Malaysia GHGs inventory for 2011.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83969-663-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-662-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-664-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a62aa90a2efdd776add46a44462341e2",bookSignature:"MSc. Angello Retamal-Díaz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11017.jpg",keywords:"MicroRNA, Primary Infection, Latency, Reactivation, Innate Immunity, Adaptive Immunity, CNS Inflammation, Vaccine, Drug Rational Design, Antiviral Resistant Viruses, HSV-1 Vectors, Gene Therapy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 5th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 24th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Retamal-Díaz is a young scientist working in the field of virus-host interaction and has received the Best Doctoral Thesis Award 2019 at the Chilean Society for Microbiology (SOMICH) about Herpes simplex virus and Dendritic cells. He is an activist for scientific outreach and technology assessment of public policies. He is a member of the American Society for Microbiology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"183530",title:"MSc.",name:"Angello",middleName:null,surname:"Retamal-Díaz",slug:"angello-retamal-diaz",fullName:"Angello Retamal-Díaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/183530/images/system/183530.jpg",biography:'Dr. Angello Retamal-Díaz is a Biochemist from the Universidad de Concepción, Chile, and a Ph.D. in Molecular Genetics and Microbiology from the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. After his PhD, he performed post-doctorate, at the Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy (Federation of Clinical Immunology Societies, FOCiS Center of Excellence) in association with the Health Command of the Chilean Army.\nHe is currently Associated Professor in the Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Ocean Sciences and Biological Sources, Universidad de Antofagasta, Chile. Dr. Retamal is a young researcher, he has won the prize for the best doctoral thesis at the Chilean Society for Microbiology. He has also been awarded by several prestigious institutions in Chile, as the Ministry of Economy, Chilean Government, and Daily “El Sur” gave him the award to "Leaders 2009: 50 Young people for the bicentennial". \nHis research focuses on the host-pathogen interaction, particularly at molecular level, in the immune response against infectious agents, as well as vaccine and antiviral design. He has published articles in the Microbiology, Virology and Immunology fields and has contributed to the community has given numerous outreach conferences and has published the first Technology Assessment document from the Millennium Scientific Initiative to the Chilean Congress.',institutionString:"University of Antofagasta",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Antofagasta",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67520",title:"Environmental Impact Evaluation of Rubber Cultivation and Industry in Malaysia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84420",slug:"environmental-impact-evaluation-of-rubber-cultivation-and-industry-in-malaysia",body:'\nThe history of rubber cultivation in Malaya started in the late 1877 when nine seedlings from a batch of about 2700 germinated seeds at Kew Botanic Gardens near London were dispatched and planted in Kuala Kangsar, Perak [1]. Since the first rubber plantation in Malaya was established in 1896, the rubber industry has grown tremendously into the present Malaysia. There were 218,900 hectares of rubber planted area in Malaya in 1910 [1] as compared to 1.066 million hectares of rubber planted area in Malaysia in 2014 [2].
\nOver the last 10 years, contribution of Malaysian rubber industry to Malaysia export earnings has increased significantly from RM 15.5 billion in 2003 to RM 33.7 billion in 2013 [3]. Malaysia has become the world fifth largest producer of natural rubber with the production of 0.67 million tons in 2014 [2]. Due to its importance, Malaysian rubber industry is included in Malaysia National Key Economic Area (NKEA) [4]. Malaysia National Key Economic Area (NKEA) is an important driver of economic activities that has a potential to directly contribute to Malaysian Economic Growth measurable by Gross National Income (GNI) indicator and will assist Malaysia in achieving a high income status by 2020 [4].
\nMalaysian rubber industry has always been regarded as an environmentally sustainable industry. Rubber trees play an important role as a carbon dioxide sequester from the atmosphere at a rate comparable to if not better than the natural forest [5]. After the process of falling down, rubber trees are converted into renewable rubber wood for furniture based industry. The term renewable or environmentally friendly associated with the rubber wood arises from the fact that the rubber wood represents a relatively sustainable alternative as compared to the tropical woods extracted from natural forest [6].
\nAs one of the Malaysian industries that contribute significantly to the economic development of the country, the Malaysian rubber industry also generated a significant amount of waste [7]. These wastes are subjected to various regulations under the Malaysian Environmental Quality Act 1974. The open burning of rubber plantation wastes in the form of rubber tree stumps after land clearing are governed under the Environmental Quality (clean air) Regulations 1978 Part III (burning of wastes). The practice of open burning is only allowed for specific cases after obtaining special permission from Department of Environment Malaysia (DOE) [8].
\nThe Malaysian government also gazettes the Environmental Quality (prescribed premises) of Raw Natural Rubber Regulations (1978) in making sure that all the raw effluents from the raw rubber processing activities in Malaysia are treated and meet the legal discharge standard before they are allowed to be discharged into the watercourse. The rubber products manufacturing factories in Malaysia are subjected to Environmental Quality (sewage and industrial wastes) Regulations (1979) and Environmental Quality (scheduled waste) Regulations (1989) [9].
\nClimate is an integral part of environment and climate change in more ways than one is a measure of abuse and mismanagement of this environment through time [10]. According to [11], human influence on the climate change is clear and the more we disrupt our climate, the more we risk severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts on human and natural system.
\nMalaysia has developed two policies which are The National Policy on Climate Change and the National Green Technology Policy to collectively guide the nation towards addressing climate change holistically, ensuring climate-resilient development, developing a low carbon economy and promoting green technologies [12]. Moreover, low carbon economy is one of the key initiatives proposed by the Malaysian government in the fight against the issue of global warming and climate change [13].
\nOn 13 July 1994, Malaysia has ratified the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol on 4 September 2002 [14]. As part of the obligations under Article 4 of the UNFCCC, the Government of Malaysia submitted its Initial National Communication in July 2000 and the Second National Communication was submitted in January 2011 [15, 10]. Malaysia greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission for the year 2011 was 290.230 million tons CO2eq and the removal was 262.946 million tons CO2eq with a net sink of 27.284 million tons CO2eq (Table 1).
\nSector | \nEmissions (million tons CO2eq) | \nSink (million tons CO2eq) | \n
---|---|---|
Energy | \n218.914 | \n\n |
Industrial processes | \n18.166 | \n\n |
Agriculture | \n15.775 | \n\n |
Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) | \n2.490 | \n−262.946 | \n
Waste | \n34.885 | \n\n |
Total | \n290.230 | \n−262.946 | \n
Net total (after subtracting sink) | \n−27.284 | \n\n |
Malaysia emissions per gross domestic product (GDP) for the year 2000 were 0.62 t CO2eq/thousand RM [12]. Malaysia’s commitment to address the GHGs emission in the context of sustainable development was announced by the Prime Minister during the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to the UNFCCC on 17th December 2009 [15, 16]. At the COP 15, the Prime Minister had announced Malaysia’s voluntary reduction which was up to 40% in terms of carbon emission intensity of GDP by the year 2020 compared to year 2005 conditional on receiving the transfer of technology and finance support from developed countries [15].
\nLife cycle analysis (LCA) methodology is relatively a new approach in Malaysia. Majority of the LCA studies in Malaysia at present are conducted to highlight the environmental sustainability of the oil palm industry. The LCA studies on the oil palm industry in Malaysia covered all the sectors within the industry starting from the planting material production up to the biodiesel and other oil palm based products.
\nAll the LCA studies from the oil palm industry in Malaysia have one common objective which is to dispel the misinterpretation of the oil palm industry as a very unsustainable industry by international non-governmental organization.
\nLife cycle analysis (LCA) methodology is the most relevant environmental management tool to measure the environmental impact and quantify the greenhouse gas emission from the Malaysian rubber industry. The LCA study conducted for the Malaysian rubber industry will definitely be a very useful source to identify the environmental hotspots in the Malaysian rubber industry and help in solving solutions to diminish these hotspots for the betterment of the Malaysian rubber industry.
\nBased on the findings of the LCA study from the Malaysian rubber industry, certain recommendations, policy or standard operating procedures may be introduced by Malaysian Rubber Board (MRB). The findings from the LCA study for Malaysian rubber industry will also be very beneficial for decision makers across the whole chain of the Malaysian rubber industry.
\nAccording to [17], there was an earlier LCA study for the production of natural rubber latex concentrate and skim block rubber in North Sumatera, Indonesia involving two latex concentrate factories. The objectives of the study by [17] is not only confined to produce life cycle inventories and environmental impact data from the life cycle impact assessment stage, but the objective was further expanded to include the assessment on the level of eco-efficiency for the production of natural rubber latex concentrate and skim block rubber by utilizing the values obtain from the life cycle impact assessment analysis based on Eco-Indicator 99 methodology [17]. However, this LCA study for the Malaysian rubber industry is the first study of its kind carried out in Malaysia.
\nConducting LCA study for the natural rubber cup lump production and SMR block rubber production is the right step towards providing support to the Malaysian SMR block rubber industry. This may contribute more details and transparent information regarding the environmental impacts and the GHGs emission in the production of Standard Malaysian Rubber (SMR) block rubber from cradle to gate approach. The information from this study on LCA for the production of SMR block rubber will be very valuable for the international tires manufacturers especially in Europe to incorporate it as the verified background data in their LCA study for the tire production from cradle to grave approach.
\nThe detailed information on the GHGs emissions from the LCA study for the production of SMR block rubber will also be very useful in assisting the Malaysian based rubber products to get certified by the newly launched Standard and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM) Environmental Declaration Carbon Footprint Type III. The SIRIM Environmental Declaration Carbon Footprint Type III is part of the MyHIJAU Mark and is eligible for Malaysian Government Green Procurement Program.
\nIn short, it is timely that the GHGs emission related to the Malaysian rubber industry is properly studied and documented extensively for the benefits of the Malaysian rubber industry and Malaysia as whole. The results from the quantification of GHGs emission work for the Malaysian rubber industry using LCA approach will notably help in filling the information gap as described above. The results from this LCA study on the GHGs emission for the Malaysian rubber industry can also be used to project the environmental sustainability of the rubber planting activities in Malaysia as compared to other two major crops in Malaysia which are planting of oil palm and paddy cultivation.
\nClimate change is summarized by [18] as the extraordinary warming of the earth from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The current anthropogenic emission of GHGs is the highest in history and is driven largely by human activities through infrastructure development, industries, agriculture and motor vehicles [10, 11]. The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide at present are unprecedented at least for the last 800,000 years [11]. According to Van der et al. in [19], it is estimated that 12–15% of the global anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions is originated from the deforestation and forest degradation.
\nClimate change is more than just a warming trend as the increasing temperature through continued emission of GHGs will cause further warming and long lasting changes in all components of the climate system [10, 11]. The consequences of the climate change are likely to be harmful to humans and natural environment in the form of changes in major wind patterns, amount and intensity of precipitation and increased frequency of severe storms and weather extremes [18, 10].
\nAgriculture industry would be the most affected sectors of climate changes as compared to other economic sectors since it has a strong linkage and dependence on the climate and the environmental factors as suggested in [20]. Rise of temperature, changes in sowing and harvesting dates, water availability and rainfall patterns are among climatic factors that can influence the agricultural productivity [21]. Baharuddin stated in [20] that an increase in rainfall is prejudicial for rubber plantations which suffer losses in the form of loss of tapping days and crop washouts.
\nThe main goal of the study is to provide comprehensive inventories, detailed quantification of the environmental impact and GHGs emission for the cultivation of rubber tree from cradle to grave in Malaysia. Therefore, this study is required to quantify the GHGs emission and recommended strategies for improvement based on the individual Life cycle inventory (LCI) for the cultivation of rubber trees from cradle to grave. The environmental impacts and hotspots identification for the study was carried out using SimaPro software version 7.3.3 developed by Pre Consultants B.V. Eco-indicator 99 was selected as the impact assessment methodology.
\nFor this study, the survey only represents the rubber smallholders under the supervision of rubber related agencies in Malaysia. Individual rubber smallholders are excluded from this survey as there are great difficulties in getting verified information from this group of rubber smallholders on their agronomic practices as these smallholders normally did not have any proper written record on their agronomic practices and few of them are even illiterate. Amongst the main three government agencies in Malaysia which are responsible in supervising and managing the small plot of rubber planted area owned by the rubber smallholders, only The Federal Land and Development Authority (FELDA) and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA) agreed to take part in this study while Rubber Industry Smallholders’ Development Authority (RISDA) did not allow this study to be conducted in the rubber planting areas owned by the rubber smallholders under their supervision. Based on the discussion with FELDA and FELCRA management and supported by [22, 23] data, there are 21 FELDA schemes and 274 FELCRA projects that are currently in the mature rubber stage in Peninsular Malaysia.
\nLife cycle assessment (LCA) is an environmental management tool that enables quantification of environmental burdens and their potential impacts over the whole life cycle of a product, process or activity [24]. Primarily, LCA has been introduced in product manufacturing for the purpose of tracing direct impacts and impacts associated with a product throughout the entire life cycle from cradle to grave for the purpose of getting a holistic overview of the environmental burden associated with the products [25].
\nThere are four phases in LCA studies namely goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpretation. The relationship between the phases is illustrated in Figure 1.
\nStages of LCA.
This is the first phase of any LCA study and according to [26], the goal must clearly mention the intended application, the reasons for carrying out the study and the intended audience. The scope of any LCA study should be sufficiently well defined to ensure that the breadth, depth and the details in which the study is conducted are both compatible and sufficient to address the stated goals [26]. The functional unit, system boundary, allocation procedures, assumptions and limitation are parts of the scope.
\nThe Life cycle inventory (LCI) phase is the second phase of any LCA study. Inventory analysis involves data collection and calculation procedures within the system boundary for inclusion in the inventory as relevant inputs and outputs of a product system [26, 27]. According to [28], LCI can be defined as an objective, data-based process of quantifying energy and raw materials requirements, air emissions, waterborne effluents, solid waste, and other environmental releases incurred throughout the life cycle of a product, process, or activity.
\nAll calculation procedures in the inventory analysis for any LCA study must be transparently documented and the assumptions used must be clearly stated and explain [27]. Generally, there are two types of inventory data, i.e., the foreground data that have to be collected independently according to the purpose of carrying out LCA analysis and the background data which are usually collected from literatures and software [29]. Data validity check must be conducted during the process of data collection for inventory analysis to make sure that the data quality requirements have been fulfilled [27]. For the data collected from public sources, the sources must be referenced [27].
\nThe Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase is the third phase of LCA and its purpose is to evaluate the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI results [26]. The LCIA phase is important in providing the information for the life cycle interpretation phase [26].
\nThe total GHGs emission value in maintaining the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for a year for this study is 1.08 kgCO2eq as shown in Figure 2 and Table 3. The highest contributor which represented 51.6% from the total GHGs emission value in maintaining the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for a year is the emission of nitrous oxide from the usage of ammonium sulfate at 5.60E−01 kgCO2eq (Figure 2).
\nGHGs emissions in maintaining the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for a year.
While the second highest contributor to the total GHGs emission value in maintaining the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for a year is ammonium production with the percentage of 22.4%. Meanwhile, glyphosate production was recorded as the third highest contribution at 17.7% (Figure 2). The remaining three processes are considered as insignificant contributors towards the total value of GHGs emission to maintain the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for a year (Figure 2).
\nFigure 2 obviously showed that the reduction in the usage of ammonium sulfate and glyphosate will definitely reduce the total GHGs emission value in maintaining the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for a year. This can be achieved through the reduction in the immaturity rubber stage period and through incorporating the manual weeding method in weed management.
\nThe GHGs emission value in maintaining the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for 6 years duration during the immature rubber stage is 6.51 kgCO2eq and this represent 14.6% from the total value of GHGs emission for the cultivation of one rubber tree from cradle to gate of 44.68 kgCO2eq.
\nThe GHGs emission in maintaining the healthy growth of immature rubber trees in Malaysia per year which based on 0.379 million hectares of immature rubber area in Malaysia at the average stand of 410 rubber trees per hectare and with 51.8% of this area is fertilized at the recommended dosage is summarized in Table 2.
\n\n | Immature rubber stage (6 years) | \nAverage 1 year for immature rubber stage | \n
---|---|---|
GHGs emission (GgCO2eq) | \n524.69 | \n87.45 | \n
Percentage from Malaysia 2011 GHGs emission (%)* | \n0.18 | \n0.03 | \n
Percentage from agriculture sector in Malaysia 2011 GHGs emission (%)* | \n3.33 | \n0.55 | \n
GHGs emission to maintain the healthy growth of immature rubber trees in Malaysia.
Source: [16].
Based on Table 2, as compared to the Malaysian 2011 GHGs emission of 290,230 GgCO2eq in [30], the GHGs emission value from the perspective to maintain the healthy growth of immature rubber trees in Malaysia for 6 years, immature rubber stage and 1 year average for immature rubber stage is considered as insignificant.
\nThe GHGs emission value of 524.69 GgCO2eq with duration of 6 years for immature rubber stage in maintaining the healthy growth of immature rubber trees in Malaysia is very low and represent only 3.3% from the 2011 Malaysian agricultural sector GHGs emission of 15775.3 GgCO2eq (Table 2). The GHGs emission value of 87.45 GgCO2eq based on the average 1 year for immature rubber stage is considered as insignificant as compared to the GHGs emissions value from Malaysian agricultural sector in 2011 (Table 2).
\nTable 3 shows the list of GHGs emission and its corresponding values in contributing to the total GHGs emission value in maintaining the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for a year.
\nGHGs emission profile to maintain the healthy growth of one immature rubber tree for a year.
The total GHGs emission value for the production of 1 kg natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC) is 4.89E−02 kgCO2eq and its represent 0.11% from the total GHGs emission value for the cultivation of one rubber tree from cradle to grave (Figure 3).
\nGHGs emission values for the production of 1 kg natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC).
Figure 3 has clearly described that the trend from the GHGs emission for the production of 1 kg natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC) is basically identical to the GHGs emission for the cultivation of one rubber tree from cradle to grave.
\nThe application and production of ammonium sulfate are the two main processes responsible for 77.9% from the total GHGs emission value for the production of 1 kg natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC) (Figure 3). Potassium chloride production and glyphosate production recorded the contribution of 8.1 and 7.5% respectively while the remaining 13 processes are considered as minor contributors towards the total GHGs emission value for the production of 1 kg natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC) (Figure 3).
\nIt is found that in Malaysia, the GHGs emission from the production of 1,193,946 tons of natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC) is 58.4 3 GgCO2eq and this only represent 0.02% from the Malaysian 2011 GHGs emission of 290,230 GgCO2eq [30]. Based on this value, the contribution of the GHGs emission from the production of 1,193,946 tons of natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC) in Malaysia is considered as insignificant as compared to the Malaysian 2011 GHGs emission.
\nFigure 4 indicates that the total GHGs emission value for the production of 1 kg Standard Malaysian Rubber (SMR) block rubber from this study is 0.407 kgCO2eq.
\nGHGs emission values for the production of 1 kg Standard Malaysian Rubber (SMR) block rubber from cradle to gate.
Electricity generation, methane emission from the effluent treatment system, production of natural rubber cup lump from cradle to gate and transportation of raw material from the source to the Standard Malaysian Rubber (SMR) block rubber factories are the four key process contributors representing 95.9% from the total GHGs emission value in the production of 1 kg SMR block rubber from cradle to gate (Figure 4).
\nFrom Figure 4, it is noticeably reported that the reduction in the electricity consumption during the production of SMR block rubber, elimination in the methane mission from the effluent treatment system, reduction in the total GHGs emission from the production of natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC) from cradle to gate and the reduction of fossil fuels based usage in the transporting of raw material from the source to SMR block rubber factory will definitely scale down the total GHGs emission from the production of 1 kg SMR block rubber from cradle to gate.
\nThe GHGs emission from the production of SMR block rubber from cradle to gate had the potential to be reduced through the elimination of methane release from the effluent treatment system. The methane release from the treatment of SMR block rubber factory effluent can be eradicated through changing the current effluent treatment system of facultative/anaerobic ponding system to a fully aerobic system. At present, the methane emission from the effluent treatment plant in the block rubber factories are not subjected to any environmental regulations.
\nThe GHGs emission from the production of 562,967 tons of natural rubber cup lump based SMR block rubber in Malaysia is 229.41 GgCO2eq and this only represent 0.08% from the Malaysian total GHGs emission of 290,230 GgCO2eq in 2011 [30].
\nThe list of GHGs emission and its corresponding values in contributing to the total GHGs emission value for the production of 1 kg SMR block rubber from cradle to gate is shown in Table 4. Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are the three major GHGs that contribute 99.96% from the total GHGs emission value in the production of 1 kg SMR block rubber from cradle to gate (Table 4).
\nGHGs | \nWeight in kgCO2eq | \n
---|---|
Carbon dioxide | \n2.40E−01 | \n
Methane | \n1.18E−01 | \n
Nitrous oxide | \n4.90E−02 | \n
Methane, tetrafluoro-, CFC-14 | \n6.16E−05 | \n
Sulfur hexafluoride | \n4.18E−05 | \n
Methane, chlorodifluoro-, HCFC-22 | \n2.25E−05 | \n
Ethane, hexafluoro-, HFC-116 | \n1.30E−05 | \n
Methane, bromotrifluoro-, Halon 1301 | \n9.13E−06 | \n
Methane, bromochlorodifluoro-, Halon 1211 | \n6.92E−06 | \n
Ethane, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoro-, HFC-134a | \n4.39E−06 | \n
Methane, tetrachloro-, CFC-10 | \n3.75E−06 | \n
Ethane, 1,2-dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoro-, CFC-114 | \n2.24E−06 | \n
Methane, dichlorodifluoro-, CFC-12 | \n7.84E−07 | \n
Methane, trichlorofluoro-, CFC-11 | \n3.39E−07 | \n
Methane, chlorotrifluoro-, CFC-13 | \n1.39E−07 | \n
Methane, trifluoro-, HFC-23 | \n6.21E−08 | \n
Ethane, 1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoro-, CFC-113 | \n1.23E−08 | \n
Methane, dichloro-, HCC-30 | \n1.09E−08 | \n
Ethane, 1,1-difluoro-, HFC-152a | \n1.37E−09 | \n
Chloroform | \n1.31E−09 | \n
Methane, monochloro-, R-40 | \n1.68E−11 | \n
Ethane, 1,1,1-trichloro-, HCFC-140 | \n6.50E−12 | \n
Methane, dichlorofluoro-, HCFC-21 | \n1.99E−12 | \n
Methane, bromo-, Halon 1001 | \n2.84E−18 | \n
Total GHGs emission | \n0.407 | \n
GHGs emission profile for the production of 1 kg SMR block rubber from cradle to gate.
The GHGs emission from the production of natural rubber cup lump (56% DRC) in Malaysia for the average period of 1 year for cradle to gate is 58.43 GgCO2eq and it represents 18.5% from the total GHGs emission for the cultivation of rubber trees from cradle to grave based on average 1 year perspective.
\nIn summary, with the implement of Life cycle analysis (LCA) methodology for the Malaysian rubber industry in this study, it can be concluded that the reduction in the utilization of ammonium sulfate fertilizer to its optimum level has the potential to reduce the GHGs emission for the cultivation of rubber trees in Malaysia from cradle to grave perspective. Meanwhile, the reduction in the immaturity rubber stage period and incorporating of manual weeding method in the weed management have the potential to reduce the GHGs emission for the production of mature rubber trees for gate to gate boundary in Malaysia.
\nThe GHGs emission from the production of SMR block rubber in Malaysia for the average period of 1 year for cradle to gate boundary have the potential to be reduce through increasing the supply of local natural rubber and making sure the natural rubbers are free or have a very minimum amount of contaminants. The GHGs emission from the production SMR block rubber in Malaysia for the average period of 1 year for cradle to gate boundary also has the potential to be reduce through replacing the current effluent treatment system to a fully aerobic system. This study is hoped to be a part of the continuous effort in meeting sustainability goal in the Malaysian rubber industry and stringent environmental market regulations worldwide.
\nThis author wishes to extend sincere gratitude to University of Malaya, Malaysian Rubber Board, for their support and other stakeholders as well as government agencies for their cooperation. The University of Malaya Research Grant (UMRG) (RPG23A-16SUS) also was acknowledged.
\nPrematurity is a significant risk factor for survival of the neonate and is related to increased perinatal mortality and morbidity. Current minimal age of viability is considered to be 22–23 weeks’ gestation with dispersed reports of survival earlier than this estimated gestational age (GA) [1].
Extremely low birth weight infants (ELBW) are defined by birth weight of less than 1000 g; also, are the youngest premature newborns typically born at 27 weeks’ gestation or younger [1].
Attention has turned to the improvement of the intact survival rate of extremely low birth weight infants (ELBW), particularly of those born at the boundaries of current perinatal medicine. Survival rates to hospital discharge of above 80% have been reported in Canada, USA and Japan for the 25 GW [2, 3, 4]. Developed centers report on increase survival rates also for infants born at 23–24 GW [4] with significant variability in survival observed in resource limited centers [5, 6]. Factors found to be significantly positively correlated with improved survival and outcome of ELBW infants were: older gestational age [1, 5, 6], higher birth weight [1, 5, 6, 7], female gender [7], singleton birth [7], antenatal steroid use [1, 6, 7, 8], Apgar score at 5 min [1] and delivery by cesarean section (CS) [1, 6]. On the other hand, vaginal delivery in non-vertex presentation [1, 9, 10] placental abruption [1] and the existence of fetal growth restriction [11] have been recognized as adverse factors. Reports highlight birth weights of >750 g in association with better survival [1, 6, 12]. In our previous study, not only that we found a strong positive correlation of higher birth weights with survival, but also of broader head circumferences; the median head circumference was 2.5 cm larger for the survivors [12]. Apgar scores’ median value 5 at the first minute were significantly positively associated with favorable outcome [12]. A significant correlation of caesarean section delivery with the outcome has been observed in studies [1, 6, 12], with a higher share of emergency cesarean sections in survivors [12] pointing out that CS is indeed a protective mode of delivery. However, indication of CS in pregnancies of less than 24 weeks is a matter of inclusive worldwide debate. To reach a conclusion, a nationwide survey is needed.
Although the mortality rate has significantly diminished with improved neonatal technologies, use of exogenous surfactant preparations and better understanding of pathophysiology of ELBW infants, the proportion of surviving infants without sequelae, such as chronic lung disease, cognitive delays, cerebral palsy and neurosensory deficits has not improved as noticeably [13, 14].
ELBW infants are particularly prone to heat loss immediately after birth due to high body surface area to weight ratio, thin skin, decreased brown fat tissue and decreased glycogen supply. Studies have found significant association of hypothermia to in-hospital mortality, respiratory distress syndrome, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), and intraventricular hemorrhage in low birth weight/preterm infants [15, 16]. A retrospective observational study performed at 29 Canadian Neonatal Networks’ neonatal intensive care units encompassing 9833 infants born at <33 weeks’ gestation showed U-shaped relationship between admission temperatures and adverse neonatal outcomes. Lowest rates of adverse outcomes have been associated with admission temperatures between 36.5 °C and 37.2 °C [15]. Thermal management is crucial for survival of the ELBW infants and includes interventions such as drying, heating under a radiant warmer, placing a hat on the head and plastic film over the body [16, 17]. Frequent monitoring of temperature should be done to avoid iatrogenic hyperthermia, especially when applying multiple interventions simultaneously (e.g. plastic bags + thermal mattresses) [16].
Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) caused by surfactant deficiency is an early complication of extreme prematurity. Surfactant deficiency causes decreased pulmonary compliance, alveolar hypotension, and an imbalance between pulmonary ventilation and perfusion [17, 18]. Clinically marked by tachypnea, chest retractions, nasal flaring, cyanosis and grunting, this condition usually progresses to hypoventilation, hypoxemia and respiratory acidosis [17, 18]. RDS was recorded in 80% of babies born at 28 weeks’ gestation and in 90% of those born at 24 weeks’ gestation according to Vermont Oxford Network data during 2017 [18]. Common complications of RDS comprise air leak syndromes, bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Animal and synthetic surfactants have been widely used for the treatment of RDS which resulted with significant reduction in mortality. Also, a shift in practice has been noted towards non-invasive ventilation techniques such as continuous positive airway pressure CPAP [19]. Recent large trials showed a lower risk of chronic lung disease or death from early stabilization on CPAP with selective surfactant administration [20]. However, infants born at 23–24 weeks’ gestation, may continue to have high need for intubation during initial stabilization.
The INSURE technique (Intubate-Surfactant-Extubate) for surfactant administration involves giving surfactant through an endotracheal tube while administering positive pressure inhalations, often with premedication. This method has been used since 1994 and efficacy has been replicated in many studies [21, 22]. LISA (Less Invasive Surfactant Administration) on the other hand, is a preferred new method that involves administering surfactant via a small intratracheal catheter, with the baby breathing spontaneously on CPAP or NIPPV support, without sedation [23, 24]. However, a recent study raised concerns over relatively low success rate of the first LISA attempt, often inadequate technical performance quality and recurrent desaturations [24].
Following the increasing use of CPAP, other non-invasive ventilation methods have been subjected to research, mostly nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NiPPV) [25] and high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC). Trials have failed to show difference in rates of death and BPD when NiPPV was compared to CPAP [26, 27]. HFNC has been considered as an alternative non-invasive mode for post-extubating support [28]. Current mechanical ventilation (MV) tactics include shortening of duration of MV and the use of targeted volume ventilation (VT). VT results in shorter ventilation-time, fewer air-leaks and less BPD [17].
Up to 80% of ELBW infants have a clinically significant patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). As a consequence of the left-to-right systemic to pulmonary shunting various symptoms may appear, most notably, systolic murmur, hypotension, bounding pulses, decreased urine output, pulmonary hyperemia and edema, as well as and reduced mesenteric and cerebral perfusion [29]. Contrary to term newborn who exhibit spontaneous ductus closure in 90% at 48 hours, it occurs in only 30 to 35% of infants with BW < 1000 grams during the neonatal period [29].
The diagnosis is set by echocardiography, also Doppler ultrasound of the cerebral blood vessels in search for signs of diminished perfusion. Ideal management of the PDA in premature infants is still a topic of debate, despite more than three decades of active study [29, 30]. Indomethacin was the conventional drug of choice for ductus closure, but concerns regarding its negative effects on cerebral, renal and gastrointestinal perfusion have led to investigation of other agents such as ibuprofen [30]. A 2020 Cochrane review concluded equal effectiveness of ibuprofen and indomethacin in closing a PDA. However, in the light more favorable safety profile, ibuprofen was highlighted the drug of choice with an equal effectiveness of orogastric and intravenous administration [31]. Oral paracetamol was also supported by clinical studies as equally potent drug for ductus closure [32]. Surgical ligation should only be considered in the light of failed medicaments’ treatment [17].
Blood pressure (BP) of preterm newborns is marked with wide range of observed values for every GA. It is generally accepted that lower BP values are seen with decreasing gestational age and birth weight. Usually, mean arterial blood pressure corresponds to the gestational age, but this relationship is less clear for the extremely premature infants [33]. The variations in BP are related to dynamic changes in physiology during neonatal transition and various disease processes in this group of patients. It has not been proven that institution of any kind of anti-hypotensive therapy, fluid bolus or dopamine could significantly influence the rise of BP 4–24 hours after birth. Therefore, it has been suggested not to rely on a single numerical BP cutoff value for predicting infants that could benefit from anti-hypotensive treatments [33].
Recent randomized controlled trial could not show differences in hemodynamic parameters, amplitude integrated EEG variables, clinical complications or brain ultrasound findings between groups of active, moderate or permissive BP treatment of patients ≤29 GW [34]. The last composite guideline for management of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome recommends treatment of hypotension when evidenced by signs of poor tissue perfusion such as oliguria or poor capillary return, rather than treating sole numerical values [17]. Dopamine has been found more efficient than dobutamine for treatment of systemic hypotension in preterm infants, while dobutamine and epinephrine could be opted for treatment of reduced ventricular function [35]. Hydrocortisone is an alternative medicament for treatment of hypotension in extremely preterm infants [36].
Hypovolemic shock should be managed by giving non-cross-matched O-Rhesus-negative blood or alternatively by administering an isotonic crystalloid solution; the proposed dose is 10–20 mL/kg [37]. Delayed cord clamping apart from expanding blood volume, was proven in clinical studies to yield multiple potential benefits for preterm infants such as improved neurodevelopmental outcomes, reduced blood transfusions, possible autologous transfusion of stem cells, and reduced incidence of intraventricular hemorrhage [38]. However, in infants who need immediate resuscitative measures, it is recommended that placental transfusion should be discontinued [37].
Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) is an extravasation of blood in the brain that originates from the subependymal germinal matrix and advances into the ventricular system, most frequently occurring in the first 3 days of life [39]. The classical grading system of the extent of cerebral bleeding includes 4 grades of hemorrhages: grade I - confined to the germinal matrix, grade II – progression to the lateral ventricle without ventricle dilatation, grade III – blood in the ventricle results in ventricular dilatation, grade IV – periventricular hemorrhagic infarction. Our study group reported an incidence of IVH in almost a third of the ELBW cohort [12]. An inverse relationship exists between the incidence and severity of IVH and gestational age; the lowermost gestations and weights are most heavily affected.
IVH has been recognized as one of the crucial morbidities in ELBW infants, with serious potential short-term sequelae in survivors such as hemorrhagic periventricular infarction, post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus or seizures, and in the long term, developmental delay, cerebral palsy, deafness, and blindness. [40]. A shift to milder forms of neurosensory impairment has been noted reflecting better practices in perinatal care [41]. Generally, a straightforward correlation exists between the IVH grade and its prognosis. However, close neurodevelopmental follow-up is also required for infants assigned to grades I and II IVH. Associations have been found between low-grade hemorrhages and reduced cortical volume at near term age [42]. Likewise, adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes for grades I and II IVH have been observed in follow up studies [41]. Forty four percent of ELBW children with grades III and IV intracranial hemorrhage present with disabling cerebral palsy (CP), and 45–85% of children with grade IV intracranial hemorrhage have mental retardation and CP at school age [43].
Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) is damage to the periventricular white matter developed as a result of perinatal adverse insults such as hypoxia, hypo or hyper-perfusion, hypocarbia and chorioamnionitis combined with the defective cerebral vascular autoregulation in preterm infants. The estimated incidence of PVL is 4–15% in ELBW babies. We demonstrated an incidence of 19% in our ELBW cohort [44]. While strong correlation has been observed between diffuse cystic PVL and cerebral palsy, the clinical correlates of diffuse white mater injuries and localized cysts are not so clear-cut and might be related to a spectrum of behavioral/cognitive deficits [43].
Preterm infants exhibit increased sensitivity to impaired renal function. This is due to enhanced kidney maturation, fewer functional nephrons and higher renal filtration rate [45]. Acute kidney injury (AKI) in preterm infants can cause long-lasting renal damage leading to chronic kidney disease in adulthood [46]. Extremely premature infants are prone to developing AKI in the first days of life. Serum creatinine levels reflect maternal levels immediately after birth. Serum creatinine then picks, reaches a plateau in the first days of life, and declines thereafter. ELBW infants with AKI showed reduced survival until 36 weeks of post-menstrual age (PMA) [45]. Fluid status monitoring is a paramount. It involves daily monitoring of electrolytes, body weight, diuresis, blood pressure and insensible water loss.
The ELBW infant is made up of 85% to 90% water, which is predominantly distributed in the extracellular space. During the first few postnatal days a weight loss of 10–20% is observed which is attributable to diuresis and can be intensified by iatrogenic causes such as radiant warmers or phototherapy. These developments in addition to the compromised renal function constitute a setting for frequent electrolyte abnormalities such as hypo/hypernatremia and hyperkalemia [47]. Disturbances of sodium are connected to the water flow and can either be presented with hypernatremia if significant amount of water is lost due to heating and phototherapy or with dilutional hyponatremia. Hyperkalemia, on the other hand, is a result of shifting from the intracellular to the extracellular compartment [47].
Early hypoglycemia is a frequent occurrence in ELBW infants because of limited liver glycogen stores and immature endocrine mechanisms of blood glucose’s control. In particular, ketogenesis and lipogenesis which lead to the production of alternative energy fuels, are limited for this group of patients, making them more dependent on glucose. Clinical conditions that are associated with hypoglycemia such as perinatal asphyxia, acidosis, sepsis and hypothermia are common [48]. Moreover, hypoglycemia in extremely preterm infants is rarely accompanied by symptoms typical for term counterparts such as jitteriness, lethargy, apnea or poor feeding.
Hyperglycemia is also observed in extremely premature infants and in those with intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR). This condition is usually the result of excessive glucose infusion rates, drug treatment by steroids or methylxanthines, or may reflect the immaturity of the regulatory mechanisms [48].
Early-onset neonatal infection (EOI), defined as one typically occurring in the first 72 hours of life, significantly contributes to the morbidity and mortality of ELBW infants with an estimated incidence of 26 per 1000 live ELBW births in US [49]. High index of suspicion of a possible intrauterine infection should be maintained in the presence of a premature birth. Current efforts are directed toward intrapartum antimicrobial prophylaxis and early neonatal infectious screening. Early-onset infection initiates with newborn’s colonization with bacteria from the maternal genital tract, most commonly group B streptococcus,
Late-onset sepsis (LOS) results from horizontal transmission of endogenous hospital flora and typically occurs after the first week of life. Frequent nosocomial pathogens are coagulase-negative staphylococci, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas species as well as methicillin-resistant
Neonatal infection in ELBW infants has been associated with poor neurodevelopmental and growth outcomes in early childhood according to results of a large-cohort follow-up study [14]. Symptoms of infection in preterm newborns often include: apnea, bradycardia and cyanosis, also lethargy and increased respiratory effort, symptoms being more pronounced with Gram-negative and fungal infections than with Gram-positive ones [49]. Treatment consists of first line therapy with ampicillin and gentamycin for EOI. If the mother’s vaginal swab was positive for a Gram-negative bacterium such as
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) was traditionally considered as oxygen and respirator-mediated injury related to prematurity. However, gentler ventilator techniques, prenatal corticosteroid therapy and treatment with surfactants have limited more severe lung injuries to infants of <1200 g BW and < 30 week’ gestation [52]. BPD traditionally defined as a need for supplemental oxygen or ventilator support at 36 weeks’ post menstrual age (PMA) occurs with an incidence of around 30% in ELBW infants [53].
In 2001, a new revised definition of BPD was devised by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) categorizing the disease severity as mild, moderate, or severe based solely on oxygen dependency level at <32 GW. Mild BPD was defined by breathing room air at 36 weeks post menstrual age or discharge, moderate BPD equaled breathing <30% oxygen, and severe corresponded to breathing >30% oxygen or receiving positive pressure ventilation at PMA of 36 weeks. Radiographic findings were not included in the new definitions due to inconsistent interpretations and deficient availability at certain ages [52].
Infants with BPD were found to have higher rates of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes and cognitive impairment in early childhood compared to those without BPD [53, 54]. At school age, children with BPD were recognized with growth impairment and academic difficulties [55]. Common rehospitalizations have been observed during the first 2 years of life, mostly as a consequence of respiratory illnesses including lower respiratory tract infections and RSV bronchiolitis [56]. RSV prophylaxis with palivizumab is included as standard care for BPD children in the first year of life.
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) represents interruption of the natural course of vascularization of the premature retina caused by oxygen exposure with consequent pathological compensation that results in abnormal neo-vascularization of the retina. Hence, prematurity and treatment with oxygen are the two main recognized risk factors for ROP.
Hyperoxia has been an enormous concern in the neonatal intensive care units, and the optimal oxygen saturation target ranges have been debated and explored in studies [57]. Results from several studies suggested possible harmful effect of oxygen saturation targets of 91–95%, on the contrary, lower target ranges of 85–89% resulted in increased mortality [57, 58]. Therefore, it has been recommended targeting saturations between 90 and 94% by setting alarm limits between 89 and 95%, though recognizing that ideal oxygen saturation targets are still unknown [17].
Variable incidence of retinopathy of prematurity has been reported in population-based studies due to variability in study designs and gestational ages of the included infants; reported incidences vary from 10–75% in different studies [59]. An incidence of 17.1% of severe ROP in the survivor’s subcategory was reported by our group. The average number of blood transfusions for this group was 7 [44].
Severe ROP is defined by a unilateral or bilateral stage 4 or 5 disease or disease requiring laser/anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) monoclonal antibody treatment, at least unilaterally. The timing of onset of ROP depends on both the gestational and the chronological age, whereas the diseases’ incidence and severity are inversely proportional to both birth weight and gestational age [59]. Apart from oxygen, suggested adverse impacts that might predispose to retinopathy of prematurity are intrauterine infection, hyperglycemia, neonatal infection, probably due to systemic inflammation, being born small for gestational age, and also repeated blood transfusions [59, 60].
Current joint recommendation of the relevant American expert societies outlines that indirect ophthalmoscopy screening for ROP should be commenced by 31 weeks PMA for infants born at 22–27 weeks and repeated in scheduled intervals thereafter. Also, all infants of <1500 g and < 30 weeks’ gestation, and at-risk infants >30 weeks’ gestation ought to be included in the ROP screening process [61].
Current treatment options include laser photocoagulation, intraocular injection of anti-VEGF treatment and vitrectomy. Parallel to the increased survival of the most immature infants, the number of survivors with severe ROP has also increased. However, blindness has become a rare consequence of the most severe disease cases. Infants with ROP exhibit other ophthalmological problems such as myopia, strabismus and astigmatism [59]. Apart from visual disturbances, ROP alone or in association with other problems of the premature infants can lead to neurodevelopmental difficulties and lower academic performances [54, 55].
Anemia of prematurity (AOP) is a condition specific to premature infants caused by a combination of physiologic reasons such as depleted iron stores, shorter life span of erythrocytes, immature erythropoietic response, vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies as well as rapid postnatal growth, combined with iatrogenic causes observed in frequent phlebotomies for laboratory studies. Treatment of anemia consists of transfusions with erythrocyte concentrates.
Early administration of erythropoietin in the first week of life has not proven to significantly reduce the need for blood transfusions, but instead increases the risk of severe ROP [62]. Positive association has been found between anemia in the first week of life and the number of required blood transfusions with ROP development [60]. The proposed mechanism of progressing ROP is the replacement of hemoglobin F with hemoglobin A during blood transfusion which sharply increases oxygen availability to the retina [63].
Recommended transfusion thresholds are the following: hemoglobin (Hb) 12 g/dL /hematocrit (HTC) 36% for severe cardiopulmonary disease, Hb 11 g/dL /HCT 30% when dependent on oxygen and Hb 7 g/dL/HCT 25% when clinically stable beyond 2 weeks of age [17]. To decrease the risk of transfusion-related infection, a single donors’ unit of packed red blood cells should be used, divided into several satellite bags to be used for the same patient for several weeks [64].
Other problems of the ELBW spectrum include: apnea of prematurity, gastrointestinal problems, feeding intolerance, hyperbilirubinemia, necrotizing enterocolitis, inguinal hernias, total parenteral nutrition-associated cholestatic jaundice as well as postnatal growth restriction [65].
The mortality rate of ELBW infants significantly diminished with improved technology and improved neonatal practices, however there are still many issues to be covered for optimal complete approach to these patients that would reduce not just the immediate, but also the long-term consequences. A multidisciplinary approach to treatment and follow up of these children is necessary, with special focus of the most sensitive areas of care such as neurodevelopmental, cognitive, auditory, visual, respiratory, speech and language, behavioral and emotional. Providing a family-centered care and structuring of appropriate data basis is necessary.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality. Throughout the world, we are seeing progress in attracting, retaining, and promoting women in STEMM. IntechOpen are certainly supporting this work globally by empowering all scientists and ensuring that women are encouraged and enabled to publish and take leading roles within the scientific community." Dr. Catrin Rutland, University of Nottingham, UK
",metaTitle:"Advantages of Publishing with IntechOpen",metaDescription:"We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. \n\n ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
\\n\\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\\n\\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\\n\\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
\\n\\nOur reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 146,150 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\\n\\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\\n\\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\\n\\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
\\n\\nInterested? Contact Ana Pantar (book.idea@intechopen.com) for more information.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
\n\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\n\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\n\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
\n\nOur reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 146,150 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\n\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\n\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\n\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
\n\nInterested? Contact Ana Pantar (book.idea@intechopen.com) for more information.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5816},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5281},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1754},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10511},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:906},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15913}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119061},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{"amp;sort":"dateEndThirdStepPublish",hasNoEditors:"0"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9667",title:"Neuroimmunology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9cf0e8203ce088c0b84add014fd8d382",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Robert Weissert",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9667.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"79343",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Weissert",slug:"robert-weissert",fullName:"Robert Weissert"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9816",title:"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"365bb9762ba33db2d07e677690af1772",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Salim Surani and Dr. Venkat Rajasurya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9816.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15654",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim",surname:"Surani",slug:"salim-surani",fullName:"Salim Surani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10218",title:"Flagellar Motility in Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcc15570365a82d9f2c4816f4e0ee2e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10218.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10223",title:"Obesity and Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c202a2b74cd9a2c44b1c385f103ac65d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Venketeshwer Rao and Dr. Leticia Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10223.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10343",title:"Ocular Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0ff71cc7e0d9f394f41162c0c825588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10343.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10370",title:"Advances in Fundamental and Applied Research on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f16232a481c08a05cc191ac64cf2c69e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brian FG Katz and Dr. Piotr Majdak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10370.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278731",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian FG",surname:"Katz",slug:"brian-fg-katz",fullName:"Brian FG Katz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10504",title:"Crystallization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3478d05926950f475f4ad2825d340963",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Youssef Ben Smida and Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10504.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10519",title:"Middleware Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c326d436ae0f4c508849d2336dbdfb48",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10519.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"26677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdia",surname:"Ajana El Khaddar",slug:"mehdia-ajana-el-khaddar",fullName:"Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10557",title:"Elaeis guineensis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"79500ab1930271876b4e0575e2ed3966",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hesam Kamyab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10557.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"225957",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesam",surname:"Kamyab",slug:"hesam-kamyab",fullName:"Hesam Kamyab"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:45},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:172},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5315},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9536",title:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cf6891060eb438d975d250e8b127ed6",slug:"education-at-the-intersection-of-globalization-and-technology",bookSignature:"Sharon Waller, Lee Waller, Vongai Mpofu and Mercy Kurebwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharon",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"sharon-waller",fullName:"Sharon Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9524",title:"Organ Donation and Transplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ef47e03cd4e6476946fc28ca51de825",slug:"organ-donation-and-transplantation",bookSignature:"Vassil Mihaylov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313113",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassil",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylov",slug:"vassil-mihaylov",fullName:"Vassil Mihaylov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",middleName:null,surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1354",title:"Wastewater Engineering",slug:"technology-environmental-engineering-wastewater-engineering",parent:{title:"Environmental Engineering",slug:"technology-environmental-engineering"},numberOfBooks:7,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:171,numberOfWosCitations:57,numberOfCrossrefCitations:49,numberOfDimensionsCitations:141,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"technology-environmental-engineering-wastewater-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7645",title:"Desalination",subtitle:"Challenges and Opportunities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79498ce21a56d214786502c9fe4ebd6b",slug:"desalination-challenges-and-opportunities",bookSignature:"Mohammad Hossein Davood Abadi Farahani, Vahid Vatanpour and Amir Hooshang Taheri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7645.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"249503",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Hossein",middleName:null,surname:"Davood Abadi Farahani",slug:"mohammad-hossein-davood-abadi-farahani",fullName:"Mohammad Hossein Davood Abadi Farahani"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9415",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",subtitle:"Applications, Trends, and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60d177837fbb691b82c80922cd9bb295",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",bookSignature:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ciro",middleName:"Fernando",surname:"Bustillo-Lecompte",slug:"ciro-bustillo-lecompte",fullName:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8915",title:"Advances in Membrane Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"19febde893f705494f2334d02977fd83",slug:"advances-in-membrane-technologies",bookSignature:"Amira Abdelrasoul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8915.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"151521",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelrasoul",slug:"amira-abdelrasoul",fullName:"Amira Abdelrasoul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8804",title:"Water and Wastewater Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccb46d6518786712b3184b2498fb0cab",slug:"water-and-wastewater-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8804.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6539",title:"Wastewater and Water Quality",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"011810f6bbc0d25f6590e1169231962f",slug:"wastewater-and-water-quality",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6539.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32956",title:"Dr.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6464",title:"Nanofiltration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff27f3309a565c3d37afcac907cc7a2e",slug:"nanofiltration",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6464.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",middleName:null,surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6199",title:"Osmotically Driven Membrane Processes",subtitle:"Approach, Development and Current Status",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bbb718c2b4705962a3388b4cb551d87b",slug:"osmotically-driven-membrane-processes-approach-development-and-current-status",bookSignature:"Hongbo Du, Audie Thompson and Xinying Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6199.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180165",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbo",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"hongbo-du",fullName:"Hongbo Du"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"60850",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76624",title:"Wastewater Treatment Using Membrane Technology",slug:"wastewater-treatment-using-membrane-technology",totalDownloads:2156,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"wastewater-and-water-quality",title:"Wastewater and Water Quality",fullTitle:"Wastewater and Water Quality"},signatures:"Azile Nqombolo, Anele Mpupa, Richard M. Moutloali and Philiswa\nN. Nomngongo",authors:[{id:"191669",title:"Dr.",name:"Philiswa",middleName:null,surname:"Nomngongo",slug:"philiswa-nomngongo",fullName:"Philiswa Nomngongo"}]},{id:"70242",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90256",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:785,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Prof.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]},{id:"66882",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85919",title:"World’s Demand for Food and Water: The Consequences of Climate Change",slug:"world-s-demand-for-food-and-water-the-consequences-of-climate-change",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"desalination-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Sheikh Mohammad Fakhrul Islam and Zahurul Karim",authors:[{id:"288119",title:"Prof.",name:"S.M. Fakhrul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"s.m.-fakhrul-islam",fullName:"S.M. Fakhrul Islam"},{id:"288121",title:"Prof.",name:"Zahurul",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"zahurul-karim",fullName:"Zahurul Karim"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66882",title:"World’s Demand for Food and Water: The Consequences of Climate Change",slug:"world-s-demand-for-food-and-water-the-consequences-of-climate-change",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"desalination-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Sheikh Mohammad Fakhrul Islam and Zahurul Karim",authors:[{id:"288119",title:"Prof.",name:"S.M. Fakhrul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"s.m.-fakhrul-islam",fullName:"S.M. Fakhrul Islam"},{id:"288121",title:"Prof.",name:"Zahurul",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"zahurul-karim",fullName:"Zahurul Karim"}]},{id:"70242",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:785,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Prof.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]},{id:"70086",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes: A Powerful Treatment Option for the Removal of Recalcitrant Organic Compounds",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-a-powerful-treatment-option-for-the-removal-of-recalcitrant-organic-com",totalDownloads:634,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Damodhar Ghime and Prabir Ghosh",authors:[{id:"251470",title:"Dr.",name:"Prabir",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prabir-ghosh",fullName:"Prabir Ghosh"},{id:"312650",title:"Mr.",name:"Damodhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ghime",slug:"damodhar-ghime",fullName:"Damodhar Ghime"}]},{id:"61484",title:"Recent Drifts in pH-Sensitive Reverse Osmosis",slug:"recent-drifts-in-ph-sensitive-reverse-osmosis",totalDownloads:870,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"wastewater-and-water-quality",title:"Wastewater and Water Quality",fullTitle:"Wastewater and Water Quality"},signatures:"Gehan Mohamed Ibrahim and Belal El-Gammal",authors:[{id:"216095",title:"Prof.",name:"Belal",middleName:null,surname:"Elgammal",slug:"belal-elgammal",fullName:"Belal Elgammal"},{id:"219496",title:"Dr.",name:"Gehan",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"gehan-ibrahim",fullName:"Gehan Ibrahim"}]},{id:"66885",title:"Treatment of Water and Wastewater for Reuse and Energy Generation-Emerging Technologies",slug:"treatment-of-water-and-wastewater-for-reuse-and-energy-generation-emerging-technologies",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"water-and-wastewater-treatment",title:"Water and Wastewater Treatment",fullTitle:"Water and Wastewater Treatment"},signatures:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh, Sudesh Rathilal, Maggie Chetty, Edward Kwaku Armah and Dennis Asante-Sackey",authors:[{id:"199957",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudesh",middleName:null,surname:"Rathilal",slug:"sudesh-rathilal",fullName:"Sudesh Rathilal"},{id:"262983",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kweinor Tetteh",slug:"emmanuel-kweinor-tetteh",fullName:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh"},{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",middleName:"Manimagalay",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"281614",title:"Mr.",name:"Edward Kwaku",middleName:null,surname:"Armah",slug:"edward-kwaku-armah",fullName:"Edward Kwaku Armah"},{id:"281615",title:"Dr.",name:"Dennis",middleName:null,surname:"Asante-Sackey",slug:"dennis-asante-sackey",fullName:"Dennis Asante-Sackey"}]},{id:"59495",title:"Forward Osmosis Membranes – A Review: Part I",slug:"forward-osmosis-membranes-a-review-part-i",totalDownloads:1892,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"osmotically-driven-membrane-processes-approach-development-and-current-status",title:"Osmotically Driven Membrane Processes",fullTitle:"Osmotically Driven Membrane Processes - Approach, Development and Current Status"},signatures:"Murat Eyvaz, Serkan Arslan, Derya İmer, Ebubekir Yüksel and İsmail\nKoyuncu",authors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"},{id:"176700",title:"MSc.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Arslan",slug:"serkan-arslan",fullName:"Serkan Arslan"},{id:"176701",title:"Prof.",name:"Ebubekir",middleName:null,surname:"Yüksel",slug:"ebubekir-yuksel",fullName:"Ebubekir Yüksel"},{id:"209388",title:"Prof.",name:"İsmail",middleName:null,surname:"Koyuncu",slug:"ismail-koyuncu",fullName:"İsmail Koyuncu"},{id:"210203",title:"Prof.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"İmer",slug:"derya-imer",fullName:"Derya İmer"}]},{id:"67689",title:"Membrane Distillation: Basics, Advances, and Applications",slug:"membrane-distillation-basics-advances-and-applications",totalDownloads:641,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"advances-in-membrane-technologies",title:"Advances in Membrane Technologies",fullTitle:"Advances in Membrane Technologies"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Shirzad Kebria and Ahmad Rahimpour",authors:[{id:"289042",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimpour",slug:"ahmad-rahimpour",fullName:"Ahmad Rahimpour"},{id:"289043",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Shirzad Kebria",slug:"mohammad-reza-shirzad-kebria",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Shirzad Kebria"}]},{id:"66331",title:"Desalination with Renewable Energy: A 24 Hours Operation Solution",slug:"desalination-with-renewable-energy-a-24-hours-operation-solution",totalDownloads:746,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"water-and-wastewater-treatment",title:"Water and Wastewater Treatment",fullTitle:"Water and Wastewater Treatment"},signatures:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad, Muhammad Burhan, Doskhan Ybyraiymkul and Kim Choon Ng",authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"}]},{id:"58240",title:"Membrane Gas Absorption Processes: Applications, Design and Perspectives",slug:"membrane-gas-absorption-processes-applications-design-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1250,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"osmotically-driven-membrane-processes-approach-development-and-current-status",title:"Osmotically Driven Membrane Processes",fullTitle:"Osmotically Driven Membrane Processes - Approach, Development and Current Status"},signatures:"Julio Romero Figueroa and Humberto Estay Cuenca",authors:[{id:"211438",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",slug:"julio-romero",fullName:"Julio Romero"},{id:"211806",title:"Dr.",name:"Humberto",middleName:null,surname:"Estay",slug:"humberto-estay",fullName:"Humberto Estay"}]},{id:"61077",title:"Treatment of Textile Wastewater Using a Novel Electrocoagulation Reactor Design",slug:"treatment-of-textile-wastewater-using-a-novel-electrocoagulation-reactor-design",totalDownloads:672,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"wastewater-and-water-quality",title:"Wastewater and Water Quality",fullTitle:"Wastewater and Water Quality"},signatures:"Ahmed Samir Naje, Mohammed A. Ajeel, \nPeter Adeniyi Alaba and Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan",authors:[{id:"236414",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Samir",slug:"ahmed-samir",fullName:"Ahmed Samir"},{id:"237449",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreeshivadasan",middleName:null,surname:"Chelliapan",slug:"shreeshivadasan-chelliapan",fullName:"Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan"},{id:"237453",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"A. Ajeel",slug:"mohammed-a.-ajeel",fullName:"Mohammed A. Ajeel"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"technology-environmental-engineering-wastewater-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/279717/roslyn-layton",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"279717",slug:"roslyn-layton"},fullPath:"/profiles/279717/roslyn-layton",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()