IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1322",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Air Quality - Monitoring and Modeling",title:"Air Quality",subtitle:"Monitoring and Modeling",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book reports research on relationship between fungal contamination and its health effects in large Asian cities, estimation of ambient air quality in Delhi, a qualitative study of air pollutants from road traffic, air quality in low-energy buildings, some aspects of the Sentinel method for pollution problem, evaluation of dry atmospheric deposition at sites in the vicinity of fuel oil fired power, particles especially PM 10 in the indoor environment, etc.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0161-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5216-3",doi:"10.5772/1792",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"air-quality-monitoring-and-modeling",numberOfPages:242,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2b927fed40df8d0658b55110febe1028",bookSignature:"Sunil Kumar and Rakesh Kumar",publishedDate:"February 29th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1322.jpg",numberOfDownloads:32092,numberOfWosCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:42,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:100,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 9th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 9th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 8th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"86581",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sunil-kumar",fullName:"Sunil Kumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86581/images/2108_n.jpg",biography:"Er. Kumar has been working in the field of Environmental Engineering and Management in general and Solid and Hazardous Waste Management in particular since quite some time. He has been deeply involved in R&D activities in municipal solid waste (MSW) management at National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India. \nHis contribution in GHG inventory estimation from solid waste landfills and its uncertainty analysis under India’s Initial National Communication (NATCOM) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) is well recognized internationally. He has been involved in capacity building of local bodies under various projects in solid waste management. He was involved in long-term planning of solid waste management for various cities at NEERI, Nagpur. He also delivered lectures on solid waste management in various training programs at national and international level. He has recently edited a special issue on Landfill Gas Modeling and Management for Journal of Air and Waste Management Association. He has also many special issues on municipal solid waste management for international journals like Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Int. Journal of Environment and pollution, Int. Journal of Environment and Waste Management, two issues for Int. Journal of Environmental Technology and Management, Inderscience Publication. Recently, he has edited a Book on Waste Management published by IN-TECH Publication, Austria. . \nThe major areas of working include landfill design, composting, anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste, wastewater management, GHG Emission and CDM potential from landfills, EIA of highway projects and hazardous waste management. He has published approximately 40 international research papers in journal of international repute with high impact factor covered referred journals and 15 papers are under review/submission stage to various international journals. \nHis collaborators include US EPA, University of Calgary, Canada, AIT Thailand, Kasetsart University Thailand, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA, Jadavpur University, India, Uppsala University Sweden etc. He is the Editorial Board member of International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Assessment besides working as a Guest Editor for many international journals in the domain of solid waste management.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"151383",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"rakesh-kumar",fullName:"Rakesh Kumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151383/images/system/151383.jpg",biography:'Dr. Rakesh Kumar has taken over as Director of the CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI). He has assumed charge on 23rd May 2016. Before becoming Director, Dr. Kumar was Chief Scientist and Head of Mumbai Zonal Laboratory, CSIR-NEERI. He obtained M.Tech. in Environmental Science and Engineering from IIT-Bombay and Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering from RTM Nagpur University. He has a vast experience in all fields of environmental science and engineering, especially air pollution control and management, urban air quality monitoring, emission inventory and modeling, environmental impact assessment, environmental audit, climate change and health. Dr. Kumar has given a notable contribution in developing technologies for reuse and recycle of domestic and industrial wastewater which brought a paradigm shift in the country. His efforts have always been for upliftment and application of Science and Technology for a sustainable development. His goal is to provide science and technology oriented solutions for the benefit of society and industry. He has received 9 awards for his outstanding contributions in Environmental Science & Engineering, among which the notable ones are Commonwealth Commission Award, UK in 1994; “Environmental Leadership Award” by US Asia Environmental Partnership and US-AID for the year 2005 for outstanding contribution in improving quality of life for the population of Asia. He has been given an award for largest number of technology transfer for low cost waste water treatment-PHYTORID in the year 2012. He has been given VASVIK award for 2012 for his exemplary work for urban environment improvement and sustainable technology "Phytorid" for sewage treatment for better environment. He has been recently awarded "Hiyoshi Think of Ecology Award" in September 2015 for his work on use of ecology in solving environmental engineering problems. He has also served as ‘Adjunct Professor’ at Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering, IIT-Bombay. \n\nDr. Kumar has ten patents on pollution control devices including two international patents, and published more than 83 papers in national and international Journals and 92 papers in national and international conferences. He has authored three Self Learning Books on various topics of Environmental Science and Engineering, one of them for Commonwealth of Learning, Canada.\n\nDr. Kumar has taken charge from Dr. Tapas Nandy who was earlier holding charge of Acting Director, CSIR-NEERI.',institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"865",title:"Air Pollution",slug:"environmental-pollution-air-pollution"}],chapters:[{id:"30045",title:"Relationship Between Fungal Contamination of Indoor Air and Health Problems of Some Residents in Jos",doi:"10.5772/32160",slug:"-relationship-between-fungal-contamination-of-indoor-air-and-health-problems-of-some-residents-in-jo",totalDownloads:3141,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Grace Mebi Ayanbimpe,Wapwera Samuel Danjuma and Mark Ojogba Okolo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30045",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30045",authors:[{id:"90395",title:"Dr.",name:"Grace",surname:"Ayanbimpe",slug:"grace-ayanbimpe",fullName:"Grace Ayanbimpe"},{id:"101845",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Wapwera",slug:"samuel-wapwera",fullName:"Samuel Wapwera"},{id:"128982",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",surname:"Okolo",slug:"mark-okolo",fullName:"Mark Okolo"}],corrections:null},{id:"30046",title:"A Qualitative Study of Air Pollutants from Road Traffic",doi:"10.5772/35529",slug:"a-qualitative-study-of-air-pollutants-from-road-traffic",totalDownloads:4155,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gabriela Raducan and Ioan Stefanescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30046",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30046",authors:[{id:"104843",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Raducan",slug:"gabriela-raducan",fullName:"Gabriela Raducan"},{id:"117789",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan",surname:"Stefanescu",slug:"ioan-stefanescu",fullName:"Ioan Stefanescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"30047",title:"Estimation of Ambient Air Quality in Delhi",doi:"10.5772/39041",slug:"estimation-of-ambient-air-quality-in-delhi",totalDownloads:2645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Kaushik K. 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1. Introduction
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1.1. Adhesive joints
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An adhesive may be defined as a material which when applied to surfaces of materials can join them together and resist separation. The term adhesion is used when referring to the attraction between the substances, while the materials being joined are commonly referred to as substrates or adherends (Kinloch, 1987).
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The adhesive properties of some substances have been used for thousands years. During Prehistory, for example, man has employed several plant resins as adhesives, either neat or with other materials to improve their properties (Regert, 2004; Wadley, 2005). However, the science and technology of adhesion and adhesives has not progressed significantly until the middle of 1940s (Kinloch, 1987), when the II World War promoted the development of different technologies, between them, the polymer science, closely related to the adhesives. Since then, great advances have been carried out in all aspects of adhesives technology. Nowadays, the practical demands upon adhesives have changed. The main aim is no longer to achieve simply strong bonds; that has been mastered. The targets are durability under a variety of harsh environments, together with enhanced toughness and, in some specialised cases, adequate performance at relatively high temperatures (Allen, 2003).
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Adhesive joints offer many advantages, with regard to other ways of joining materials, like welding, brazing, riveting or bolting:
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The ability to join any type of material, even to make dissimilar joints.
An improved stress distribution in the joint, reducing the stress concentrations caused by rivets or bolts.
Adhesive boding can potentially reduce the weight of a structure, mainly because of the ability to join thin-sheet materials efficiently.
An improvement in the corrosion resistance between dissimilar materials, and also with regard to the use of mechanical fasteners.
Adhesive joints can be used for sealing, insulating (heat and electricity) and damping vibrations.
Less expensive than other types of joints, especially when bonding large areas.
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They have some drawbacks:
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Require careful surface preparation of adherends, especially in order to attain a long service-life from adhesive joints in hostile environments.
Limitation on upper service temperature.
The strength of adhesive joints is relatively low compared to mechanical joints.
Disassembly cannot be carried out without incurring significant damage to the joint.
Non-destructive test methods for adhesive joints are relatively limited compared to those used with other fastening methods.
Heat and pressure may be required for assembly.
Jigs and fixtures may be required for assembly.
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1.2. Mechanisms of adhesion
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The mechanisms or theories of adhesion try to explain how an adhesive bond is formed between two materials. There is not a universal mechanism to explain all bonds. In fact, in adhesive joints there is usually more than one mechanism contributing to the adhesive strength.
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\n\t\t\t\t\tMechanical interlocking: This theory proposes that mechanical interlocking of the adhesive into the irregularities of the substrate surface is the major source of intrinsic adhesion (Kinloch, 1987). This means that the adhesion is directly related to the substrate roughness. Mechanical, like grit blasting, or chemical roughening, like anodizing, generate different values of surface roughness and also different features. The size and shape of these features has an influence on the adhesion, providing a tortuous path which prevents the separation of the adhesive from the adherend (Fisher, 2005). However, this theory is not able to explain the good adhesion strength attained in some cases between smooth surfaces.
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\n\t\t\t\t\tDiffusion theory: The diffusion of segments and chain ends of polymers was suggested as a mechanism for the adhesion of similar polymers. This requires that the macromolecules or chain segments of polymers (adhesive and substrate) possess sufficient mobility and are mutually soluble (Kinloch, 1987). Two polymers, or a polymer and a solvent, are miscible when they have similar solubility parameters. This theory demonstrates the autohesion of plastics using hot or solvent welding, and also explains why polymers with very different solubility parameters do not present good adhesion between them.
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\n\t\t\t\t\tElectronic theory: In adhesive joints of metallic substrates, the different nature of the materials (metal and polymer) facilitates the transfer of electrons from the metal to the adhesive, in order to equilibrate the Fermi levels of both metal and polymer. The result is the creation of an electric double layer at the interface (Allen, 2003). The existence of that layer is easy to demonstrate. For example, it causes the flashes of light and noise which occur when an adhesive tape is stripped form a solid surface (Allen, 2003). However, it is not clear if such electrostatic forces promote an increase of the joint strength or they are a result of that increase (Kinloch, 1987).
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\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption theory: The adsorption theory of adhesion is the most widely applicable theory and proposes that, provided sufficiently intimate molecular contact is achieved at the interface, the materials will adhere because of the interatomic and intermolecular forces which are established between the atoms and molecules in the surfaces of the adhesive and substrate. This means that the adhesive has to spread over the solid surface. A liquid wets a solid when the contact angle between a liquid drop and a solid surface is lower than 90º; in other words, when the surface free energy of the surface is high than the surface tension of the liquid. The Young equation (Young, 1805) describes the relationship between surface free energy, γ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tSV\n\t\t\t\t\t, and contact angle, θ, in the three-phase contact point (Figure 1):
Schematic representation of the interactions existing when a liquid wets a surface.
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The work of adhesion, W\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t, is defined as the difference between the sum of the surface free energies of the solid and liquid phases and the interfacial free energy:
This equation is very useful to estimate the strength of an adhesive joint, taking into account that the higher the work of adhesion, the higher the adhesive strength. The surface energy of a liquid, γ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tLV\n\t\t\t\t\t, is a known parameter, and the contact angle is very easy to determine.
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\n\t\t\t\t\tWeak boundary layer theory: This is not strictly a mechanism of adhesion, but it is a theory which allows explaining the lack of adhesion in many cases. Oxide layers, low molecular weight species, oils and other contaminants are weak boundary layers, poorly adhered to the substrate. If any of such layers is present on the surface of the adherend when bonding, the joint will fail between this layer and the substrate with low strength.
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1.3. Surface preparation
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In order to achieve good adhesive properties, one requirement is that the adherends must present adequate surface properties. As it was mentioned above, the surface free energy of the substrate should be higher than the surface tension of the adhesive. In some cases, especially when the adherends are polymers or polymer matrix composites, the surfaces have to be modified to increase their surface free energy. There are other reasons to apply surface treatments before adhesive bonding, like removing weak boundary layers, increasing the surface roughness, creating specific chemical groups or homogenizing the surfaces to improve the reproducibility of the results.
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There are several types of surface treatments available: mechanical (grit blasting), chemical (anodizing, acid etching) or energetic (plasma, laser). In every case the most suitable treatment has to be selected, taking into account the material, shape and size of the adherend, the adhesive and other circumstances related to the manufacturing.
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2. Nanoreinforced adhesives: potential advantages
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Polymer nanocomposites manufactured from an effective dispersion of nanofillers (nanoparticles, nanofibres, nanotubes, etc) into a polymeric matrix (thermoplastic or thermosetting) have been proposed as a powerful tool for generating new multifunctional materials with improved mechanical, physical and chemical properties. Due to their small size and large surface area, nanoreinforcements would be able to provide unique combination of properties, which are not possible to be reached for conventional fillers with sizes in the micrometer range. Of particular importance, it is the requirement of achieving a good distribution of the nanofiller in the polymer, in order to obtain the pursued increases in properties, without loss of other characteristics of the nanocomposite (i.e. processability) because of the high tendency to particle aggregation.
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The development and commercialization of nanoparticles such as nanoclays, carbon nanotubes (CNT) or nanofibers (CNF), inorganic nanoparticles and other, offer new possibilities to tailor adhesives in the nanoscale range. Due to the large surface area of the nanosized particles only small amounts are needed to cause significant changes in the resulting properties of the nanocomposite adhesives. It could provide a new generation of structural adhesives with combination of thermal, electrical or thermomechanical properties which also provide higher environmental durability because of their lower water absorption and enhaced ageing properties.
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The potential of nanofillers for adhesive formulations is promising, and their effects, most of them based on the chemical and physical interactions developed between the nanoparticle surface and the resin at the reinforcement-matrix interfaces, can be classified on the following groups:
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\n\t\t\t\ta) Mechanical properties. Many of the new applications of structural adhesives (i.e. transportation application such as aircraft industry) require stable materials under service conditions which imply high temperature environments, beside to be resistant to failure resulting from vibration and fatigue loading. The addition of nanofillers to base adhesive formulations generally increases their modulus and mechanical strength. However, the main objective in these cases is to increase fracture toughness without loss of adhesive characteristics. Research in improving the fracture toughness of brittle polymers (i.e. thermosets) using nanoreinforcements holds great promise. Although the toughness of these brittle resins is usually increased by means of the addition of rubber fillers, other mechanical properties are usually degraded. For example, the improvement of the toughness of epoxy resins by incorporating nanofillers (i.e CNTs) in the resin system has been reported by numerous researchers. The participation of new mechanisms of fracture energy consumption generated by the interaction between cracks and nanofillers (crack deflection, crack bridging, fiber pull-out, etc) is considered responsible of the toughening effect associated to the nanoreinforcement addition.
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\n\t\t\t\tGojny et al. (2005) have published an overview in Composites Science and Technology over the influence of nanofiller on the fracture toughness of brittle epoxy resins and the related micromechanical mechanisms. These authors consider toughening mechanisms participate at two different dimensional levels: 1) micro-mechanical mechanisms, such as crack deflection at agglomerates, crack pinning, crack blunting and the extension of the plastic deformation zone and 2) nano-mechanical mechanisms, such as interfacial debonding, pull-out and crack bridging with participation of the nano-sized structure of CNTs.
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Improvements in toughness with addition of low contents of nanofiller have been reported for numerous authors, not only in the case of nanoreinforced polymers but also in situations in which the nanoreinforced matrix is included in a more complex system such as continuous fiber reinforced composites. The manufacture of multiscale composites by incorporation of nanofiller inside the matrix composite is also considerate as a potential method to improve those properties which are highly depended on the matrix (among them, thoughness). Manufacture of these composites requires that nanoreinforced resins keep their rheological and wetting characteristics to make possible the infiltration of fibre performs. Both types of properties are also required by nanoreinforced adhesives. In this research line, R. Sadeghian et al. (2006) have manufactured by Vaccum Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM) hybrid composites constituted by CNF nanoreinforced polyester/glass fiber, improving the mode-I delamination resistance GIC about 100 %when CNF concentration up to 1 wt% is incorporated in the polyester matrix. These authors characterized also the viscosity dependence on the CNF concentration noticing a notable increase in resin viscosity when we CNF concentration raised from 1 to 1.5 wt%. This problem, which limits the processability of multiscale composites by infiltration methods, must be considered also in the case of nanoreinforced adhesives.
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\n\t\t\t\tb) Electrical properties. In relation with the electrical properties, one of the most interesting fields of application is the incorporation of carbon nanotubes or carbon nanofiber as fillers in electrical conductive adhesives. The aim is to improve the performance of conductive adhesives in comparison to common products. An increase of electrical conductivity is observed in these kinds of nanocomposites with increasing CNT or CNF contents, showing clear percolation behaviour. The conductivities of the many of the developed composites show magnitudes below materials like copper. The percolation threshold values depend on the type of nanoreinforcement, being lower in the case of CNT than for CNF. The method of dispersion also has a dramatic influence on the conductivities of the nanocomposites, both for the effectiveness of the dispersion and for the effect of the applied dispersion method (mechanic stirring, ultrasonication, calandering, etc) on the nanorinforcement integrity. High energetic dispersion processes may damage the nanofillers decreasing their aspect ratio, which affect to the percolation behaviour.
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The electrical conductivity is usually detrimentally influenced by the application of functionalization treatments to the carbon nanoreinforcement. Although these kinds of treatments (oxidation, amination, fluoridation, etc) usually improve the nanofiller dispersion and favour the formation of covalent bond with the polymer matrix, they are always connected to structural changes (i.e rupture of the CNTs, resulting in a reduced aspect ratio) and, therefore, to a reduction of the electrical conductivity. Figure 2 shows the change in specific conductivity with the percentage of nanofiller for two epoxy nanocomposites reinforced with double wall CNT (untreated and aminofuntionalizated), compared with the effect of the addition of carbon black. The lowest percolation threshold value is reached for the Epoxy/DWCNT; an increase in this value is observed in the case of the Epoxy/DWCNT-NH2 because of the damage of the nanofillers during the funtionalization treatment.
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\n\t\t\t\tc) Thermal Properties and Thermal Stability. Thermal stability is one of the most important properties of polymer nanocomposites for potential applications as functional or structural components at elevated temperatures. Thermal stability and degradation behaviour of nanocomposites have been studied by several researchers. For example, Sarathi et al. (2007) showed that the addition of nanoclays (i.e organo-montmorillonites) in epoxy increases the heat deflection temperature up to a critical percentage of nanoclay in epoxy, about 5 wt % above which it reaches a steady state. Addition of nanoclays also improves the thermal stability reducing, in relation with unreinforced epoxy, the loss of weight measured during a thermogravimetric analysis. Decomposition temperatures of nanocomposites generally increased with increasing nanofiller contents, indicating that the thermal decomposition of the matrix is retarded by the presence of the nanoreinforcement. These results may be
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Figure 2.
Electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites as a function of filler type and content (Gojny et al., 2005).
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attributed to the physical barrier effect, having experimental proofs that not only nanoclays but also CNTs impede the propagation of decomposition reactions in the nanocomposites (Kim & Kim, 2006).
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Other thermal property that can be controlled by the addition of low amount of nanoparticles is the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). In the specific case of thermosetting resins, the CTE values can be differenced below and above the glass transition temperature (Tg). Considering the application of these resins as adhesive, the most useful CTE concerns the temperature below Tg, since adhesive would lose most of its mechanical properties at temperatures higher than Tg. Since CNT shows negative CTEs values (longitudinal CTE of SWNTs has been estimated to be –12 × 10–6 K–1 while a transverse CTE was predicted to be –1.5 ×10–6 K–1) (Kwon et al., 2004; Jiang et al., 2004), the aditions of SWCNTs could lead to a lower CTE in SWNT nanocomposites. This effect will be so much remarkable when dispersion of nanoreinforcement is more effective. For example, S. Wang et al. have shown that the CTE of the functionalized SWCNTs–epoxy composites below Tg could be diminished by 52 and 42% by the incorporation of 1% by weight of nanotubes which were subjected to simple functionalization treatments (mechanical chopping and oxidization) to improve their dispersion (Wang et al., 2007).
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The addition of some kind of nanofillers (i.e. CNT) can also increase the thermal conductivity of nanocomposites. Heimann et al. (2008), have shown that the thermal conductivity rises almost linearly with rising content of CNT in the polymer matrix (epoxy matrix). The composite with the highest portion of CNT tested (10 wt %) points out an enhancement nearly 4.4 times compared to the matrix without CNT (Figure 3); no influence of the method of dispersion could be observed.
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\n\t\t\t\td) Gas and Liquid Barrier Properties. The barrier properties of the nanocomposites are considerably improved as compared to that of pure or macroscopically filled polymers. The reason for the dramatic drop in permeability has been attributed to the existence of well-dispersed nanoreinforcements with a large aspect ratio (nanoclays, CNT, CNF). Most studies on polymer nanocomposite barrier properties are based on the tortuous pathway concept (Nielsen, 1967), where the nanofiller phase is assumed to be impermeable for gas
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Figure 3.
Standardized thermal conductivity of epoxy and epoxy CNT reinforced nanocomposites (Heimann et al., 2008).
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and liquid molecules, which forces the gas molecules to follow a tortuous path thereby increasing the effective path length for diffusion.
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One of the potential advantages of nanoreinforced adhesives related with these barrier properties is use as a moisture barrier. Moisture permeation is a measure of the ability of a material to resist moisture to penetrate through its thickness. Several important parameters must be considered, including the volume fraction (V\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t) and the aspect ratio of the nanoparticles. Higher aspect ratios provide greater barrier improvement according to the equation:
where P\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t and P\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t are the permeability coefficients of the nanocomposite and the neat polymer, respectively; L/W is the aspect ratio of the nanofiller, defining the term (1 + (L/2W)Vf) as the tortuosity factor. Reductions in moisture permeability in the range of 57- 86% for epoxy resins nanoreinforced with nanoclays have been determined, deducing that the very large aspect ratio of the clay platelets is the main factor to reach an effectively increased the moisture penetration path, which is responsible for the reduced permeability. (Kim et al., 2005).
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Although nanoplatelets have been shown as very effective gas and liquid barriers in polymeric matrices, recent studies on the transport properties, sorption and diffusion of water vapour carried out on epoxy resin filled with multi-walled carbon nanotubes, have also showed the improved effect of the barrier properties with increasing MWCNT concentration (Guadagno et al., 2009)
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Water absorption is other of the properties of polymer which can be improved by the dispersion of nanofillers. This improvement can be significant for resins which preset pourer behaviour under prolonged water exposure, such as epoxy. The substantial decrease of permeability brought about by nanocomposite structures is a major advantage of polymer–clay nanocomposites, due to the tortuous path presented by high aspect ratio clay. The Toyota researchers determined that the rate of water absorption in their polyamide 6-clay nanocomposite was reduced by 40% compared with the pristine polymer. However, these results are more contradictory in the case epoxy matrix nanocomposites where only the rate of absorption is reduced, while the equilibrium water uptake is relatively unaffected.
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In spite of those potential advantages of the nanoreinforced adhesives, the incorporation of nanofillers into the adhesive may originate problems associated to the increase in viscosity and the modification of the wetting behaviour with regard to the neat adhesive. It is enough shown that the addition of nanoparticles into liquid resins increases their viscosity; and for the particular case of CNTs, it has been found that increase in the viscosity of the nanocomposites filled with CNTs was much higher than increase in the viscosity of polymer composites filled with carbon fibers (CF) or carbon black (CB). Beside, nanocomposites filled with functionalized CNTs, that have better dispersion of the CNT, show a complex viscosity at low frequency.
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3. Adhesives reinforced with inorganic nanoparticles
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Due to the novelty of the nanocomposites, there are not much scientific researches which analyse the viability for the use of nanoreinforced polymers as adhesives. Further, the most of the found publications about nanoreinforced adhesives are centred in the reinforcement of epoxy adhesives with different kinds of carbon nanotubes. This is probably associated to the fact that the epoxy resins reinforced with carbon nanotubes are being currently the most studied nanocomposites by the scientific community. Even so, several researches have been found about the reinforcement of adhesives with inorganic nanoparticles. The nature of the added nanofiller is varied, being nano-sized particles of silica and alumina some of the most used. Also, the published results are varied. Among other reasons, the study of the adhesive ability of a resin, modified or not, depends on several factors, such as the nature of the adherends and the applied surface treatments on them, the geometry of the joints (single lap, butt, T-joing, etc) and the type of test carried out to determine the strength of the joints (lap shear, peel, pull off, wedge, etc). Besides all these variables, new ones are added, which are associated with the own manufacture of nanocomposites, like the dispersion techniques and methods applied, the previous chemical treatments carried out over nanofiller surfaces and the geometry, structure and other characteristics own of nanoreinforcements, among others. Despite of this, this section of the chapter contains a summary of some of the most interesting published results on adhesives reinforced with nano-sized particles of inorganic nature.
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The most of bibliography found about the addition of nanofiller into the adhesives is mainly based on epoxy adhesives. Compared with other adhesives, epoxy ones produce joints with high shear strength and excellent creep properties. The delamination resistance and impact of the epoxy joints are, however, relatively low. Due to their good properties, these adhesives are frequently used in high responsibility applications where their relative high cost is not as relevant. It is expected that the advantages obtained by the addition of the relative expensive nano-scale filler compensate the increase of price of the adhesive. In fact, the addition of nanofiller into epoxy adhesives could enhance the main debilities of the epoxy joints, such as their strength and toughness. Moreover, it should increase the electrical conductivity of these resins, becoming from isolator to conductive materials. This is especially interesting because of the epoxy adhesives are frequently used for joining metals and carbon fiber reinforced composites. Both are electrical conductors and it will be very profitable that their joint remains this electrical behaviour, using an electrical conductive adhesive.
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Lanlan Zhai and collaborators have published several researches on the effect of the addition of alumina nanoparticles in epoxy adhesives (Zhai et al., 2006; Zhai et al., 2008), analysing their pull-off strength over steel. Some of the extracted results are shown in Figure 4a, together with a scanning electron micrograph of the alumina nanoparticles added (Figure 4b) and image of the nanoreinforced epoxy surface captured by transmission electron microscopy (Figure 4c).
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Figure 4.
a) Effect of nano-alumina additive content on the adhesion strength, (b) SEM micrograph of alumina nanoparticles, (c) TEM micrograph of the nanoreinforced epoxy surface (Zhai et al., 2008).
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It is probed that the addition of alumina nanoparticles causes a drastic increase of the adhesive strength, which reaches the maximum value when the nanofiller content is 2 wt %. The pull-off strength of this nanoreinforced adhesive is almost five times higher than that of pure epoxy adhesive. This increase is intimately associated with a change in failure mode, which becomes from interfacial failure for non modified adhesive to a mixed cohesive-interfacial failure mode for the joints bonded with nanoreinforced adhesives. At high nano-alumina contents, the adhesive strength falls because the surface wetting ability of the adhesive is reduced by the increase of its viscosity.
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The modification of adhesives by the addition of alumina nanoparticles has been also studied in epoxy-based film adhesives, which are incrementing their use for joining aluminium and polymer composite parts in the aircraft industry. These applications typically require the modification of epoxy formulations to increase the adhesion, toughness and peel strength of the joints, because they are usually subjected to vibration and fatigue loads besides high service temperature environments. The most widely used modifiers of epoxy-based film adhesives consist of reactive liquid elastomers, which increase the toughness of the joints but limit their modulus, thermal stability and hot-wet performance. Also, the phase separation of the rubber can imply a reduction in shear strength. Gilbert et al. (2003) confirmed that the addition of 5 wt % nano-alumina into an epoxy formulation that was filmed on polyester random mat scrim achieved increases in the peel strength of almost 50% and in shear strength of 15% for joints of aluminium substrates. Contradictory results were obtained in the measurements of mode I and mode II fracture toughness of nanoreinforced epoxy adhesives when the nature of substrate was carbon fiber/epoxy laminates. They were strongly dependent on whether the composite systems were cocured or bonded. Mode I fracture toughness of the cocured composites increased, while values for the bonded systems drastically fell down by the addition of the nanofiller.
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Other kinds of inorganic nanoparticles have been added to adhesives in order to enhance their properties and behaviour. In particular, several researches have been published using nanosized particles of silica. It is well known that thermophysical and thermomechanical properties, such as thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, tensile and breaking strength of epoxy resins improve considerably due to the silicate nanopowder into the matrix polymer. Also, the addition of low concentrations of nanosilica particles to a typical rubber toughened epoxy adhesive leads to very significant increases in the toughness and single lap shear strength of the joints (Klug & Seferis, 1999; Kinloch et al., 2003). This increase is related to the enhancing of the plastic deformation of the epoxy matrix due to the appearance of different toughness mechanisms, such as crack deflection and crack twisting around the nanoparticles. On the other hand, Bhowmik et al. (2009) probed that the exposure under high-energy radiation of a nanosilica reinforced epoxy resin causes an increase of its crosslinking density, essentially affecting the overall behaviour and mechanical properties of the nanoreinforced polymer. In fact, they report an increase of more than 100% of the lap shear strength of the titanium joints when the adhesive was reinforced with nano-silicate particles and exposed to high energy radiation regard to the adhesive strength of non-modified adhesive. Patel et al. (2006) analysed the strength of acrylic-silica hybrid adhesives, prepared in situ by sol-gel, through both peel and lap shear tests using aluminium, biaxially oriented polypropylene (PP) and wood as substrates. They found enhancements on the joint strengths with hybrid nanoreinforced adhesives compared to neat acrylic ones, which were associated to changes in the failure mode from interfacial failure for neat acrylic adhesive to slip-stick failure in the case of the hybrid composites. As with alumina nanoparticles, the joint strength increases with increase in nanofiller loading up to certain content due to the higher cohesive strength and higher interaction between the substrates and the nanoreinforced adhesives. High contents of nanoreinforcements imply the fall of adhesive and mechanical properties because of both an increase of the adhesive viscosity and problems to disperse rightly the nanofiller, appearing micro-sized agglomerations.
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Lanlan Zhai et al. (2006) published a comparative study about the effectiveness of different kind of inorganic nanoparticles on the stickiness of epoxy adhesives. In particular, they used nanoparticles of Al2O3 (whose average diameter was 80 nm), nano-CaCO3 (with 40 - 80 nm of diameter) and nano-SiO2 (whose size was 10 – 20 nm in diameter). These nanofillers were added in 2 wt % regard to the epoxy adhesive mass. Low carbon steel sheets were used as adherends, which were abraded with different silicon carbide paper, polished to an optical flatness and finally degreased and dried. As shown in Figure 5, the adhesion strength, measured through pull-off adhesion test, of the epoxy adhesives incorporating three kinds of nanoparticles was greatly improved compared with pure epoxy adhesive. The highest increase is obtained by the adhesive reinforced with nanoparticles of alumina, from 3.4 to 18.4 MPa, while the strength of the nano-CaCO3 modified epoxy adhesive was as much as that of nano-SiO2 modified system, no more than 12 MPa.
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The increase of adhesive strength by the addition of nanofillers into the adhesives implies a stronger anchoring associated to changes on the physical and chemical properties of the modified adhesives. The different enhancements found as function of nanoparticle nature may be attributed to the chemical properties of nanoparticles, which may have influence in
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Figure 5.
The pull-off adhesion strength of epoxy adhesives reinforced with different inorganic nanoparticles (Zhai et al., 2006).
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the chemical interaction of the surfaces of steel and epoxy adhesives, producing some chemical bonds on the interface and therefore enhancing the adhesion strength. The formation of bridges between the adhesive and the adherends was confirmed by the analysis of the interface morphology through scanning electron microscopy. Figure 6a shows the morphology of the interface of steel and epoxy adhesive reinforced with 2% nano-Al2O3. It is possible to observe some epoxy fibers connecting with the steel substrate, which implied that both surfaces had contacted closely. The gap between steel and epoxy adhesive was likely to result from abrading and polishing of the metallographic specimen. Figure 6b shows the morphology of the surface boundary of steel and epoxy adhesive without nanoparticles, which is radically different. The gap is evidently wider than that of nanoreinforced joint, implying a weaker adhesion. For this reason, it was easy for the contamination to fall into the gap in the process of preparing the metallographic specimen.
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Figure 6.
SEM micrographs of steel – epoxy interface morphology with adhesive nanoreinforced with nanoparticles of alumina (a) and with neat epoxy adhesive (b) (Zhai et al., 2006).
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Polyhedral-oligomeric-silsesquioxanes (POSS) are other kind of inorganic silica particles which are actually commercialized, being nanocages of 1.5 nm in size with organic substituents. The substituents can be inactive, physically compatibles with the matrix, or reactive, which promote curing or grafting reactions with the polymer. The effect of the addition of low amounts of POSS into epoxy adhesives is strongly dependent on the nanostructure of the epoxy/POSS network, which in turn depends on the functional groups (reactive or nonreactive) of the POSS (Dodiuk et al., 2005). The highest values of shear and peel strength are obtained when the crosslinking degree of nanoreinforced adhesive is high. Due to the large surface area of POSS, only relatively small amounts (< 4 wt %) are needed to cause significant changes on the properties of the epoxy resin. In fact, excess of POSS amount implies the plasticization of the matrix, decreasing the joint strength.
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Finally, Patel et al. (Patel et al., 2006) analysed the effect of the addition of an organically modified montmorillonite nanoclay, commonly named Cloisite 10A, on the joint strength bonded with a very soft acrylic adhesive. With a high surface energy adherend, like aluminium, clay nanoreinforced adhesives displayed gradual increment in peel strength with the increase of filler content, measuring enhancements of up 45% regard to neat adhesive. However, the observed improvement with low surface energy substrate, polypropylene, was lower. This indicates a favourable interaction between the silicates and aluminium substrate. The lap shear strength spectacularly increases with the nanoclay addition, up to 146, 130 and 142% in joints of aluminium-aluminium, wood-wood and polypropylene-polypropylene, respectively. Besides the adhesive properties, the addition of nanoclay into the adhesives enhances their barrier performance. This is especially interesting in the use of polyurethane adhesives (Osman et al., 2003). They are commonly used in producing laminates for food packing due to their flexibility and wide application temperature range. However, their use is limited due to their low barrier performance, as oxygen and humidity barriers. The inclusion of small volume fractions of montmorillonite in polyurethane adhesives decreases their gas transmission rate due to the impermeability of the inorganic nanoparticles.
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4. Adhesives reinforced with carbon nanotubes
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One of the nanosized filler which has generated higher expectation are the carbon nanotubes (CNTs). CNTs, composed of one grapheme layer (SWCNT) or many grapheme layers (MWCNT), are a novel crystalline carbon form. The growing interest of these materials is associated with their spectacular and new properties theoretically expected. Independently of nanotube type and its diameter, the value of the plane elastic modulus should reach the reported one for the graphite, which is 1.06 TPa (Nelly, 1981). Its yield strength is still unknown, although it must be also similar to that calculated for the graphite, which is estimated around 130 GPa (Perepelkin, 1972). The mechanical strength of MWCNTs has could be measured by Atomic Force Microscopy, giving values around 14 GPa (Wong et al., 1997). Due to its very low diameter and in spite of its high stiffness, the carbon nanotubes present very high flexibility, bending fully reversible up to 110º critical angle for SWCNT (Salvetat et al., 1999). In addition to their mechanical properties, the nanotubes present very interesting physical properties. They have metallic and semiconducting electrical character, field emission properties and high thermal conductivity, among others. Therefore, these materials have been widely researched as nanofiller in the manufacturing of composites, using different matrix materials, polymers, ceramics and metals. As it was said above, research in improving the fracture toughness of brittle thermosets using nanotechnology holds great promise.
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As it is well known, in order to reach the best properties of nanocomposite, CNTs must be totally dispersed into the composite matrix. For it, numerous alternatives have been proposed (Xie et al., 2005; Vaisman et al., 2006; Prolongo et al., 2008) such as the use of solvents and surfactants to disperse rightly the CNTs with the epoxy monomer. Other proposals are based on the application of high mixing forces, using high shear mechanical mixers or ultrasonic. One of the last proposals with higher success is the use of a three roll mini-calander (Gojny et al., 2005). This procedure consists of passing the CNT/epoxy mixture through several rotating cylinders with a very small gap between them, around 50 – 5μm.
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Among other difficulties, the increase of the viscosity of epoxy monomer by the addition of CNTs is high due to the very high specific area of these nanofillers (200 – 700 g/m2). This usually hinders the manufacturing of the nanocomposite. S. G. Prolongo et al., in Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, (2009) analysed the rheological behaviour of mixtures of epoxy monomer with different contents of MWCNTs. The results are shown in the Figure 7. The used MWCNTs were partially functionalized with amino groups (0.5 wt% NH2). For this reason, the nanoreinforced mixtures were thermally treated in order to enhance the chemical reaction between oxirane rings of epoxy monomer and amino groups of the nanotubes.
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In spite of the viscosity increase, the shear rheological behaviour seems remaining constant. Both neat and nanoreinforced epoxy resins show Newtonian behaviour at the high shear rate applied and relative low temperature (< 70 ºC). This is explained by the preferential orientation of the nanoreinforcement in the flow rate at high shear rates. Other authors (Hyun et al., 2001) reported that the addition of a very small amount of nanotubes induce non-Newtonian behaviour at very low shear rate, which is probably associated with the non-orientation of nanotubes. On the other hand, at relative high contents of CNTs, the application of a thermal pre-curing treatment to the nanoreinforced mixtures implies an increase of their viscosity, indicating that the chemical reaction between epoxy monomer and amino-functionalized carbon nanotubes occurs. The more CNTs content is added, more amine groups anchored to nanotube react, decreasing the mobility of epoxy molecules and therefore increasing their shear viscosity.
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Figure 7.
Shear viscosity versus temperature plots for non-cured epoxy monomer (DGEBA, squares) and the epoxy mixtures with 0.1 (circles), 0.25 (triangles) and 0.5 wt % (stars) amino-functionalized MWCNTs non-thermal treated (solid lines) and precured at 130 ºC for 1 hour (dot lines) (Prolongo et al., 2009).
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The addition of CNTs to epoxy resins modifies many of their properties, but this chapter is centred in the application of these nanoreinforced composites as adhesives. Several works have been found about the addition of CNTs on epoxy adhesives in order to enhance the mechanical strength and toughness of the bonded joints. Suzhu Yu et al. (2009) studied the mechanical behaviour and durability in humid environments of the A2024-T3 aluminium joints bonded with an epoxy adhesive reinforced with MWCNTs. Figure 8 shows some of the obtained results.
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The wedge test has a relatively high stress concentration at or near the interface of the joint and is sensible to environmental attack. Therefore, it is usually used to provide quantitative durability data for a joint. As it can be observed in the figure, the crack developed in three steps for almost all the specimens: initial crack, crack propagation in about 3 – 8 h of immersion, and crack propagation after the first 3 – 8 h of immersion. The initial crack length was reduced up 70.3% for the epoxy resins randomly reinforced with 0.5 wt % CNTs compared to the obtained for the joint with neat epoxy adhesive. The decrease of the initial crack length occurs from 0.5 to 1 wt % CNTs, then the length increases with increasing CNTs fraction from 1 to 5 wt %. Obviously, the addition of CNTs into the epoxy adhesive causes a significant improvement in the bond strength of the joints, which is attributed to the excellent properties of the nanofiller. From a theoretical point of view, the strength of the adhesives should be monotonously increased with increasing CNT loading; thus, the initial crack length of the specimen would have monotonously decreased with the nanotube fractions. This is true at low CNTs contents (< 1 wt %). At higher contents, adverse effects of CNTs might have resulted from aggregation and poor dispersion of the nanofiller into epoxy matrix. The agglomerates can act as defects and reduce the strength of the adhesives. The propagation crack rate at first 3 – 8 h of immersion is also reduced by the addition of CNTs. In fact, the joint bonded with neat epoxy adhesive failed and broke after 3 h of immersion in water. This suggests that the water resistance of the adhesive increases with the CNT loading. The nanoreinforced epoxies must be able to resist water attack, so its adverse effects on the strength and durability of joints are not so significant. This is explained because carbon nanotubes are hydrophobic in nature and therefore their addition into the adhesive enhances the water resistance of the joints. The failure mode of the joint with neat epoxy adhesive is cohesive failure, referring to crack propagation on the adhesive (figure 8b). Interestingly, for the joints with CNT filled epoxy adhesives, more interfacial failure, referring to crack propagation on the adhesive-adherend interface, is developed with increasing nanofiller content. In fact, for epoxy adhesive reinforced with 5 wt % CNTs, only one surface is covered with adhesive in most areas; the other one mainly showed the metal surface.
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Several works (Hsiao et al., 2003; Meguid & Sun, 2004) have studied the mechanical strength of CNT reinforced epoxy adhesives to join carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. The shear strength increased by 31.2 and 45.6% when 1 and 5 wt % MWCNTs, respectively, were added in the epoxy system (Hsiao et al., 2003). These increments are associated with the enhanced mechanical properties of the nanoreinforced adhesives and the change of the failure mode of joints. The fracture of joints bonded with non-modified epoxy adhesive occurred at the epoxy along the bonding interface. In fact, no significant damages were observed on the composite adherends. In contrast, the failure observed for nanoreinforced joints was cohesive in the adherends. The nanotubes effectively transferred the load to the graphite fibers in the adherends and the failure was in the composite. For this reason, the graphite fibers of the composite adherends were highly damaged after the test.
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Figure 8.
a) Crack propagation of the CNT filled epoxy adhesive joints as a function of immersion time into water at 60 ºC, (b) photomicrographs of the wedge specimens after inmersion into water at 60 ºC for 90 h (Yu et al., 2009).
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Meguid and Sun studied the adhesive properties of nanoreinforced epoxy adhesive using dissimilar joints, formed by carbon fiber/epoxy laminate and aluminium alloy 6061-T6. The results reveal that the presence of uniformly dispersed carbon nanotubes causes an increase of the bonding strength. A remarkable improvement in Young´s modulus as well as ultimate tensile strength of the nanoreinforced adhesives is also appreciated. The increase continues with the increase in the weight percentage of nanofiller. However, as other authors have already observed, there is an optimum content of nanofiller. At very high carbon nanotubes contents, above 10 wt %, the properties degrade to below the ones of the neat epoxy adhesive. These results indicate the sensibility of the shear and tensile properties of the adhesive to the concentration of the nanofiller. Taking into account the fracture study of the tested specimens, this behaviour is attributed to the following. The nanotubes are characterised by large areas per unit gram. As the number of adhesively joined points increases, the adhesive strength of the epoxy increases leading to a higher strength of the joint. However, it seems that there is a limit to the number of dispersed nanotubes beyond which a drop in the properties is observed. Once the CNTs fully fill the gaps and porosities and all contact points are established, the addition nanotubes could not interact effectively within the epoxy adhesive and consequently poor matrix infiltration occurs. The additional nanotubes may force the polymer molecules to take up a strained conformation and thereby considerably modify molecular structures of polymer and interfaces that can be easily debond. Also, the agglomeration of CNTs could act as failure initiation sites, which could results in lowering the strength and stiffness of the adhesive.
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Finally, Saeed & Zhan (2007) analysed the adhesive properties of several thermoplastic polyimides filled with MWCNTs, using steel as adherends. They confirmed that the addition of CNTs to this kind of adhesives also enhance their adhesive properties. In particular, they measured the lap shear strength and the adhesive energy of the joints. Also, according to other authors, they found a maximum content of CNTs (0.5 – 1.0 wt %) from which the joint strength decrease, due to a change in the failure mode. The joint with high percentages of CNTs failed in adhesive mode, showing poor wetting of adherend surfaces. These authors also probed that the increase in the lap shear strength by the CNTs addition remains even up to 200 ºC.
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In addition to the improvements of the mechanical and adhesive properties, the addition of carbon nanotubes into epoxy adhesives implies other important physical change of the resin. Their electrical conductivity radically changes. In fact, the epoxy thermosets are typically electrical insulator. In contrast, the nanotubes have metallic or semiconducting behaviour depending on their structural configuration. S. G. Prolongo at., in a work published in the Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (2009) studied the reduction of the electrical resistivity of the epoxy resins by the addition of MWCNTs, which was measured in 14 magnitude orders, from 1017 Ω cm for non-modified epoxy resin to 103 Ω cm for the reinforced resin with 0.25 wt % CNTs. In fact, it was probed that the percolation threshold should be lower than a content of CNTs of 0.1 wt %. Tao Wang et al. (2006) also measured the modification of the electrical conductivity of pressure-sensitive adhesives by the CNTs addition. This property changes from 10-11 S/m for the neat adhesive to 1 S/m for nanofilled ones. In this system, they determined that the percolation threshold reaches 0.3 wt %.
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5. Adhesives reinforced with alumina nanofibers
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The nanoscale alumina fiber powder is usually produced by the electron-explosion of metal wire, appearing linear insulate nanofibers together with co-mingled in a bundle. These nanofibers are usually thin (2 – 4 nm in diameter) with a very high aspect ratio (20 – 80) and therefore a high surface area (300 – 700 m2/g). The Young’s modulus of the alumina nanofibers is 300 GPa and their tensile strength is 2 GPa (Meguid & Sun, 2004). The fibers have unique sorption properties, cationic and anionic chemisorption properties, such as scavenging precious and heavy metals from water.
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The addition of alumina nanofibers into epoxy adhesives causes a light increase of the peel and strength of the joints of aluminium substrates (Gilbert et al., 2003; Meguid & Sun, 2004). However, the effect of nanoreinforcement of epoxy adhesives with nano-alumina fibers on the toughness of the carbon fiber/epoxy composite joints significantly varies as a function of the manufacturing method applied, depending on whether the adhesive had been bonded to the composite or cocured with the prepreg. Gilbert et al. (2003) published an interesting work about the effect of alumina nanofibers in these systems. Figure 9 shows some of the obtained results.
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For the unmodified system, the bonded adhesive performed almost twice as effectively as the cocured adhesive. Nevertheless, the fracture toughness of the cocured samples tended to increase with the addition of nanoscale modifiers, while the values resulting from bonded samples tended to decrease substantially with the addition of the nano-modifiers. This behaviour is difficult to explain. The reduction of mode I fracture toughness may have been associated with an increase in the matrix stiffness by the addition of the nanofiller, causing the adhesive crack propagation. In contrast, the increase of toughness on cocured joints is usually attributed to increased crack tortuosity, blunting of the crack tip or increased matrix strength. These mechanisms seem to be enhanced by the presence of nanofibers in the cocured adhesive because of the modified adhesive may have formed covalent chemical
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Figure 9.
Effect of alumina nanofibers content on the mode I and mode II fracture toughness of adhesives cocured with and bonded to high performance carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs (Gilbert et al., 2003).
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bonds and undergone molecular entanglements with the prepreg matrix when the adhesive system was cocured with the prepreg. It is worthy to note that the effect of the nanofiber introduction into the epoxy adhesive on the mode II fracture toughness is exactly opposite. For cocured samples, the mode II fracture toughness decreases with the addition of nanofibers. It is difficult to state the cause. Gilbert et al. (2003) have observed that in these samples the crack propagated out of the adhesive layer, indicating that the shear strength of the adhesive had exceeded that of the composite material. In contrast, results of the nano-modified adhesives in the bonded system could indicate that the addition of alumina nanofibers increase the strength of the matrix.
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6. Adhesives reinforced with carbon nanofibers
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The carbon nanofibers (CNFs), grown through vapour carbon deposition, usually present diameters in the order to 20 - 200 nm and very different lengths from 10 to 100 μm. Their estimated axial Young´s modulus is in the range of 100-1000 GPa, depending on the nanofiber configuration. This parameter is particularly sensible to the shell tilt angle. The nanofibers with small tilt angles form the axial direction present much higher stiffness than the ones with large tilt angles. The mechanical strength of CNFs is usually around 2.5 and 3.5 GPa (Tibbetts & Beetz, 1987). It is known that the expected mechanical properties of carbon nanofibers are lower than those corresponding to carbon nanotubes. However, the nanofibers usually have higher length and they are also less expensive than CNTs. The high length of nanofibers is an important aspect to use them as structural nanofillers. Several researches (Bucknall et al., 1994; Zerda & Lesser, 2001) have demonstrated that the effective toughening may not be energetically favourable at nano-length scale, being generally necessary filler lengths greater than 100 nm. It has been probed (Odegard et al., 2003) that long fiber reinforced composite can effectively arrest the crack propagation, which determines the material strength and fracture toughness. However, short fillers might not have this positive effect on the mechanical properties of the composite. Other interesting property of the carbon nanofibers is their high electrical conductivity, which is about 4 x 103 S/cm (Al-Saleh & Sundararaj, 2009). This value is similar to the reported for other traditional fillers, such as carbon fibers or carbon black, which are also electrical conductive materials, the electrical conductivity of traditional long carbon fibers is 1.7 x 103 S/cm (Al-Saleh & Sundararaj, 2009). However, the main advantage of the nanofibers is their high aspect ratio and their high specific surface area, which allow manufacturing composites with high electrical conductivity at very low filler content, meaning a very low increase of density.
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It is widely known that a “good adhesive” must have a high wettability over the adherend. This behaviour is frequently determined by the measurement of the contact angle. The smaller the contact angle, higher wettability on the substrate is obtained. S. G. Prolongo et al. (2009) have published the effect of the addition of CNFs into an epoxy adhesive on its contact angle, using carbon fiber epoxy laminate as adherend. As it is expected, the measurement of contact angle depends on the adhesive nature and substrate but it is also dependent on the characteristics of the surface of the adherends, such as their surface energy, roughness, etc. Therefore, several surface treatments, commonly used for composites, were tested. The obtained results are shown in Figure 10.
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Figure 10.
Contact angle of neat epoxy adhesive and modified adhesives reinforced with 0.25, 0.5 and 1 wt % CNFs on carbon fiber/epoxy laminates (non-treated and surface treated with grit blasting, peel ply and plasma) (Prolongo et al., 2009).
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The contact angle generally decreases by the addition of nanofibers, meaning an increase of the wettability of the adhesive. This could be explained by the nano-scale size of the nanofiller and the higher chemical compatibility between the carbon/epoxy composite and the nanoreinforced epoxy adhesive with carbon nanofibers. The nano-scale size of the nanofibers could enhance their permeation on the porous and grooves of the adherend surface, which would increase the wettability of the adhesive. The increase of the CNFs content implies an increase of the contact angle although the measured value is lower than that of neat epoxy adhesive in most cases, except to the epoxy adhesive reinforced with 1 wt % CNFs. This increase seems be associated with the worse dispersion of the nanofiller into the adhesive. It was demonstrated, in works published in Composites Science and Technology (Prolongo et al., 2008; Prolongo et al., 2009), that the epoxy nanocomposites with 0.25 wt % presented a suitable dispersion of filler, although at high magnifications, it was possible to observe that the nanofibers tend to be tangled. However, at relative higher nanofibers contents, it was observed the appearance of large agglomerates, with one or more microns of diameters. These agglomerates increase the effective size of used filler, causing a decrease of the adhesive wettability. In these works, the technique of dispersion used to manufacture the nanoreinforced adhesives is based on the use of chloroform as solvent and ultrasonic and high shear mechanical stirring as mixing techniques.
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The rheological behaviour of the adhesives is especially interesting to analyse their primer ability. In order to define the application conditions, it is necessary to determine the variation of the viscosity as function of the temperature and its dependence with the shear rate. It is well known that the addition of nanofillers into the non-cured resins causes an important increase of their viscosity. In this chapter, it was demonstrated that the viscosity of an epoxy monomer nanoreinforced with carbon nanotubes is higher than the one of neat monomer (Figure 7). However, for the same content of carbon nanofiller, the viscosity of the reinforced epoxy resin is much higher with CNTs than with CNFs (Prolongo et al., 2009, Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology), as it is shown in Figure 11. This figure shows the dependence of the viscosity with the temperature for an epoxy monomer commonly used in formulations of epoxy adhesives, dyglycidyl ether of Bisphenol A (DGEBA), which is reinforced with different contents of carbon nanotubes and nanofibers. It can draw attention that the amount of nanofiller added is different but it was chosen with the criterion of not greatly increase the viscosity.
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Figure 11.
Viscosity as function of the temperature of epoxy monomer (DGEBA, diglycidyl ether of Bisphenol A) reinforced with different contents of CNFs (a) and CNTs (b) (Prolongo et al., 2009).
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The higher viscosity of the mixtures with CNTs could be associated to the higher specific surface of the added nanotubes, close to 300 m2/g, than the one of nanofibers, in the range of 150 – 200 m2/g. Other reason is the better dispersion degree observed for the nanocompose reinforced with CNFs regard to the resin with nanotubes. In spite of the increase of viscosity, the rheological behaviour is not affected by the addition of nanofillers, remaining constant their dependence with the temperature. Due to an increase of the adhesive viscosity could cause difficulties in the manufacture of the joints associated to the decrease in the wettability of the adhesive, the study of the rheological behaviour seems a suitable method to determine the optimum content of the nanofiller to add into the epoxy resin. In principle, a higher content of nanoreinforcement would imply better mechanical properties of the adhesive, provided the dispersion of the nanofiller is right. However, high contents of nanofibers usually originate the appearance of agglomerates, which commonly cause a decrease of the mechanical properties of the adhesive.
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There are several works published concerning to the effect of the addition of carbon nanofibers into adhesives in order to enhance the strength and toughness of the joints. Xu et al. (2007) studied the tensile strength of joints bonded with a commercial epoxy adhesive reinforced with carbon nanofibers. The nature of adherends varied from aluminium to poly(methylmetacrilate) (PMMA). The bonding surfaces of both were sand-blasted before the adhesive was applied to these bonding areas. The CNFs were directly added into epoxy adhesive, which was later treated at high temperature and sonication. The obtained results are shown in Figure 12.
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Figure 12.
Tensile strength of Al/Al (a) and PMMA/PMMA (b) joints bonded with an epoxy adhesive reinforced with different fiber weight percents. Left dark bar corresponds with the strength of joints bonded with pure epoxy adhesive (Xu et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t
All the tensile strengths of Al/Al joints bonded with nanofiber reinforced adhesives are below the tensile strength featuring neat epoxy. In contrast, the strength of PMMA/PMMA joints bonded featuring nanoreinforced adhesives with different fiber weight contents, from 0.3 to 0.8%, exceed the value measured for the joint bonded with non-modified adhesive. The maximum increase observed was up to 30%. Seeing the discrete results obtained, the authors of this work postulated that discontinuous nanofibers or nanotubes with high strength and stiffness, when they are added as reinforcement to matrices, could generate high stress at the fiber-matrix interface and an inefficient interfacial shear stress transfer could be occur. Thus the strong nanofibers can not carry high load. It is necessary continuous forms of nanofibers or nanotubes without finite ends, precluding the presence of extra matrix material at the end of nanofiller, in order to eliminate stress concentrations. Therefore, the nanofibers should be very long or at least being aligned to reach important increases of strength or fracture toughness.
\n\t\t\t
Prolongo et al., in The Journal of Adhesion (2009), analysed the effect of the addition of carbon nanofibers into epoxy adhesives on the lap shear strength of joints of carbon fiber/epoxy laminates. Besides the enhancement of the mechanical properties of the nanoreinforced adhesives, the very small size of the filler could enhance the adhesion on the substrate, generating new anchor-points on them. This mechanism could be enhanced when the adherend is a composite of epoxy matrix reinforced with long fibers due to the high chemical compatibility with the epoxy adhesive reinforced with carbon nanofibers. Figure 13 shows the lap shear strength of the joints bonded featuring neat epoxy adhesive and the ones reinforced with different CNFs contents. The adherends were treated with different surface treatments such as plasma, grit-blasting and peel ply in order to increase the wettability of the adhesive and therefore to increase the adhesive strength. It is observed that the addition of carbon nanofibers scarcely affects the joint strength in spite of the nanofilled adhesives showed lower contact angles (see Figure 10), which implies an enhancement of the wettability. In contrast, as it is expected, the lap shear strength strongly depends on the surface treated applied to the composite. The highest strength is obtained for the laminate treated by plasma due to the higher wettability of the adhesives on these surfaces. Grit blasted joints also present high strength due to the increase of the roughness of the adherends, enhancing the mechanical adhesion.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 13.
Average lap shear strength of the joints bonded with neat epoxy adhesive and modified adhesives reinforced with 0.25, 0.5 and 1 wt % CNFs using carbon fiber/epoxy laminates as adherends, treated with grit blasting, peel ply and plasma (Prolongo et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 14.
Scanning electron micrographs of the fracture surface of tested joints with peel ply treated adherends, whose failure mode was adhesive at the interface: (a) non-modified epoxy adhesive and (b) epoxy adhesive reinforced with 0.5 wt% CNFs (Prolongo et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t
Despite the fact that the measured values of lap shear strength are similar, the fracture surfaces generated by the tested joints with the neat epoxy adhesive and the reinforced ones presented significant differences. For example, Figure 14 shows the fracture surfaces of the joints whose adherends were treated by peel ply. While the surface of the non-reinforced adhesives scarcely showed deformation, the surface of the epoxy adhesives reinforced with CNFs present long cracks on the peel ply texture and even micro-scale zones of cohesive failure, meaning small pieces of pulled out epoxy matrix of the laminates. These evidences indicate higher adhesion ability of the reinforced adhesives.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 15 shows some micrographs obtained at higher magnification for fracture surfaces of epoxy adhesive reinforced with 0.5 wt % CNFs, whose adherends were treated by plasma. Figures 15a and 15b correspond to the cohesive failure zones while Figures 15c and 15d show the adhesive failure zones. This detailed study of fracture surfaces shows some interesting points. The cohesive failure zone (Figures 15a and 15b) in the composite adherend can be distinguished by the presence of the fiber imprints. Within the imprints of the carbon fibers, it is possible to observe striations, which are the bright bands. These striations, running along the fiber axis, correspond to the characteristic surface roughness of PAN-based carbon fibers (intermediate modulus, IM7) used to manufacture the laminate. These marks on the epoxy matrix of the composite are generated during the test and provide a clear indication of the adhesive shear failure mode at the matrix/fiber interface. The presence of shear forces at the crack tip causes the delamination of the interface, sliding the fiber surface over the matrix. It is known that the fracture energy in mode II is higher than in mode I for thermosetting carbon fiber/epoxy composites. On the other hand, the epoxy matrix of the composite present the typical pattern of shear cusps or hackles (Figure 15b) characteristic of mode II shear failure observed by other authors both in epoxy carbon fiber laminates and in adhesively bonded CFRP joints during shear testing. The cusps are
\n\t\t\t
Figure 15.
Scanning electron micrographs of the fracture surface of tested joints whose adehernds was treated by plasma and whose adhesive was reinforced with 0.5 wt % CNFs. Its failure mode was mixed adhesive-cohesive (Prolongo et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t
oriented perpendicular to the fibers, bent over along them with a width approximately equal to the distance between the fibers. Figures 15c and 15d correspond to the adhesive failure zone. In particular, they are SEM micrographs at very high magnifications of the face with nanoreinforced epoxy adhesive, which show the roll played by CNFs in the crack propagation and final formation of shear cusps. Small void with sizes in the rage of the nanofiber diameters found on surfaces of the cusps could show the participation of these carbon nanofibers in pull-out mechanisms from the adhesive matrix. The shear sliding of those CNFs oriented on the fracture plane (white arrow in Figure 15d) favour the matrix deformation in mode II.
\n\t\t\t
Finally, although the shear and tensile strength of the joints seem not to be widely increased by the addition of carbon nanofibers, it is known that the electrical resistivity of the epoxy resins markedly decreases. Table 1 shows the decrease of the electrical resistivity of epoxy resin when different contents of carbon nanofibers are added. It is seen that the studied epoxy nanocomposites follow typical percolation behaviour. The percolation threshold of the electrical resistivity is the sharp jump by several orders of magnitude which is attributed to the formation of a three-dimensional conductive network of the fillers within the matrix. In the studied system, an epoxy resin reinforced with CNFs, the electrical percolation threshold seems to occur between 0.25 and 0.50 wt %. In fact, the resulting nanocomposites are electrically conductive while the neat epoxy resin is an insulating material. The low percolation threshold of the nanocomposites is justified by the large aspect ratio of the nanoreinforcements, forming a percolating network throughout the epoxy matrix. The decrease of the electrical resistivity with an increase in reinforcement content is attributed to the probably of reinforcement contact.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
wt % CNF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
ρ·( Ω·cm)
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.8·10 7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.2·10 5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.2·0 4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Electrical resistivity of epoxy resins reinforced with different contents of CNFs (Prolongo et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t
Similar conclusions was drawn by Thao Gibson et al. (2005), who studied the development of epoxy based adhesives formulated with coated and uncoated vapour-grown carbon nanofibers. They confirmed that the shear strength of metal-metal and composite-metal joints remained constant with the addition of CNFs into the adhesive. However, this modification caused an important decrease of the electrical resistivity and an increase of thermal conductivity, from 5.1010 Ω cm and 0.8 W/mK for neat epoxy to 0.2 Ω cm and 2.8 W/mK for the adhesive reinforced with 20 wt % CNFs. It is worthy to note that the desired properties for a high electrically/thermally conductive adhesive in the aerospace industry are an electrical resistivity lower than 108 Ω cm and a thermal conductivity higher than 1.0 W/mK.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7. Summary of main results
\n\t\t\t
The following tables collect a summary of the most relevant results published about the mechanical properties of the joints bonded with neat and nanoreinforced epoxy adhesives, which were determined by lap shear (Table 2), peel (Table 3) and double cantilever beam tests (Table 4). Table 5 shows the same properties for other kinds of adhesives.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Filler
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Adherend
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Neat adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nanoreinforced adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Variation (%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reference
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al 2 O 3 nanoparticles
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
237 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
273 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gilbert, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SiO 2 nanoparticles
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
25.5 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
28.5 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Klug, 1999
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
20.8 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
23.0 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Kinloch, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ti
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
25 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
40 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+60
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Bhowmik, 2009
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
POSS
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
21 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
24 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+14
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Dodiuk, 2005
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
MWCNT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CF/epoxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+46
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hsiao, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al 2 O 3 nanofibers
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
237 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
265 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gilbert, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al- CF/epoxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+30
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Meguid, 2004
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CNF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PMMA
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
28 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
32.5 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Xu, 2007
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CF/epoxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.9 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
12.8 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Prolongo, 2009
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Lap shear strength of different adhesive joints: comparison between neat and nanoreinforced epoxy adhesive.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Filler
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Adherend
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Neat adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nanoreinforced adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Variation (%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reference
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al 2 O 3 nanoparticles
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
87 N
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
130 N
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+49
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gilbert, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SiO 2 nanoparticles
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.1 N/mm
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.5 N/mm
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+77
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Kinloch, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
POSS
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.19 N/mm
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.49 N/mm
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+158
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Dodiuk, 2005
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al 2 O 3 nanofibers
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
87 N
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
119 N
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+37
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gilbert, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Peel strength of different adhesive joints: comparison between neat and nanoreinforced epoxy adhesive.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Filler
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Adherend
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Neat adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nanoreinforced adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Variation (%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reference
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al 2 O 3 nanoparticles
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CF/epoxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.47 kJ/m 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.85 kJ/m 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+81
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gilbert, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SiO 2 nanoparticles
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CF/epoxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.59 kJ/m 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.74 kJ/m 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Klug, 1999
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.2 kJ/m 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.3 kJ/m 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Kinloch, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al 2 O 3 nanofibers
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CF/epoxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.47 kJ/m 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.79 kJ/m 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+68
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gilbert, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 4.
Mode I fracture toughness (GIC) of different adhesive joints: comparison between neat and nanoreinforced epoxy adhesive.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Filler
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Adherend
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Test
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Neat adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nanoreinforced adhesive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Variation (%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reference
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SiO 2 nanoparticles
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Acrylic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lap shear
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
106.3 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
339.6 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+219
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Patel, 2006
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Wood
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
40.7 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
128.9 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+217
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PP
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.8 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
185.6 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+433
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Peel
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.36 kN/m
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.98 kN/m
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+46
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PP
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.16 kN/m
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.25 kN/m
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+56
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nanoclay
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Acrylic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lap shear
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
131.7 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
323.6 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+146
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Wood
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
147.9 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
339.5 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+130
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PP
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
86.0 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
208.5 kPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+142
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Peel
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.49 kN/m
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.98 kN/m
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+33
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PP
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.20 kN/m
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.27 kN/m
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+35
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
MWCNT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Polyimide
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Steel
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lap shear
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
18 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
22.5 MPa
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Saeed, 2007
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 5.
Mechanical properties of different adhesive joints: comparison between neat and nanoreinforced adhesive.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
8. Concluding remarks
\n\t\t\t
The addition of nanofillers causes an important increase of the mechanical properties of different adhesives, although the obtained enhancements depend on numerous factors, such as the nature of the adhesive and adherends, the applied surface treatment or the tested property. Also, they depend on the nature and content of nanofiller. It seems that the best results were obtained with the addition of nano-sized silica particles and carbon nanotubes. Specially, the effect of these nanofillers is more noticeable in the peel strength and mode I fracture toughness. In general, it is observed that there is an optimum content of nanofiller for which the adhesive properties measured are the maximum. At higher contents, the properties fall back. This fall is usually accompanied with a change of the failure mode of the joints. Frequently, the joints bonded with neat adhesives present failure at the interface while the failure shown for the joints bonded with nanoreinforced adhesives is cohesive. Finally, at relative high contents of nanoreinforcement, the failure mode of the joints is interfacial again. The improvement of the adhesive properties by the addition of nano-sized filler has been associated to different phenomena. Between them, the nanoparticles and nanofibers can fill the gaps and porosities of the adherend, establishing new contact points and enhancing the interfacial strength due to the mechanical anchoring mechanism. On the other hand, it was probed that the nanoreinforced adhesives present higher wettability than the neat epoxy resins, which justifies a high adhesive strength of the joints. Some authors affirm the formation of chemical bonds between nanoreinforced adhesive and the surface of the substrates. Other works justify the increase of the strength and toughness of the joints by the enhancement of mechanical properties of the adhesive. The worsening of the joint properties at relative high nanofiller contents can be also explained by different mechanisms, such as the increase of the adhesive viscosity or the appearance of agglomerations due to dispersion problems.
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Finally, the addition of nanofillers into adhesives can improve other interesting properties, like the gas permeability, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity. It is worthy to note that the addition of carbon nanotubes or nanofiber implies an increase of the electrical conductivity of the adhesives, becoming from insulate to semiconductor or electrical conductor material, which is the special relevance in the joint of electrical conductive substrates.
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\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/8637.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/8637.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8637",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8637",totalDownloads:6426,totalViews:398,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:8,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:86,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 1st 2010",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/8637",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/8637",book:{id:"3200",slug:"nanofibers"},signatures:"Silvia G. Prolongo, María R. Gude and Alejandro Ureña",authors:[{id:"7239",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvia G",middleName:null,surname:"Prolongo",fullName:"Silvia G Prolongo",slug:"silvia-g-prolongo",email:"silvia.gonzalez@urjc.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario Rey Juan Carlos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"132406",title:"Prof.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Gude",fullName:"María Gude",slug:"maria-gude",email:"maria.gude@urjc.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario Rey Juan Carlos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"132408",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Ureña",fullName:"Alejandro Ureña",slug:"alejandro-urena",email:"alejandro.urena@urjc.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario Rey Juan Carlos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Adhesive joints",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Mechanisms of adhesion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Surface preparation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Nanoreinforced adhesives: potential advantages",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Adhesives reinforced with inorganic nanoparticles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Adhesives reinforced with carbon nanotubes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Adhesives reinforced with alumina nanofibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Adhesives reinforced with carbon nanofibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Summary of main results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"8. Concluding remarks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAllen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 “At forty cometh understanding”: A review of some basics of adhesion over the past four decades. 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Journal of Human Evolution, 49, 5, (November 2005), 587-601, 0047-2484\n\t\t\t\t\t0047\n\t\t\t\t\t2484\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGonnet\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Effect of nanotube functionalization on the coefficient of thermal expansion of nanocomposites. Advanced Functional Materials, 17, 1, (January 2007) 87-92, 0161-6301\n\t\t\t\t\t1616\n\t\t\t\t\t301 X\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLei\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDalton\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreton\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFernando\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. A. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSun\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tManea\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAsua\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKeddie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 Waterborne, nanocomposite pressure-sensitive adhesives with high tack energy, optical transparency, and electrical conductivity. Advanced Materials, 18, 20, (October 2006) 2730-2734, 0935-9648\n\t\t\t\t\t0935\n\t\t\t\t\t9648\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSheehan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLieber\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Nanobeam mechanics: elasticity, strength, and toughness of nanorods and nanotubes. Science, 277, 5334, (September 1997) 1971-1975, 0036-8075\n\t\t\t\t\t0036\n\t\t\t\t\t8075\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B45",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMai\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Dispersion and alignment of carbon nanotubes in polymer matrix: A review. Materials Science and Engineering R, 49, 4, (May 2005) 89-112, 0092-7796\n\t\t\t\t\t0927\n\t\t\t\t\t796 X\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B46",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLukehart\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKuai\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Mechanical characterization of nanofiber-reinforced composite adhesives. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 7, 7, (July 2007) 2546-2548, 1533-4880\n\t\t\t\t\t1533\n\t\t\t\t\t4880\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B47",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYoung\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1805 An essay on the cohesion of fluids. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 95, (January 1805) 65-87, 0261-0523\n\t\t\t\t\t0261\n\t\t\t\t\t0523\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B48",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCritchlow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Wedge test of carbon-nanotube-reinforced epoxy adhesive joints. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 111, 6, (March 2009) 2957-2962, 0021-8995\n\t\t\t\t\t0021\n\t\t\t\t\t8995\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B49",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZerda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLesser\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Intercalated clay nanocomposites: morphology, mechanics and fracture behavior. 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International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 28, 1-2, (January 2008) 23-28, 0143-7496\n\t\t\t\t\t0143\n\t\t\t\t\t7496\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Silvia G. Prolongo",address:null,affiliation:'
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The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",body:'
1. Introduction
Even for students just beginning to study biochemistry and physiology, it is immediately apparent that amino acids (AAs) are among the most important molecules in nature. Their functions are broad and varied. Indeed, protein synthesis relies on the well-known polymerization of AAs to form a peptide bond. This property is the most famous aspect of AAs. However, many AAs have specific individual functions, such as neurotransmission [1], cellular energy metabolism [2], and detoxification [3, 4]. Accumulating evidence in recent years has demonstrated that AAs also regulate both the expression of genes and the protein phosphorylation cascade. Moreover, hormones and different low-molecular-weight biologically important chemical compounds can be synthesized from AAs [5]. AAs can be divided into essential and nonessential categories. If the body cannot synthesize the carbon skeleton of an amino acid, then it is considered nutritionally essential. Indeed, the diet must contain such AAs. The dietary essentiality of other AAs (e.g., arginine, glycine, proline, and taurine) is determined by the developmental stage and species [6]. In contrast, if AAs can be synthesized de novo in a species-dependent manner, they are considered nonessential. Accumulating evidence has led to the concept of functional AAs (FAAs), which are defined as AAs that regulate key metabolic pathways to improve the health, survival, growth, development, lactation, and reproduction of organisms [7]. Since the late 1970s, researchers have generally agreed that amino acids can also function as inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmitters [8]. It should be noted that in neurochemistry, the term “neurotransmitter” is usually used synonymously with “neuromediator,” another term for a chemical participant in connections between neurons and neuroglia cells. Because these terms are exchangeable, they will both be used in the text. Based on their effects on vertebrate nerve cells, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine, and taurine fall into the class of inhibitory amino acids, whereas glutamate and aspartate fall into the class of excitatory compounds [9]. Indeed, GABA is considered the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS) [10], but it is not truly a member of the AA family. Although taurine also plays a role in inhibitory neuromediation [11] and serves as an osmoeffector to regulate volume in astrocytes [12], this compound is considered a derivative of cysteine, and, similar to GABA, not a true amino acid. Thus, the remaining excitatory/inhibitory amino acid neurotransmitters are glutamate, aspartate, and glycine. The first and third are the most prominent members of the AA family. The processes that regulate glutamate and glycine in the CNS are (i) transportation, (ii) biochemical transformations in metabolic pathways, and (iii) interactions with membrane receptors. In the current chapter, the crosstalk between the processes mentioned above for both glutamate and glycine is presented because the final state of neurons seems to be a result of the balance between these excitatory and inhibitory influences.
2. The membrane transport system of amino acids
Glutamate and glycine are nonessential amino acids; their levels differ depending on the location. The extracellular glutamate concentration around quiescent neurons is less than 1 μM, while its concentration in the cytoplasm is much higher, at approximately 2 mM [13]. The brain sequesters glycine in concentrations of 600 μM [14], with a basal concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of ~6 μM [15], compared to a plasma concentration of ~250 μM [16]. Because no extracellular enzymes degrade glutamate and glycine, maintaining these low extracellular concentrations requires cellular uptake of both compounds. Thus, the activity of the carriers directly regulates receptor response to neuron activation. Indeed, glutamate and glycine serve as neuromediators in the extracellular fluid because the binding site of AA receptors is exposed to the outer surface of cells. Consequently, the release of AA into the extracellular fluid controls receptor activation and active states are controlled by the removal of AAs from the extracellular fluid [17]. This uptake is catalyzed by a family of transporter proteins located on the cell surface of both astrocytes and neurons [17]. A high-affinity glutamatergic uptake system was observed in the mammalian brain in the 1970s. Subsequently, excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) were experimentally identified. They transport glutamate and aspartate across the plasma membrane. Notably, EAATs are part of the well-known solute carrier 1 (SLC1) family of transmembrane amino acid transporters [18]. Thus, released glutamate molecules can be removed from the synaptic cleft by the brain transporters; this process will initiate the glutamate-glutamine cycle, eventually restoring the pool of the neuromediator in synaptic vesicles [19]. Five EAAT isoforms, human EAAT1-5, have been identified; they correspond to GLAST1/GLT-1/EAAC1/EAAT4/EAAT5 in rodents, respectively [20]. In addition, the EAAT4 and EAAT5 subtypes were identified, with EAAT5 predominantly expressed in the retina. Notably, the transport cycle times of EAATs are relatively slow and their high affinity for glutamate makes it possible to sequester low glutamate concentrations from the extracellular space, preventing excitotoxicity. The slow transportation rate may in part be overcome by rapid surface diffusion and transporter tracking of EAATs upon glutamate stimulation [21]. The SLC1 family also contains two neutral amino acid transporters, alanine serine cysteine transporters 1 and 2 (ASCT1 and 2), which share high sequence homology with the EAATs [22]. EAAT1 and EAAT2 are glutamate transporters that are mostly expressed in astrocytes. These two glutamate transporters are responsible for most of the glutamate clearance in the brain. EAAT2 is widely expressed in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus [13]. Moreover, GLT-1/EAAT2 accounts for approximately 90% of the total glutamate uptake in the brain, and thus, it is considered the most important glutamate transporter subtype in the CNS. This transporter is predominantly but not exclusively expressed in astrocytes [22]. Glutamate transporters couple glutamate uptake to the transport of inorganic ions. It is now generally accepted that 3 Na+ ions and 1 H+ ion are cotransported and 1 K+ ion is counter-transported with the uptake of each glutamate molecule. Based on this stoichiometry, glutamate transporters were calculated to concentrate glutamate up to 5 × 106-fold inside cells under physiological conditions. This glutamate transport is electrogenic [23].
The extracellular levels of glycine in inhibitory and excitatory synapses are controlled by glycine transporters (GlyTs). Both subtypes, GlyT1 and GlyT2, belong to the sodium-dependent solute carrier 6 (SLC6) family of transporters, but they have different regional and cellular expression patterns in the CNS, different stoichiometries (that is, different numbers of sodium ions that are co-transported with every glycine molecule) and varying abilities to reverse-transport glycine into the extracellular space. To date, five variants of GlyT1 (GlyT1a, GlyT1b, GlyT1c, GlyT1d, and GlyT1e) and three variants of GlyT2 (GlyT2a, GlyT2b, and GlyT2c) have been identified and occur as a result of alternative promoter usage and/or splicing, but the relative distributions of these within the CNS have not been fully characterized [21].
The essential function of membrane transporters is to accumulate neuromediators in vesicles. At presynaptic terminals, vesicular glutamate transporters (vGluTs; SLC17A7, -6, and -8) load glutamate into synaptic vesicles. The two subtypes of vGluTs, vGluT1, and vGluT2, are expressed in excitatory neurons in a complementary manner in the brain, composing two subsets of excitatory neurons [13]. Glycine also actively accumulates in synaptic vesicles through vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT); currently, only one type of transporter (SLC32A1) is known to be responsible for this process [18]. The scheme of balanced neuromediator transport is represented in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Membrane carriers are responsible for clearance of glutamate/glycine from interstitial fluid (ISF) in the CNS. The scheme indicates two types of neurons. Some are excitatory and glutamatergic (the upper part of the scheme). Other neurons are inhibitory and glycinergic (the lower part of the scheme). Both types of neurons are interconnected with astrocytes. Moreover, glycine and glutamate are accessible for both types of cells. AA transporters (EAAT, GlyT, etc.) are found in all cell membranes but have differing isoenzyme compositions.
Remarkably, both glutamate and glycine transporters have mechanisms that include sodium ion transport. This means that neuromediator uptake is accompanied by changes in membrane potential. Moreover, the intake of both glutamate and glycine initiates several metabolic reactions in neurons and astrocytes. However, these reactions are spatially distributed, and the fate of the neuromediators is functionally determined by different cells. Interestingly, the metabolic transformations of AAs are closely related to ATP production by mitochondria and the oxidation of glucose.
3. Transformations of amino acids in the cell metabolic network
As mentioned above, any example of metabolic transformation in brain tissue is tightly connected with glycolysis Therefore, glutamate/glycine participation in metabolic pathways seems to be considered correctly including the main neighbor reactions of glucose oxidation. The primary source of energy for the brain is glucose. This sugar is almost entirely oxidized under basal physiological conditions, providing nearly all the energy necessary to support brain function. However, when supplemental energy is needed, necessary energy demands may be provided by other metabolites, such as ketones, fatty acids, acetate, lactate, and certain amino acids [19]. Pyruvate, the end product of aerobic glycolysis, can enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle by two different routes: (1) via acetyl-CoA formation, catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, and (2) by the formation of oxaloacetate, catalyzed by PC [24]. However, the end metabolite of anaerobic glycolysis, lactate, also participates in the energy supply of neurons (Figure 2). Pellerin and Magistretti originally proposed the astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle (ANLS) model, wherein lactate released from astrocytes serves as a buffer compound in response to a glutamate-induced glycolysis stimulus [25]. Then, lactate is exported to neurons, where it is converted to pyruvate to fuel oxidative phosphorylation.
Figure 2.
A scheme of the metabolic pathways involved in general glutamate/glycine transformations. The reactions occur in various intracellular localizations and can be duplicated in different compartments. The main metabolic pathways (glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle) are labeled. The enzyme abbreviations are as follows: GM: glutaminase; GS: glutamine synthetase; GDH: glutamate dehydrogenase; GL: glutamylcysteine ligase; GTS: glutathione synthetase; AG: asparaginase; AT: aminotransferase; PPC: phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase; PC: pyruvate carboxylase; PDC: pyruvate dehydrogenase complex; PK: pyruvate kinase; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; SDH: serine dehydrogenase; STM: serine transhydroxymethylase; and GCS: the glycine cleavage system. Other abbreviations are as follows: NAD+: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidized); NADH: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced); ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; ADP: Adenosine diphosphate; and THF:Tetrahydrofolate.
Thus, the ANLS model suggests that lactate, not glucose, provides energetic support for firing neurons [26]. Glutamate and glycine are active participants in these metabolic processes. Exclusion of most blood-borne glutamate at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and a net removal of glutamine from the brain indicate that the cerebral pools of glutamate are largely produced within the brain [27]. The stability of glutamate concentration is maintained by two main reactions. Glutamine synthetase (GS), which is found in astrocytes, is the only known enzyme to date that is capable of a reversible conversion between glutamine and glutamate and ammonia in the mammalian brain [28]. Furthermore, cells can convert glutamate to glutamine in an ATP-dependent process catalyzed by glutamine synthetase. Astrocytic uptake of glutamate and release of glutamine, together with neuronal uptake of glutamine and release of glutamate, constitute the glutamate-glutamine cycle [29]. However, much of the glutamate taken up by astrocytes is destined for oxidative degradation, which first requires conversion to the TCA cycle intermediate 2-oxoglutarate. This can take place via transamination by aminotransferase (AT) or via oxidative deamination by glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) [30].
Once glycine passes into a cell by uptake by GlyTs, the intracellular glycine concentration can be regulated via synthesis from L-serine within the cell, which itself can be synthesized from glycolysis intermediates and L-glutamate [24]. The major pathway for the glycine catabolism involves the oxidative cleavage of glycine to CO2, NH4+, and a methylene group (–CH2–), which is accepted by tetrahydrofolate (H4folate) in a reversible reaction catalyzed by the glycine cleavage system (also called glycine synthase) [31]. The glycine cleavage system is essentially reversible but catalyzes glycine synthesis significantly only under anaerobic conditions, such as in anaerobic bacteria or anaerobic systems in vitro supplemented with NADH+H+ [32].
Taken together, all known information about the metabolic pathways suggests that glutamate and glycine self-regulate the processes of their concentration restoration and mutual transformation. Additionally, oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria also plays a key role in the balance of these AAs.
4. CNS receptors of amino acids
The neuromediator function of AAs in the CNS is performed through the activation of membrane receptors. After being released from the presynaptic membrane into a synaptic cleft, glutamate and glycine rapidly diffuse to a postsynaptic membrane, where appropriate receptors are further activated.
Glutamate receptors are divided into two groups: ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Excitatory neurotransmission throughout the CNS is mediated by ligand-gated ion channels, including ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) [33]. Abnormalities in iGluRs lead to a wide range of neurological diseases. Glutamate, the primary neurotransmitter in almost all synapses in the CNS, is released from presynaptic terminals and diffuses to the postsynaptic membrane, where it binds to iGluRs. This process leads to the opening of ion channels, allowing cations to flow in. Thus, the transmembrane channel rapidly depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane. The decrease in membrane potential initiates signal transduction in the postsynaptic neuron. In the iGluR family, four subtypes of integral membrane proteins have been identified in vertebrates based on their pharmacological properties and sequence homologies: α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA), kainate (KA), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), and δ-receptors [34]. Subsequent cloning studies have revealed that NMDARs are assembled as heteromers that differ in subunit composition. To date, seven different subunits have been identified and categorized into three subfamilies according to sequence homology [35]. Each iGluR family member exhibits specific kinetic and pharmacological properties in addition to playing a unique role in neurotransmission [36]. The iGluRs are ligand-gated ion channels that are permeable to Na+ and K+ (and Ca2+ in some instances), whereas the mGluRs are G protein-coupled receptors that trigger second messenger cascades. The early component and the late component of neurotransmission are assumed to be mediated by AMPARs and NMDARs/KARs, respectively. This assumption is based on receptor kinetics, as AMPARs are faster and NMDARs/KARs are slower. Nevertheless, acoustic signals are transferred by all of these iGluRs in a precise and reliable manner. Moreover, some auditory processing neurons have a fourth type of iGluR, the delta receptor [34]. The open, or conducting, conformation of the iGluR ion channel is nonselective for monovalent cations. Membrane excitation is often driven by channel permeability to Ca2+. This Ca2+ influx and its physiological and pathological consequences depend strongly on the specific iGluR subtype and the specific subunits in its oligomeric complex [37].
mGluRs are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that, following activation, regulate both G protein-dependent and G protein-independent signalling pathways. According to sequence homology, cell signalling activation, and agonist selectivity, the mGluRs have been divided into eight subtypes (from mGlu1 to mGlu8). These subtypes comprise three different subgroups (from I to III) [38]. Group I mGluRs (mGlu1 and mGlu5) are functionally linked to polyphosphoinositide (PI) hydrolysis and are negatively coupled with K+ channels. Both group II (mGlu2 and mGlu3) and group III (mGlu4, mGlu6, mGlu7, and mGlu8) mGluRs negatively regulate adenylate cyclase and activate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and PI-3-kinase pathways [39]. mGluRs are usually localized on synaptic and extrasynaptic membranes in both glia and neurons. Group I mGluRs are generally postsynaptic, surrounding ionotropic receptors, and modulate depolarization and synaptic excitability. Groups II and III are mostly expressed at the presynaptic level and control the release of neurotransmitters [39, 40]. mGluRs are heavily expressed throughout the basal ganglia (BG), where they modulate neuronal excitability, transmitter release, and long-term synaptic plasticity [41]. These receptors are coupled to different G proteins and modulate slow postsynaptic neuronal responses, either through presynaptic or postsynaptic machinery or through modulation of astrocyte function [42]. mGluRs are highly and diffusely expressed in glial cells. On the one hand, this increases the options for therapeutic interventions, but on the other hand, it makes it even more difficult to selectively target single receptors to yield neuroprotection (Figure 3) [43].
Figure 3.
A reconstruction of possible AA ionotropic receptors in the CNS. The images were created using the data collected in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) (https://www.rcsb.org/). The scaled images show GlyR (6UBS, Danio rerio, [44]), AMPAR (5IDE, Rattus norvegicus, [45]), KAR (6KZM, Rattus norvegicus, [46]) and NMDAR (7EOQ , Homo sapiens, [47]).
Glycine receptors (GlyRs), along with certain γ-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABAARs), are the principal determinants of fast inhibitory synaptic neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS). GlyR and GABAAR belong to the superfamily of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) [33]. The two neurotransmitters (glycine and GABA) may be functionally interchangeable, and the multiple receptor subtypes with inhibitory influences provide diverse mechanisms for maintaining inhibitory homeostasis [35]. Inhibitory glycine receptors (GlyRs) are anion-selective ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs), which, together with GABAA receptors (GABAARs), nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), and serotonin type 3 receptors (5HT-3), form the eukaryotic Cys-loop family [36]. Several endogenous molecules, including neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (such as glutamate, Zn, and Ni), and exogenous substances, such as anaesthetics and alcohols, modulate GlyR function [40].
5. Participation in development of pathological processes
Despite their obvious physiological roles in protein synthesis, the cellular effects of glycine and glutamate in the CNS seem to be quite different. If glycine has been contemplated an “angel” compound, due to its generally positive effects, then glutamate has usually been considered a “demon” compound, owing to its generally negative effects. Although the last claim is far from accurate, the first is supported by many experimental findings. Indeed, the effect of glycine has always been reported as positive. It protects against oxidative stress caused by a wide variety of chemicals, drugs, and toxicants at the cellular or organ level in the liver, kidneys, intestines, and vascular system [34, 37]. Glycine is a major component of collagen molecules that is vital to stabilizing them to form a triple helix [48]. Administration of glycine attenuates diabetic complications in a streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat model [49]. Supplemental glycine effectively protects muscles in a variety of wasting models, including cancer cachexia, sepsis, and dieting [50]. Glycine may prevent ischaemia–reperfusion injury by direct cytoprotection, presumably by inhibition of the formation of plasma membrane pores and of the inflammatory response [38]. The cytoprotective and modulatory effects of glycine have been observed in many nonneuronal cell types. The action of glycine is mediated by classic or unconventional GlyRs, both inside and outside of the nervous system [51]. Glycine cytoprotection substantially overlaps with the number of agents that act on neuronal receptors with glycine as an agonist or coagonist. This observation has been confirmed by molecular pharmacology studies from multiple laboratories. The studies indicate highly constrained steric and conformational requirements for the interaction, which, along with the rapid on-off timing of the effects, is consistent with the involvement of reversible ligand-binding site interactions [52].
In contrast, glutamate is considered a toxic agent that yields excitotoxicity at overload concentrations. Indeed, the neurotoxic potential of glutamate has been recognized since the 1950s [53]. For example, a major driver of white matter demise is excitotoxicity, a consequence of the excessive glutamate released by vesicular and nonvesicular mechanisms from axons and glial cells. This excessive glutamate concentration results in overactivation of iGluRs profusely expressed by all cell compartments in white matter [54]. Generally, excitotoxicity involves a large inflow of Ca2+ and Na+ into neurons up to the conditions when Ca2+ concentrations reach critical levels, leading to cell injury or death [55]. Moreover, ambient extracellular glutamate is lower than the concentration known to trigger excitotoxicity and subsequent neurodegeneration; excitotoxicity is known to occur at extracellular glutamate concentrations as low as 2 to 5 μM, with swelling and apoptosis predominating at <20 μM glutamate and fast necrosis at >100 μM glutamate [56]. Excitotoxic neuronal death is involved in neurodegenerative diseases of the CNS, such as multiple sclerosis [57], Alzheimer’s disease [58], Parkinson’s disease [59], Huntington’s disease [60], stroke, epilepsy, alcohol withdrawal, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [61]. However, the role of glutamate is not only excitotoxic. The assumption that neurodegenerative disease treatments should “fight against” glutamate is incorrect given the wrong function of glutamate in the CNS. As a part of normal physiological excitation, this AA must be properly regulated, but battling with glutamate receptors or the transport system will cause serious negative consequences. Instead, the level and functional activity of glutamate may be adjusted by metabolic processes, including glycine and oxidative phosphorylation, in mitochondria.
6. Balance is achieved through mutual interactions of the excitatory and inhibitory effects of amino acids
Because glutamate is the major mediator of excitatory signals as well as of nervous system plasticity, including cell elimination, it follows that glutamate needs to be present at the right concentrations in the right places at the right time [17]. These conditions are regulated by GS, GM, and EAATs and convectional diffusion in ISF. There is evidence that extracellular glutamate is not compartmentalized by EAATs under some conditions [62]. The most obvious shift in glutamate levels is observed under high GDH and AT activity. The general activation of bioenergetics decreases the excessive glutamate concentration by stimulating the TCA cycle. Moreover, glycine can participate in this shift in a variety of ways. GlyT-1 controls glycine release and reuptake, determines glycine availability at glycine binding sites on NMDA receptors [36] and coordinates neuronal-glial interactions at glutamatergic synapses [19]. Thus, glycine assists glutamate in the activation of astrocytes and further stimulates the mitochondria according to the ANLS hypothesis. Glycine can conjugate with glutamate in the GSH synthesis pathway (Figure 1). This mechanism is essential to maintain the redox status of neurons and to prevent oxidative stress and high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) synthesis. Neuronal mitochondria are the target of glutamate, which attenuates succinate dehydrogenase (a key enzyme of the TCA cycle) inhibition by oxaloacetate [63], with further induction of ROS production [64]. However, glycine can prevent excessive hydrogen peroxide production induced by glutamate in brain mitochondria [65], thereby reducing the prooxidant effects of the excessive glutamate concentrations.
Interestingly, the effects of amino acids can vary depending on the species. For example, in a chick model, injections of L-glutamate, NMDA, and AMPA attenuated total distress vocalizations and induced sedation [66]. The association between glutamate and inhibition/sedation is even stronger because the brain contains a considerable level of glutamate decarboxylase, which directly catalyzes the decarboxylation of glutamate to GABA [27]. Additionally, glycine is not always associated with direct inhibition in the CNS. Indeed, in mature neurons, where there is a low intracellular Cl− concentration maintained by K+- Cl− cotransporter 2 (KCC2), activation of GlyRs elicits an influx of Cl−, leading to rapid hyperpolarization and postsynaptic inhibition [67]. In contrast, in immature neurons, activation of GlyRs results in efflux of Cl−, leading to neuronal depolarization; this opens voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, elicits action potentials, and establishes early network activity and excitation in the developing nervous system [68].
Thus, the balance between excitation and inhibition is the result of continuous interactions among different processes involving both glutamate and glycine. It is essential that the main reactions and regulatory sites are nonhomogenously distributed in neuronal space and are time-regulated. Convective flow does not restore the homogeneity of mediator and metabolite concentrations because of the tortuosity of the system [63]. A scheme of the balanced interactions between glycinergic and glutamatergic synapses is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
The transport and activation of receptors in glycinergic and glutamatergic synapses. The transport system is tightly linked with glucose consumption. This transport system occurs in both astrocytes and neurons, but according to the ANLS model, the majority of glucose is consumed in astrocytes, with further diffusion of lactate to neurons. Lactate transport is facilitated by monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs), which have two different isoenzymes. MCT1 is expressed in astrocytes, and MCT2 is found in neurons [69]. Glutamate-glutamine cycling occurs between central astrocytes and neurons, mediated by sodium-coupled neutral amino acid transporters (SNATs). Transport is mediated by two isoforms, SNAT3 and SNAT1 [70]. ISF: interstitial fluid.
7. Clinical applications and perspectives
The first (and obvious) clinical application of AAs is as a reference level to indicate different pathologies. This suggestion covers more AAs than those mentioned above. For decades, the biochemical analysis of AAs in body fluids has been an important diagnostic tool in the detection of congenital errors of metabolism. Significant elevations of amino acids in plasma, urine, or CSF have been the backbone of many diagnostic procedures [71]. This is because defects in amino acid catabolic pathways can be detected by the characteristic accumulation of their metabolites. Well-known examples of this are elevated plasma concentrations of phenylalanine in phenylketonuria (PKU) and increased concentrations of homocysteine in homocystinuria [71].
In addition, the properties of glutamate/glycine discussed above indicate a wide range of potential medical applications for compounds that govern transport, receptors, and metabolic systems in the CNS. A classic pharmacological approach may be based on the search for chemicals that affect the indicated processes; interactions with the target protein site or reaction must be local and precisely unidirectional and wide metabolic participation of the candidate should be avoided. There are several examples to date. Each of the three mGlu subgroups can be considered a novel target for the treatment of schizophrenia. All three symptom domains could be effectively treated by mGlu5 positive allosteric modulators, which are devoid of toxicity and seizure liability according to preclinical data. Furthermore, the potential antipsychotic and cognitive-enhancing effects of drugs targeting mGlu1 and mGlu3 were supported by recent genetic investigations of schizophrenia patients [72]. Preclinical studies have revealed that specific mGluR subtypes mediate significant neuroprotective effects that reduce toxin-induced midbrain dopaminergic neuronal death in animal models of Parkinson’s disease [41]. Additionally, mGluRs have emerged as research targets in treating Alzheimer’s disease. In particular, mGluR-based compounds producing both symptomatic and disease-modifying effects in preclinical models of the disease are of special interest [73]. G protein-coupled mGluRs expressed by tumor cells, particularly cancer stem cells, might represent new candidate drug targets for the treatment of malignant brain tumors [74]. Group III mGluR agonists have been recently identified as promising tools for managing affective symptoms, such as the pathological anxiety observed in neuropathic pain. However, the use of mGluR ligands as anxiolytics was disappointing in clinical trials. Nevertheless, there is ground for a certain amount of optimism [75].
Pharmacological modulation of glycinergic inhibition could represent a novel therapeutic strategy for a variety of diseases involving altered synaptic inhibition, primarily in the spinal cord and brain stem but possibly also at supraspinal sites [74]. Among the inhibitors of GlyT-1, two candidates have attracted the most attention. Sarcosine, a known intermediate of glycine metabolism, had positive results as a short-term treatment of major depression and for acutely ill and chronically stable schizophrenia patients. Another GlyT-1 inhibitor, bitopertin, was expected to be effective in treating negative or positive schizophrenia symptoms. However, the phase III clinical trials fell short of the primary endpoint, and the investigation was halted due to its lack of efficacy in improving negative symptoms [76]. Gelsemium, a small genus of flowering plants from the family Loganiaceae, may be used as a pain treatment and for its mechanism of action. Gelsemium and its active alkaloids may produce antinociception by activating the spinal α3 glycine/allopregnanolone pathway in inflammatory, neuropathic, and bone cancer pain without inducing antinociceptive tolerance, in contrast to morphine [75].
Another strategy is to directly use AAs for medical treatment. In this scenario, glycine is the most appropriate candidate. Glycine has a wide spectrum of protective properties against different diseases and injuries. As such, it represents a novel anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and cytoprotective agent [77]. Oral supplementation of glycine at a proper dose is very successful in treating several metabolic disorders in individuals with cardiovascular diseases, various inflammatory diseases, cancers, diabetes, and obesity [34]. Glycine was well tolerated at a dose of 0.8 g/kg body weight a day, resulting in significantly increased serum glycine levels and a 7% reduction in negative symptoms in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia [78]. An acute high dosage of glycine attenuates the neurophysiological representation of the brain’s preattentive acoustic change detection system (mismatch negativity) in healthy controls, raising the possibility that the optimal effects of glycine and other glycine agonists may depend on the integrity of the NMDA receptor system [79]. The glycine was effective in the treatment of ischaemic stroke patients. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study on 200 patients with acute (<6 h) ischaemic stroke in the carotid artery area, 1.0–2.0 g/day of glycine was accompanied by a tendency towards decreased 30-day mortality (5.9% in the 1.0 g/day glycine and 10% in the 2.0 g/day glycine groups vs. 14% in the placebo and 14.3% in the 0.5 g/day glycine groups), an improved clinical outcome on the Orgogozo Stroke Scale (p < 0.01) and the Scandinavian Stroke Scale (p < 0.01) and a favorable functional outcome on the Barthel Index for Activities of Daily Living (p < 0.01) in the 1.0 g/day glycine group compared to those in the placebo group in patients with no or mild disability [80]. The molecular mechanism of such an effect is based on the ability of glycine to initiate stable vasodilatation of arterioles, which has been demonstrated in rat pial vessels and in mesenteric arterioles [81, 82].
8. Conclusions
According to experimental and clinical evidence, AAs are especially useful nutrients for the treatment of patients with different diseases. These nutrients not only supply a background pool for biochemical reactions, but the functions of the metabolites cover a wide range of neurochemical processes, and they are always mutually dependent. Even though some processes are decreased or increased in illnesses, it does not mean that the treatment strategy must be targeted to only correct the single altered process. A prominent example is glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in neurons. The best strategy to prevent increased glutamate concentrations is to maintain bioenergetic processes in neurons and astrocytes at high activity levels and to activate glycine-dependent processes. Moreover, it helps to assign the exceeded content of the neuromediator to a physiological range and to form stable conditions for further health development, avoiding excitotoxicity (Figure 5). Searching for exogenous antagonists of metabolic receptors seems to be an incorrect therapeutic strategy because the function of the AA-dependent system depends on the basic metabolic regulatory core of metabolic processes. Indeed, to find appropriate therapeutic methods, further fundamental and clinical investigations are necessary.
Figure 5.
Scheme of the mutual influence of inhibition and excitation mediated by glycine and glutamate.
Conflict of interest
The author has no conflict of interest to declare.
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Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81011",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81011",signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov",book:{id:"10890",type:"book",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Thomas Heinbockel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-031-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-030-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-032-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The membrane transport system of amino acids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Transformations of amino acids in the cell metabolic network",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. CNS receptors of amino acids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Participation in development of pathological processes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Balance is achieved through mutual interactions of the excitatory and inhibitory effects of amino acids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Clinical applications and perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Parpura V, Verkhratsky A. Astroglial amino acid-based transmitter receptors. Amino Acids. 2013;44(4):1151-1158'},{id:"B2",body:'Magistretti PJ, Allaman I. A cellular perspective on brain energy metabolism and functional imaging. Neuron. 2015;86(4):883-901'},{id:"B3",body:'Blachier F, Mariotti F, Huneau JF, Tomé D. Effects of amino acid-derived luminal metabolites on the colonic epithelium and physiopathological consequences. Amino Acids. 2007;33(4):547-562'},{id:"B4",body:'Knights KM, Sykes MJ, Miners JO. 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Amino Acids. 2018;50(1):11-27'},{id:"B49",body:'Alvarado-Vasquez N, Lascurain R, Ceron E, Vanda B, Carvajal-Sandoval G, Tapia A, et al. Oral glycine administration attenuates diabetic complications in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Life Sciences. 2006;79(3):225-232'},{id:"B50",body:'Koopman R, Caldow MK, Ham DJ, Lynch GS. Glycine metabolism in skeletal muscle: Implications for metabolic homeostasis. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care. 2017;20(4):237-242'},{id:"B51",body:'Van den Eynden J, Ali SS, Horwood N, Carmans S, Brone B, Hellings N, et al. Glycine and glycine receptor signalling in non-neuronal cells. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 2009;2(Aug):1-12'},{id:"B52",body:'Weinberg JM, Bienholz A, Venkatachalam MA. The role of glycine in regulated cell death. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 2016;73(11-12):2285-2308'},{id:"B53",body:'Choi DW. Excitotoxicity: Still hammering the ischemic brain in 2020. 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Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in Parkinson’s disease: The role of glial cells. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences. 2020;144(3):151-164'},{id:"B60",body:'Sepers MD, Raymond LA. Mechanisms of synaptic dysfunction and excitotoxicity in Huntington’s disease. Drug Discovery Today. 2014;19(7):990-996'},{id:"B61",body:'Mehta A, Prabhakar M, Kumar P, Deshmukh R, Sharma PL. Excitotoxicity: Bridge to various triggers in neurodegenerative disorders. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2013;698(1-3):6-18'},{id:"B62",body:'Chiu DN, Jahr CE. Extracellular glutamate in the nucleus accumbens is nanomolar in both synaptic and non-synaptic compartments. Cell Reports. 2017;18(11):2576-2583'},{id:"B63",body:'Selivanov VA, Zagubnaya OA, Nartsissov YR, Cascante M. Unveiling a key role of oxaloacetate-glutamate interaction in regulation of respiration and ROS generation in nonsynaptic brain mitochondria using a kinetic model. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(8):e0255164'},{id:"B64",body:'Selin AA, Lobysheva NV, Nesterov SV, Skorobogatova YA, Byvshev IM, Pavlik LL, et al. On the regulative role of the glutamate receptor in mitochondria. Biological Chemistry. 2016;397(5):445-458'},{id:"B65",body:'Lobysheva NV, Selin AA, Vangeli IM, Byvshev IM, Yaguzhinsky LS, Nartsissov YR. Glutamate induces H2O2 synthesis in nonsynaptic brain mitochondria. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2013;65:428-435'},{id:"B66",body:'Furuse M. Screening of central functions of amino acids and their metabolites for sedative and hypnotic effects using chick models. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2015;762:382-393'},{id:"B67",body:'Benarroch EE. Glycine and its synaptic interactions: Functional and clinical implications. Neurology. 2011;77(7):677-683'},{id:"B68",body:'Doyon N, Vinay L, Prescott SA, De Koninck Y. Chloride regulation: A dynamic equilibrium crucial for synaptic inhibition. Neuron. 2016;89(6):1157-1172'},{id:"B69",body:'Weiler A, Volkenhoff A, Hertenstein H, Schirmeier S. Metabolite transport across the mammalian and insect brain diffusion barriers. Neurobiology of Disease. 2017;107:15-31'},{id:"B70",body:'Mackenzie B, Erickson JD. Sodium-coupled neutral amino acid (System N/A) transporters of the SLC38 gene family. Pflugers Archiv European Journal of Physiology. 2004;447(5):784-795'},{id:"B71",body:'de Koning TJ. Amino acid synthesis deficiencies. Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease. 2017;40(4):609-620'},{id:"B72",body:'Stansley BJ, Conn PJ. The therapeutic potential of metabotropic glutamate receptor modulation for schizophrenia. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 2018;38:31-36'},{id:"B73",body:'Caraci F, Nicoletti F, Copani A. Metabotropic glutamate receptors: the potential for therapeutic applications in Alzheimer’s disease. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 2018;38:1-7'},{id:"B74",body:'Iacovelli L, Orlando R, Rossi A, Spinsanti P, Melchiorri D, Nicoletti F. Targeting metabotropic glutamate receptors in the treatment of primary brain tumors. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 2018;38:59-64'},{id:"B75",body:'Ferraguti F. Metabotropic glutamate receptors as targets for novel anxiolytics. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 2018;38:37-42'},{id:"B76",body:'Yao L, Zhou Q. Enhancing NMDA receptor function: Recent progress on allosteric modulators. Neural Plasticity. 2017;2017:1-11'},{id:"B77",body:'Zhong Z, Wheeler MD, Li X, Froh M, Schemmer P, Yin M, et al. L-glycine: A novel antiinflammatory, immunomodulatory, and cytoprotective agent. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care. 2003;6(2):229-240'},{id:"B78",body:'Heresco-Levy U, Javitt DC, Ermilov M, Mordel C, Horowitz A, Kelly D. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial of glycine adjuvant therapy for treatment-resistant schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1996;169(5):610-617'},{id:"B79",body:'Leung S, Croft RJ, O’Neill BV, Nathan PJ. Acute high-dose glycine attenuates mismatch negativity (MMN) in healthy human controls. Psychopharmacology. 2008;196(3):451-460'},{id:"B80",body:'Gusev EI, Skvortsova VI, Dambinova SA, Raevskiy KS, Alekseev AA, Bashkatova VG, et al. Neuroprotective effects of glycine for therapy of acute ischaemic stroke. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2000;10(1):49-60'},{id:"B81",body:'Podoprigora GI, Nartsissov YR, Aleksandrov PN. Effect of glycine on microcirculation in pial vessels of rat brain. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 2005;139(6):675-677'},{id:"B82",body:'Podoprigora GI, Nartsissov YR. Effect of glycine on the microcirculation in rat mesenteric vessels. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 2009;147(3):308-311'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov",address:"yarosl@biotic.dol.ru",affiliation:'
Institute of Cytochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Moscow, Russia
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Stoyanov",authors:[{id:"55686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ljuan",middleName:null,surname:"Gurdev",slug:"ljuan-gurdev",fullName:"Ljuan Gurdev"},{id:"61273",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Dreischuh",slug:"tanja-dreischuh",fullName:"Tanja Dreischuh"},{id:"61274",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitar",middleName:"Vassilev",surname:"Stoyanov",slug:"dimitar-stoyanov",fullName:"Dimitar Stoyanov"}]},{id:"24745",doi:"10.5772/24024",title:"Laser Pulse Application in IVF",slug:"laser-pulse-application-in-ivf",totalDownloads:4055,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1356",slug:"lasers-applications-in-science-and-industry",title:"Lasers",fullTitle:"Lasers - Applications in Science and Industry"},signatures:"Carrie Bedient, Pallavi Khanna and Nina Desai",authors:[{id:"55004",title:"Dr.",name:"Nina",middleName:null,surname:"Desai",slug:"nina-desai",fullName:"Nina Desai"},{id:"127713",title:"Dr.",name:"Carrie",middleName:null,surname:"Bedient",slug:"carrie-bedient",fullName:"Carrie Bedient"},{id:"127714",title:"Dr.",name:"Pallavi",middleName:null,surname:"Khanna",slug:"pallavi-khanna",fullName:"Pallavi Khanna"}]},{id:"68795",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88860",title:"Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Carbonaceous Mesophase: A Review",slug:"preparation-characterization-and-applications-of-carbonaceous-mesophase-a-review",totalDownloads:1350,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Carbonaceous mesophase with a nematic liquid crystal structure possesses an easily graphitizable characteristic and can be used as a promising raw material to prepare anisotropic carbon and graphite materials with high performance and multifunction. Therefore, the carbonaceous mesophase occupies a pivotal and irreplaceable position in many frontier and cutting-edge fields. The controllable preparation and characterization of carbonaceous mesophase derived from a model molecule (i.e., naphthalene) are presented, especially the formation, development, and transformation of anisotropic liquid crystalline mesophase in the synthetic naphthalene pitch during the process of liquid-phase carbonization (350–450°C). The increasing applications of naphthalene-based carbonaceous mesophase as an ideal precursor material for fabricating representative advanced carbon materials with high added value (e.g., mesophase pitch-derived coke, mesocarbon microbeads, mesophase pitch-based carbon foam, high-modulus mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers, and high-thermal-conductivity carbon-based composites, etc.) are reviewed in detail in this chapter.",book:{id:"7965",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Guanming Yuan and Zhengwei Cui",authors:[{id:"308403",title:"Prof.",name:"Guanming",middleName:null,surname:"Yuan",slug:"guanming-yuan",fullName:"Guanming Yuan"},{id:"309210",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengwei",middleName:null,surname:"Cui",slug:"zhengwei-cui",fullName:"Zhengwei Cui"}]},{id:"24737",doi:"10.5772/24285",title:"Production of Optical Coatings Resistant to Damage by Petawatt Class Laser Pulses",slug:"production-of-optical-coatings-resistant-to-damage-by-petawatt-class-laser-pulses",totalDownloads:3245,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"1356",slug:"lasers-applications-in-science-and-industry",title:"Lasers",fullTitle:"Lasers - Applications in Science and Industry"},signatures:"John Bellum, Patrick Rambo, Jens Schwarz, Ian Smith, Mark Kimmel, Damon Kletecka and Briggs Atherton",authors:[{id:"56477",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:"C.",surname:"Bellum",slug:"john-bellum",fullName:"John Bellum"},{id:"120423",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Rambo",slug:"patrick-rambo",fullName:"Patrick Rambo"},{id:"120424",title:"Dr.",name:"Jens",middleName:null,surname:"Schwarz",slug:"jens-schwarz",fullName:"Jens Schwarz"},{id:"120425",title:"Mr.",name:"Ian",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"ian-smith",fullName:"Ian Smith"},{id:"120426",title:"Mr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Kimmel",slug:"mark-kimmel",fullName:"Mark Kimmel"},{id:"120427",title:"Mr.",name:"Damon",middleName:null,surname:"Kletecka",slug:"damon-kletecka",fullName:"Damon Kletecka"},{id:"120428",title:"Dr.",name:"Briggs",middleName:null,surname:"Atherton",slug:"briggs-atherton",fullName:"Briggs Atherton"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71926",title:"An Overview of Polymer-Dispersed Liquid Crystals Composite Films and Their Applications",slug:"an-overview-of-polymer-dispersed-liquid-crystals-composite-films-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:1185,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Inherent and incredible properties of liquid crystals (LC) such as optical and dielectric anisotropy make them special candidates for flat-panel display devices; bi-stable reflective displays; high-definition spatial light modulators; switchable windows; haze-free normal- and reverse-mode light shutter devices; projectors; optical, thermal and strain sensors; tuneable lenses; etc. Non-linear response of LC material to the applied electric field is very useful in the above-mentioned applications. When a low molecular weight LC material is doped in a high molecular weight polymer matrix to obtain polymer-dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) films, it offers flexibility and mechanical strength (structural stabilization) to the composite films—PDLC devices. Depending upon the concentration of monomer/polymer, these composite films are classified as polymer-stabilized liquid crystal (PSLC), PDLC and holographic PDLC (HPDLC) films. Depending upon the process conditions, we get phase-separated randomly dispersed micron-sized LC droplets in a continuous polymer matrix. These nematic LC droplets exhibit light scattering transmission properties depending on their orientation, which can be controlled by external electric field. This chapter gives deep insight about operating principle, phase separation techniques involved, alignment of LC and controlling LC droplet morphology of PDLC films to obtain desired properties. In order to improve the optical efficiency and to obtain the desired result from PDLC films, various guest entities such as dye and nanomaterials are doped in the host LC material. This chapter also accounts for various possible LC dopants desired for improving the electro-optic (EO) and dielectric properties of PDLC devices. Various applications of PDLC composite films are also described in this chapter.",book:{id:"7965",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Anuja Katariya Jain and Rajendra R. Deshmukh",authors:[{id:"34437",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajendrasing",middleName:"Rajesing",surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"rajendrasing-deshmukh",fullName:"Rajendrasing Deshmukh"},{id:"318245",title:"Dr.",name:"Anuja",middleName:null,surname:"Katariya-Jain",slug:"anuja-katariya-jain",fullName:"Anuja Katariya-Jain"}]},{id:"71353",title:"Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Polyesteramides: Non-Viral Vectors",slug:"cholesteric-liquid-crystal-polyesteramides-non-viral-vectors",totalDownloads:597,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Polyesteramides PNOBDME (C34H38N2O6)n, Poly[oxy(1,2-dodecane)-oxy-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-amine-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl-amine-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl], and PNOBEE (C26H22N2O6)n, Poly[oxy(1,2-butylene)-oxy-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-amine-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl-amine-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl], have been designed and synthesized as cholesteric liquid crystals (LCs)—through a condensation reaction between 4- 4′-(terephthaloyl-diaminedibenzoic chloride) (NOBC) and racemic glycol, DL-1,2-dodecanediol or DL-1,2-butanediol, respectively—as chemical modifications of multifunctional cholesteric LC polyesters, involving new properties but holding the precursor helical macromolecular structures. The new compounds have been characterized by 1H and 13C-NMR, COSY and HSQC, exhibiting two 1H-independent sets of signals observed for each enantiomer, attributed to two diastereomeric conformers, gg and gt, of the torsion containing the asymmetric carbon atom in the spacer. They have also been characterized by x-ray diffraction with synchrotron radiation source. Thermal behaviour of the new compounds is studied by thermogravimetric (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. The substitution of the ester groups in the mesogen by amide groups causes an increase of thermal stability with respect to the precursors. Optical rotatory dispersion (ORD) is evaluated. Morphology of powdered PNOBDME exhibits spherical clusters of about 5 μm in diameter homogeneously dispersed. Molecular models show helical polymeric chains with stereoregular head-tail, isotactic structure, explained as due to the higher reactivity of the primary hydroxyl with respect to the secondary one in the glycol through the polycondensation reaction. Besides being biocompatible, these synthetic polyesteramides have proved to act as non-viral vectors in gene therapy and be able to transfect DNA to the nucleus cell. Similar new cationic cholesteric liquid crystal polyesters have also been synthesized in our laboratory.",book:{id:"7965",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez and José Fayos Alcañiz",authors:[{id:"205972",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercedes",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez Méndez",slug:"mercedes-perez-mendez",fullName:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez"},{id:"316150",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Fayos Alcañíz",slug:"jose-fayos-alcaniz",fullName:"José Fayos Alcañíz"}]},{id:"72382",title:"Introductory Chapter: Nematic Liquid Crystals",slug:"introductory-chapter-nematic-liquid-crystals",totalDownloads:657,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"7965",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Irina Carlescu",authors:[{id:"258032",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Carlescu",slug:"irina-carlescu",fullName:"Irina Carlescu"}]},{id:"57062",title:"Optical Properties of Complex Oxide Thin Films Obtained by Pulsed Laser Deposition",slug:"optical-properties-of-complex-oxide-thin-films-obtained-by-pulsed-laser-deposition",totalDownloads:1527,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The market for thin films of complex oxides obtained by different deposition techniques is increasing exponentially in last decades due to large variety of possible application such as high-efficient solar cell, optoelectronic devices, etc. pulsed laser deposition (PLD) is a versatile growth technique and recently became more attractive for industrial applications due to the possibility to obtain crystalline thin films on a large area. Laser processing techniques were successfully used to obtain thin films with good optical properties starting from simple oxides, such as Sm2O3, ZrO2, etc., to more complex lead-free materials: SrxBa1−xNb2O6 (SBN) and Na1/2Bi1/2TiO3−x%BaTiO3, or superconductive oxide YBa2Cu3O7−δ. When oxide thin films are designated for electronic and optoelectronic devices or for solar cells, the optical properties and the thickness must be well known. For this purpose, the spectroscopic ellipsometry technique was developed. Ellipsometry is a powerful technique to determine the optical properties of thin films especially when the thicknesses of thin films are in a nanometer range.",book:{id:"6059",slug:"laser-ablation-from-fundamentals-to-applications",title:"Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Laser Ablation - From Fundamentals to Applications"},signatures:"Valentin Ion, Andreea Andrei, Maria Dinescu and Nicu Doinel\nScarisoreanu",authors:[{id:"32241",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Dinescu",slug:"maria-dinescu",fullName:"Maria Dinescu"},{id:"156567",title:"MSc.",name:"Andreea",middleName:null,surname:"Andrei",slug:"andreea-andrei",fullName:"Andreea Andrei"},{id:"181341",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentin",middleName:null,surname:"Ion",slug:"valentin-ion",fullName:"Valentin Ion"},{id:"181362",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicu D.",middleName:null,surname:"Scarisoreanu",slug:"nicu-d.-scarisoreanu",fullName:"Nicu D. Scarisoreanu"}]},{id:"56891",title:"Multi-Beam Multi-Target Pulsed Laser Deposition of AZO Films with Polymer Nanoparticles for Thermoelectric Energy Harvesters",slug:"multi-beam-multi-target-pulsed-laser-deposition-of-azo-films-with-polymer-nanoparticles-for-thermoel",totalDownloads:1389,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In comparison with metallic thermoelectric films, oxide films with artificial nanodefects have been seldom studied. And there has been no report on the incorporation of island-shaped organic nanoparticles. We describe a new approach to introduce nanometer-sized phonon scatterers in aluminum-doped ZnO (AZO) thermoelectric thin films–concurrent multi-beam multi-target-pulsed laser deposition and the matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MBMT-PLD/MAPLE). The approach was used to make nanocomposite thin films of AZO matrix with evenly dispersed poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) nanoparticles. The introduction of the nanoparticles enhanced phonon scattering with consequent decrease of thermal conductivity by 20%. The electrical conductivity did not decrease after the addition of the second phase, as it would be predicted by Wiedemann-Franz law, but improved by 350% over pure AZO film. The thermoelectric figure of merit of the nanocomposite film became twice that of the pure AZO film. Taking advantage of room-temperature deposition, optimized AZO nanocomposite films are expected to be used in real applications, such as thin film modules deposited on flexible polymeric substrates for ubiquitous harvesting of the waste heat.",book:{id:"6059",slug:"laser-ablation-from-fundamentals-to-applications",title:"Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Laser Ablation - From Fundamentals to Applications"},signatures:"Abdalla M. Darwish, Sergey S. Sarkisov, Paolo Mele and Shrikant\nSaini",authors:[{id:"186848",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdalla",middleName:null,surname:"Darwish",slug:"abdalla-darwish",fullName:"Abdalla Darwish"},{id:"212023",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sarkisov",slug:"sergey-sarkisov",fullName:"Sergey Sarkisov"},{id:"217105",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Mele",slug:"paolo-mele",fullName:"Paolo Mele"},{id:"217106",title:"Dr.",name:"Shrikant",middleName:null,surname:"Saini",slug:"shrikant-saini",fullName:"Shrikant Saini"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1222",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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