0.001 to 0.124 mg kg−1 and intake of vegetables accounts >70–90% Cd susceptibility to humans. Remediation measures like washing the matrix, excavation and burial, and filed mechanization techniques have been followed in both limited and commercial scale but, not economically viable. An alternative strategy to mitigate the harmful effects Cd on soil–plant could be the use of bioremediation using suitable plants and microbes. So, in this chapter in brief the importance of Cd as a toxic element, its dynamics in the soil and plant and environment friendly measures to eliminate Cd pollution is discussed.
Country | Adults N 19 | Children | Adolescent 14–18 years | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
MAL/RDAa | 5.0E−02b | — | — | [11] |
RfD (oral reference dose) | 1.0E−03 | 1.0E−03 | — | [12] |
Netherland | 2.01E−02 | 4.10E−02 | 1.60E−02 | [13] |
USA | 1.08E−05 | 2.21E−05 | 8.63E−06 | [14] |
Bangladesh | 5.17E−05 | 1.06E−04 | 4.13E−05 | [15] |
Italy | 1.54E−05 to 5.48E−05 | 3.16E−05 to 1.12E−04 | 1.23E−05 4.38E−05 | [16] |
Ethiopia | 1.16E−04 | 2.37E−04 | 9.24E−05 | [17] |
Zimbabwe | 8.87E−04 | 1.81E−03 | 7.09E−04 | [18] |
China | 2.05E−04 to 2.805E−03 | 4.18E−04 to 5.72E−03 | 1.63E−04 2.23E−03 | [19] |
Sweden | 6.95E−05 | 1.42E−04 | 5.55E−05 | [14] |
Uganda | 8.22E−05 | 1.68E−04 | 6.56E−05 | [11] |
India | 8.03E−04 to 4.92E−03 | 1.64E−03 to 1.00E−02 | 6.41E−04 3.93E−03 | [13] |
Pakistan | 3.67E−05 to 8.10E−04 | 7.49E−05 to 1.66E−03 | 2.93E−05to 6.47E−04 | [17] |
France | 5.78E−03 | 1.18E−02 | 4.62E−03 | [12] |
Daily dietary intake of Cd (mg kg−1 day−1) through consumption of Cd contaminated vegetables.
MAL/RDA maximum allowable limit/recommended dietary allowance.
E−02 represents 1 × 10−2.
Cadmium (Cd) is a hazardous trace element disseminated extensively in the environment and causes implacable impact on human health even in very minute content [21]. Cadmium in lithosphere, sedimentary rocks and soil content 0.2, 0.3 and 0.53 mg kg−1 however in soil water and groundwater 5.0 and 1 μg L−1, respectively [22, 23]. Cadmium contamination in soils and groundwater arises due to both natural and anthropogenic activities and cause harmful impact as its goes into human body through drinking water and foods [24]. Cadmium is mostly geogenic by origin whereas, majority comes from natural weathering and other sources are mining, casting and smelting, irrigation with sewage water, factories and vehicular discharges, and agrochemicals are major man-made causes of Cd pollution [25, 26]. Moreover, unmonitored and unsafe garbage dumping activities have intensely raised Cd levels in soil and water bodies. At end of 1980’s it was reported that geogenic and anthropogenic sources mobilizes Cd to the biosphere 24,000 and 4.5 t yr.−1, respectively which depicted the supremacy of man-made activity [27].
Among the natural sources windblown soil particles are the main reason for atmospheric Cd contamination followed by wildfires, sea spray, volcanic emissions, and meteoric dust. In California, Burke et al. [28] estimated that forest fire enhanced the average Cd level in water bodies by 2 folds. Pacyna and Pacyna [29] and Richardson et al. [30] reported that the Global average annual emission of natural Cd is about 1400 t however, from anthropogenic sources it was 2983 t. In nature, Cd is present ubiquitously in all areas and interestingly it’s presence can be seen in remote places like ice peak of the Himalaya and North and South poles [31]. In southern Germany mainly relies on agricultural activities has Cd concentration in soil deposition was upto 0.25 g (ha*a)−1 however, in industrial western Germany the Cd deposition was quite high upto 1.4 g (ha*a)−1 [32]. Thus, indicates that anthropogenic activities have greater potential in Cd pollution.
Cadmium content in the soil is positively correlated with the weathering of parent material but, unscientific practices have worsen the input, output balance i.e., input through atmospheric precipitation, factory or agricultural operations, minus its output through leaching, erosion and uptake by the crops [33]. The average Cd concentration in unpolluted soils in worldwide is 3.6%, while amounts which might be differ across continents, countries and type of soils. Cadmium in soil >30% is critically consider as Cd pollution limit, however, it was found that Cd level in soil reduces proportionately as the distance between manufacturing units and urban areas increases [34, 35]. In soil, the predominant source of Cd contamination is through weathering of various rocks and minerals present in the soil [25]. Maximum quantity of Cd was found in sedimentary rocks (0.1 to 26%) as compared to metamorphic and igneous rocks which contains Cd in the range of 1.1–10% and 0.7–2.5%, respectively [36, 37]. Similarly, Liu et al. [36] reported that in mudstone and siltstone has higher Cd content (46%) whereas, carbonate rocks has only 17% Cd content. He et al. [38] documented that soils generated from metamorphic rock like shales are highly prone to Cd toxicity. The Table 2 illustrated the various Cd containing rocks and minerals that may be recognize important for the incidence of Cd in the soil and water. Zinc (Zn) from sphalerite (ZnS) or smithsonite (ZnCO3), and iron (Fe) from pyrite (FeS2) and hydrous oxides of iron can be easily substituted by Cd [39]. Due to similarity in ionic radius Cd can able to replace several divalent cations (i.e., Ca, Fe, Zn, Pb, and Co) from their rocks [37]. Gnandi and Tobschall [40] stated that Ca in apatite mineral can be substituted by Cd therefore Cd may be a natural adulteration in phosphate (P) minerals and phosphorite rocks that are essential for the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers. Unlike Eastern Europe, there is considerably higher Cd in agricultural fields of Western European and one of the reasons for this is use of P fertilizer from distinct source [41]. The Cd bioavailability is governed by several factors such as: pH, moisture content, soil texture, clay content and type, cation exchange capacity, quantity and type of organic matter (OM), hydrous oxides, etc. [38]. Cadmium is easily mobilize in the soil due to its weaker bonding between soil exchange sites (i.e., OM, carbonate, and hydrous oxide) [42] and that is the key factor to increase bio-availability of Cd to plants, ground water as well as plant products.
Rock type | Average Cd content (%) | Mineral | Composition | Average Cd content (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Carbonate stone | 0.1 | Apatite | Ca5(F,Cl)(PO4)3 | 1.4–1.5 |
Ultramafic rocks | 0.2 | Sphalerite | (Zn,Cd)S | 2 |
Schists | 0.2 | Smithonite | ZnCO3 | < 2.35 |
Sandstone | 0.3 | Magnetite | Fe3O4 | < 3.1 |
Red shales | 0.3 | Silicates | — | 0.3–58 |
Gneisses | 0.4 | Arsenopyrite | FeAsS | < 50 |
Mafic rocks | 1.1 | Scorodite | FeAsO4. 2H2O | < 10–58 |
Granitic rocks | 1.2 | Otavite | CdCO3 | 65.2 |
Basalt | 2.2 | Greenockite | CdS | 77.8 |
Obsidian | 2.5 | Pyromorphite | Pb5Cl(PO4)3 | < 10–80 |
Organic sediment | 5.0 | Calcite | CaCO3 | < 10–230 |
Red clay | 5.6 | Marcasite | FeS2 | < 500 |
Bituminous shale | 8.0 | Chalcopyrite | CuFeS2 | < 1100 |
Limestone | 10 | Bindheimite | Pb2Sb2O6(O,OH) | 1000–10,000 |
Shale and claystone | 10 | Tetrahedrite | (Cu,Fe,Zn,Ag)12SbAs4S13 | 800–20,000 |
Bentonite | 14 | Anglesite | PbSO4 | 1200 to >10,000 |
Marlstone | 26 | Mn-oxides | MnO. nH2O | < 10,000 |
Oceanic manganese oxides | 80 | Limonite | FeO(OH). nH2O | < 10,000 |
Phosphorites | 250 | Galena | PbS | < 30,000 |
Cadmium contents in different rocks and minerals.
Geogenic sources input only 10 percent Cd in the environment however, man-made emission input 90 percent Cd in the environment. Among the various man-made sources major contribution is from manufacturing and application of P fertilizers, petroleum oil burning, smelting and casting industries, effluents from cement factories, vehicular emission, sewage sludge, landfills, municipality solid wastes, and mining activities [43, 44]. The Table 3 explained various anthropogenic activities and their impact on Cd build-up in soil and groundwater. Cadmium is mainly used in stabilization of plastics, pigments manufacturing, solar panels, nickel-cadmium batteries, and rust resistant steel production, agri-chemicals, solders, engine oil, and rubber and fabric industries [78, 79]. Brown et al. [80] reported that in 2015, globally Cd manufacture was ~24,900 metric tons and it was increases in the coming years. Among the anthropogenic sources mining and metal industries are the main reason for environmental Cd pollution followed by textiles industries, nonmetallic mineral products, fertilizers and agro-chemicals production, and leathers industries [81]. Landfills and municipal solid waste deposition are the major causes of soil pollution with Cd and in European countries municipal solid waste contain Cd level up to 3 to 12% [62]. Leachates from various sources are the main cause of Cd pollution in groundwater and Belon et al. [35] estimated that leachate form FYM, atmospheric deposition, inorganic fertilizers and municipal solid waste ranges from 10 to 25, 15–50, 30–55 and 2–5%, respectively. Another important source of Cd pollution in soil through the use of P fertilizers and P fertilizer used in various countries like Eastern Mediterranean countries, European countries and Germany the Cd content is as high as 770, 360 and 600%, respectively [37, 82]. Cadmium discharge and emitted from multiple sources gradually enters into the soil and then eventually bio-accumulates in food grains which ultimately leads to human health hazard.
Source | Type of pollution | Country/Area | Maximum Cd level | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mining | ||||
Pb mining and refinery | Atmospheric deposition | Příbram, Czech Republic | Soil: 48 mg kg−1 | [45] |
Cu mining | Waste water | Canchaque, Peru | Soil: 499 mg kg−1 | [28] |
Pb–Zn mining/refinery | Waste water | Coeur d’Alene basin, Idaho, USA | Groundwater: 77 μg L−1 | [46] |
Fe–Ni–Co mining | Waste material | Several sites in Albania | Soil: 14 mg kg−1 | [47] |
Au–Ag–Pb–Zn mining | Waste water | Chloride, Arizona USA | Groundwater: 19 μg L−1 | [48] |
As refinery | Waste material | Reppel, Belgium | Soil: 79 mg kg−1 | [49] |
Phosphorite mining | Mining waste, transport | Kpogamé, Hahotoé, Togo | Soil: 43 mg kg−1 | [50] |
Zn smelter | Atmospheric deposition | Hezhang County, China | Soil: 74 mg kg−1 | [51] |
Zn smelter | Waste material | Celje, Slovenia | Soil: 344 mg kg−1 | [52] |
Pb–Zn mining/refinery | Atmospheric deposition and waste water | Jinding, China | Soil: 531 mg kg−1 | [53] |
Mining activities | Waste water | BacKan province, North Vietnam | Soil: 4.26 mg kg−1 Irrigation water: 2.51 μg L−1 | [54] |
Au–Cu mining | Waste water | Bolnisi, Georgia | Soil: 121.5 mg kg−1 | [55] |
Coal mining | Mining waste and deposition | Anhui province, eastern China | Soil: 0.05–0.87 mg kg−1 | [56] |
Cu, Mo and Ni mining | Mining waste and deposition | Yangjiazhangzh and Dexing, China | Soil: 22.8 mg kg−1 Sediment: 66.1 mg kg−1 | [57] |
Coal mines | Atmospheric deposition and waste water | Singrauli, India | Groundwater: 108 ppb | [58] |
Industries | ||||
Cement factory | Atmospheric deposition | Qadissiya, Jordan | Soil: 13 mg kg−1 | [59] |
Various (e.g., textile, electroplating) | Waste water | Coimbatore, India | Soil: 12.8 mg kg−1 | [42] |
Ceramic industry | Sewage sludge | Castellon, Spain | Soil: 72 mg kg−1 | [60] |
Pigment manufacture | Atmospheric deposition | Staffordshire, UK | Soil: 16 mg kg−1 | [61] |
Textile industry | Waste water | Haridwar, India | Soil: 83.6 mg kg−1 Groundwater: 40 μg L−1 | [62] |
Metal industry | Atmospheric deposition | Unnao, India | Groundwater: 74 μg L−1 | [63] |
Ceramic industry | Atmospheric deposition | Yixing, China | Soil: 5.9 mg kg−1 | [64] |
Paper mill | Waste water | Morigaon, India | Soil: 31.01 mg kg−1 | [65] |
Power industry and industrial plants | Atmospheric deposition and waste water | Malopolska province, southern Poland | Soil: 16.9 mg kg−1 | [66] |
Zinc-smelter plant | Irrigation through industrial effluents | Rajasthan, India | Soil: 96.8 mg kg−1 | [67] |
Atlas Cycle factory | Irrigation through industrial effluents | Haryana, India | Soil: 9.81 mg kg−1 | [67] |
Waste management | ||||
Disposal facilities | Leachate | Great lakes region, USA | Soil: 32 mg kg−1 | [40] |
Household wastes | Waste water | Ikare, Nigeria | Groundwater: 580 μg L−1 | [6] |
Landfill | Leachate | Taoyuan, Taiwan Alexandria, Egypt | Soil: 378 mg kg−1 Groundwater: 51 μg L−1 | [68] |
Sewage and waste disposal | Waste water | Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis, Ghana | Groundwater: 90 μg L−1 | [69] |
Sewage disposal | Waste water and physical mixing | Sundarban, India | Soil: 1.70 mg kg−1 | [70] |
Brownfield | Waste water | Xiangjiang River, China | Groundwater: 474 μg L−1 | [71] |
Oil spill accident | Waste deposition and physical mixing | Sundarban, Bangladesh | Sediment: 0.82 mg kg−1 | [38] |
Electronical waste recycling | Waste water | Krishna Vihar, India | Soil: 47.7 mg kg−1 Groundwater: 280 μg L−1 | [72] |
Agriculture | ||||
Sewage sludge application | Irrigation | Several sites in Spain | Soil: 90 mg kg−1 | [73] |
P fertilizer production | Atmospheric deposition | Rio Grande, Brazil | Soil: 9.3 mg kg−1 Groundwater: 3 μg L−1 | [32] |
P fertilizer application | Infiltration | Cauvery River basin, India | Groundwater: 60 μg L−1 | [74] |
Urban agriculture | Atmospheric pollution and soil contamination | Belo Horizonte, Brazil | Soil: 0.20 mg kg−1 | [75] |
Sewage sludge application | Soil application | Jiangsu Province, China | Leachate: 0.14 mg kg−1 | [76] |
Urban areas | ||||
Sewerage | Leakage | Rastatt, Germany | Groundwater: 5 μg L−1 | [1] |
Road traffic | Infiltration | Celle, Germany | Groundwater: 2.34 μg L−1 | [9] |
Over populated, E-wastes and industrialized | Infiltration and physical mixing | Western Uttar Pradesh, India | Groundwater: 0.07 mg L−1 | [77] |
Various types of cadmium contamination in soil and waterbodies.
Cadmium (Cd) is a potent pestilential metal which enters primarily via plant roots, get distributed and accumulated in plant parts in different proportions and concentrations, hampering crop yield and deteriorating the quality of produce. It ultimately makes it way to enter food chain thereby possessing serious threat to human and animal health. Cadmium ranks 7 among the top 20 toxins and it enter to arable land through various industrial processes and farming practices [83].
Accumulation of Cd in plant is facilitated by its mobilization, uptake and transport/distribution in various plant parts. Unscientific agricultural practices and industrial effluents are the major contributor of Cd in soil [84]. Phosphaic fertilizer and sewage-sludge contribute to Cd pollution in agricultural soil. Concentration of Cd in plants is also an indicative of its concentration in soil; however various other factors including soil pH, organic matter content, interaction with other ions and plant species govern its availability in plants [85, 86, 87]. Meta data analysis of 162 wheat and 215 barley grain samples by Adams and associates, [88] showed grain Cd concentration is positively correlated with soil total cd content and soil reaction (pH). They also highlighted the fact that higher microbial activity, nitrification and application of sewage sludge increased the chance of Cd toxicity but, reclaiming the soil with liming may abate the chance of toxicity. Sauvé et al. [89] found that organic matter had almost 30 times more sorption affinity for Cd when compared with mineral soil in Canada which indicates the importance of quality of organic matter in binding and accumulating Cd. It is assumed that lowering of pH will facilitate Cd availability to plants, but it might not hold true for soils with lower pH and high organic matter.
Before apprehending the mechanism of Cd accumulation in plants, one has to understand uptake and translocation of Cd inside plants. Ability of plants to take up Cd depends upon numerous factors like total Cd content in soil solution, soil reaction (pH), redox potential (Eh) and moisture content, soil organic carbon content, soil temperature, and last but not the least interaction among different elements. Primarily Cd enters plant through roots. Once in roots, Cd can get stored or exported to shoots through xylem. Cadmium is both xylem and phloem mobile [54, 74]. There are two possible mechanisms of Cd translocation into the plants and subsequently to the grains. These are: (i) Xylem mediated translocation to the sink i.e. grains (ii) Active transportation to various plant parts culm, rachis, flag leaves, external parts of the panicles and followed by phloem mediated mobilization to grains [90] and Schematic representation of Cd uptake and subsequent translocation in rice was shown in Figure 1. Root cell membrane located transporters take key role in Cd uptake in plants [91].
Schematic model of Cd uptake process from soil to grains in rice.
Cadmium uptake and accumulation in plants must undoubtedly be under control of multiple genes which contribute quantitatively in stage-specific, tissue-specific, environment-specific to Cd transport, accumulation and sequestration in plants [92]. In a study conducted by Hédiji et al. [72] on long term exposure of Cd on tomato (Solanumlycopersicum L.) concluded that, impact of Cd toxicity is highly dose specific and significantly correlated with soil nutrient status. Whereas, in higher dose severely affecting the plant growth and metabolism by altering the nutrient partitioning. Several genes are responsible to carry out these processes.
The impact of Cd toxicity in plants is still a closed book thing but, recent advances in plant physiological studies helped the researchers to answer the questions. Clemens [54] reported that the major influence on Cd toxicity in plants is nutrient imbalance by regulating the normal work of transporters peculiarly in fruit plants. For instance, the concentration of K, Zn, and Fe in developing fruits falls off drastically at the expense of Ca and Mg. The antagonistic relationship between Cd and K is well documented like sub-optimal K concentration in the pericarp which disrupts the normal bio-chemical cycles like bio-synthesis of protein, enzymatic activity and membrane bound activities such as sustaining cellular turgidity [54].
According to International Agency for Research on Cancer, Cd is highly inimical and labeled as class-I carcinogenic compound to mammalian health. Cadmium may not be toxic to the plants that accumulate it, yet are toxic to animals and humans feeding upon it. Cadmium makes it entry to human body either from food, water or breath and a little amount enters through skin. Majority of Cd entering to human body is either breathed out or excreted in feces, whereas only one-quarter of it gets into human body through breath and one-twentieth from food. People working in industries that release Cd are more prone to get affected by Cd toxicity because they might breath, eat or drink Cd in air, food or water. Cadmium with biological half-life of 10–30 years, generally gets accumulated in kidneys and liver and slowly leaves human body through urine or feces [93, 94]. Researches around the world indicate that daily cadmium intake from all sources is very low in case of general population which range between 10 and 25 μgday−1, however the tolerable daily intake established by WHO is 60 and 70 10–25 μg day−1 respectively, for adult women and men.
Human health due to Cd is an emerging issue and needs urgent attentions [52]. During the process, 10–50% of the cadmium dust is consumed according to the particle size. Digestion is higher for people that have an iron, calcium or zinc deficiency. The main source of human cadmium toxicity is considered to be tobacco smoking other than industrial exposures and food habit [95, 96, 97, 98]. Cd toxicity is developing gradually in the human body and eventually causes different negative health effects, particularly bone loss and nephron toxicity.
Cd is passed across the body after assimilation, usually linked with a bunch of sulfhydryl containing protein such as metalllothionine. Typically 30% stores in liver and kidney; the remaining spread across the body, with an independence half-life about a quarter of a century [99]. Blood, hair and urine Cd levels are indicator of potential toxicity but, to get the actual toxicity level urine stimulation test with the subjects body weight is highly important [100].
As previously mentioned, Cd induced epigenetic changes in DNA articulation by oxidative pressure, impediments or guidance for transport pathways particularly in the kidney [98] (Figure 2). Extreme impedance to the physiological function of Zn or Mg is introduced by other pathological mechanisms [99]. Restriction of the heme and the weakening of mitochondrial work which is likely to cause apoptosis [47]. Glutathione explosion has been found alongside the auxiliary protein contortion attributable to the official Cd in sulfhydryl bunches [100]. Cooperation with other hazardous metals, such as lead (Pb) and arsenis (As) hastens these impacts [101, 102].
Mechanisms of cadmium toxicity in humans.
The major site of Cd toxicity is kidney where a fragment S1 of the proximal tubule is a majorly targeted and disruption in mitochondrial protein synthesis due reabsorption of glucose, bicarbonate and phosphate clinically known as Fanconi disorder [76, 103]. Cadmium can also inhibit the digestion of vitamin D in the kidneys with progressively rises of issues like osteomalacia, osteoporosis, renal-around broking and calcium malabsorption [103, 105]. Cadmium has multiple deleterious effects on the cardiovascular framework like adverse impact on vascular endothelium consistency [95, 106]. Cd links to sudden coronary death marginal blood vessel dysfunction, increased intima media thickness and scattered myocardial necrosis [64, 107]. In comparison, low-recurrence listening was substantially decreased by people with elevated urinary Cd levels [108]. In comparison, high-urinary Cd rates have decreased cognitive power. Cadmium is assumed to be the carcinogenic agent Class B1 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency [46]. Conflicting research links Cd adoption and denies bosom malignant development [88, 94, 109]. Cd was associated to pancreas and lymphoma cell disturbance [88]. Vegetables developed in Cd-defiled soils can possibly cause toxicological issues in people particularly in developing women [110]. A few different components like low admission of Ca, vitamin D, and minor components, for example, Cu and Zn can build this sum. Thus, daily entry of Cd by Cd is exceptional due to the fusion of Cd in diets and the human dietary propensities. The mean daily use of Cd (DICd) uses the following formula as a general basis:
DICd symbolizes daily intake of Cd, CCdCofactor, intake of Dfood and Waverage weight are Cd fixations in vegetables, transition factor (new weight to dry weight), and human consumption of vegetables every day and regular body weight respectively. Table 2 describes the DICd figures given in different countries by the use of Cd-sullied vegetables. The number of inhabitants in the Netherlands unmistakably ingests the most notable Cd from the available information through defiled vegetables, followed by France and USA. The introduced data shows that the use of Cd contaminated nourishments is a significant implementation course. In these lines, in order to avoid harmful health consequences, the intake of infected vegetables should be reduced to the fullest degree possible. Different remediation steps can also be introduced in infected soil to carry the Cd concentration to a reasonable amount. In contrast, DICd’s principles are based on a few experiments worldwide. To describe incidents and potential dangers more thoroughly, further studies are needed. Furthermore, day-to-day vegetable intake, eating patterns, general status and the overall body weight of a person should be taken into account. Cadmium (Cd) is a toxicity ia result of long term exposure and “itai-itai” infection in Japan during 1950’s is an eye opening instance. Arrangement of rules and rules has been created in numerous nations and worldwide associations to manage the examination on wellbeing impact of Cd contamination [111].
According to EPA, bioremediation can be defined as “technique which uses naturally occurring microorganisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non-toxic substances [111].”
Phytoremediation: Phytoremediation is an eco-friendly option for rejuvenating contaminated site using plants and microbes. Plants suitable for phytoremediation techniques must have important characters like high above ground biomass with vigorous growth, proliferated root system and metal accumulating characters [114].
Phytoextraction: Phytoextraction can be described as a metal extracting character by plant roots and subsequently plants are subjected to burial in some other place or incineration. Taxonomically plants species which are excellent metal extractor’s belongs to families like Scrophulariaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Brassicaceae. However, plant species like Celosia argentea L. [115], Salix mucronata L. [61], Cassia alata L. [116], Solanummelonaena L., Momordicacharantia L. [117], Kummerowiastriata L. [118], and Swieteniamacrophylla L. [65], may be used as potential plant choices to increase the process of Cd phytoextraction. Moreover, a sub-division of phytoextraction, known as chelate-assisted phytoextraction, is also used as a possible solution for metals that have no hyperaccumulator species using EDTA or citric acid [66, 119].
Microbe’s works in both active and passive mode and microbial species like bacteria, fungi and alage can be used as a potential option for eco-friendly remediation techniques [93]. Bacteria’s are very effective for cleaning contaminated site due to its unique metabolic characters and tolerance to harsh conditions [120]. Several heavy metals have been tested using bacteria species like Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Bacillus, and Micrococcussp. Their great bio-sorption ability is due to high surface-to-volume ratios and the potential active chemosorption sites (teichoic acid) on the cell wall [121]. Abioye and his coworkers [122] reported successful use of bacterial species like Bacillus subtilis L., B. megaterium L., Aspergillusniger L., and Penicilliumsp. for revive soils contaminated with lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). Fungal species like Coprinopsisatramentariais L. can bio accumulate more than 75% of Cd of the contaminated site by 1 mg L−1 [123]. Goher and his co-authors [68] reported cleaning of Cd- contaminated site using dead algal cells of ChlorellavulgarisL.
This present chapter summarizes the various sources of Cd in environment and its toxic effects on plant and human being as well as suggested some approaches of bioremediation to mitigate the Cd pollution from environment. Anthropogenic activities are the key pathway to contaminate the environment with Cd which ultimately accumulated in various leafy vegetables and food grains. Consumption of this high Cd containing food causes several toxic symptoms in human being and leads to malfunctioning of multiple human organs. To reduce the Cd accumulation in food grain various amelioration strategies has been adopted among them use of microbes to decrease Cd uptake by plants seems to have great prospective. Moreover, some microbes may increase amounts of Cd due to their biochemical processes, and their implementation may also worsen problems with soil pollution. Use It is also suggested to characterize the microbes and tested them in laboratory and field condition prior to their use in agricultural soils, thus maintaining soil quality and food safety.
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