",isbn:"978-1-83969-452-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-451-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-453-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6e1a11c05ff8853c529750ddfac6c11",bookSignature:"Dr. René Mauricio Barría",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10734.jpg",keywords:"Neonatal Intensive Unit, Neonatal Diagnostic Techniques, Neonatal Nurses, Neonatologists, Newborn Diseases, Premature Diseases, Breast Feeding, Kangaroo-Mother Care Method, Neonatal Survival, Limit of Viability, Minimal Handling, Neonatal Stress",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 5th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 4th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 21st 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"The principal investigator and academic expert in epidemiological methods and evidence-based health with an emphasis on children's health. His research interests lie in the areas of Maternal-Child Health, Neonatal Care, and Environmental Health. From 2010 until 2017 he was Director of the Evidence-Based Health Office and currently serves as Director of the Nursing Institute at the Universidad Austral de Chile.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",middleName:null,surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/88861/images/system/88861.jpg",biography:"R. Mauricio Barría, DrPH, is a Principal Investigator and Associate Professor at the Faculty of Medicine at Universidad Austral de Chile. He was trained as an epidemiologist and received his MSc in Clinical Epidemiology from Universidad de la Frontera in Temuco, Chile, and his DrPH from Universidad de Chile in Santiago, Chile. His research interests lie in the areas of Maternal-Child Health, Neonatal Care and Environmental Health. He is skilled in epidemiological studies designs with special interest in cohort studies and clinical trials. Since 2010 until 2017 he was Director of the Evidence-Based Health Office and currently serves as Director of the Nursing Institute at the Universidad Austral de Chile. He has published several articles related to the care and health of the newborn and is a reviewer of several international journals.",institutionString:"Austral University of Chile",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Austral University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"345821",firstName:"Darko",lastName:"Hrvojic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"darko@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5821",title:"Selected Topics in Neonatal Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"711594f833d5470b73524758472f4d96",slug:"selected-topics-in-neonatal-care",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8728",title:"Update on Critical Issues on Infant and Neonatal Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52c4dbe7c0deb54899657dc4323238d6",slug:"update-on-critical-issues-on-infant-and-neonatal-care",bookSignature:"René Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8728.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6191",title:"Selected Topics in Breastfeeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3334b831761ffa52e78de6fc681e33b3",slug:"selected-topics-in-breastfeeding",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría P.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65706",title:"Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84556",slug:"application-of-organic-coagulants-in-water-and-wastewater-treatment",body:'
1. Introduction
The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [1, 2]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [2, 3]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [2, 3, 4], sedimentation or flotation [5, 6] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [7]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [8, 9]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [10, 11, 12]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [11] has raised concerns associated with sludge generation and heavy metal residuals which are potentially toxic to the ecosystem [10, 11, 12]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’s standards for regulating the quality of effluent plants [8].
In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Figure 1), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [14, 15]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [5, 6]. However, most of the industrial wastewaters from the oil refinery, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [10, 15, 16]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [14, 17, 18]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [11, 17]. Also, the problem related to disposal of huge sludge and metals in the effluents, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [4, 13, 19], requires a technique to recover the valuable or toxic metals from the sludge [20, 21]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [20, 21, 22].
Figure 1.
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [23]. Figure 2 shows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [24]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [24, 25, 26]. The flocculation facilitates the agglomeration of the coagulated particles to form larger flocs, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [24]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants. Their low charge density makes not to reverse the surface charge and hence they are less prone to induce destabilization.
Figure 2.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].
Also, agglomeration of particles to form large and stable flocs involve mixing of the coagulants with the wastewaters usually monitored via Jar test. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [11, 17, 27]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [28, 29]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in Table 1.
Coagulant characteristics
MOW characteristics
Physical characteristics
Coagulant type
Water quality
Flotation/settling time
Coagulant dosage
Suspended solids
Mixing intensity
Coagulant quality
Temperature
Coagulant dosage end point
Coagulant lifespan
pH
Chemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilution
Alkalinity
Ionic constituents
Table 1.
Factors that affect the chemical purification process [17].
2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes
2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [12, 14]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3) adsorption and charge neutralization; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. This involves the reaction between the colloids and the added coagulant to destabilize and neutralize the electric charges in the particles, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.
For instance (Figure 3), the addition of the coagulant is accountable for the creation of small scattered particles which come together into larger and more stable particle flocs. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [1, 2]. Furthermore, the coagulation step depends on conditions of time and agitation whereby the particles coalesced to form larger flocs could be eliminated by sedimentation.
Figure 3.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [30]. In a typical flotation process (Figure 4), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water, which then allows the flocs to float to the surface. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [31, 32].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [33]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [34], such that the chemical reaction between the coagulants and the organic matter results in forming larger oil flocs, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [35, 36]. This allows the coagulated flocs to float on the surface as sludge, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
There are several operating factors that have an impact on the parallel and sequential reactions that occur when a coagulant is added to the wastewater. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation, there are a series of transportation mechanisms which occurs including Brownian diffusion and fluid motion. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
2.2.1 Effects of polymer molecular weight and charge density
Polymer molecular weight (MW) and charge density (CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [37, 38], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation. Although anionic charge on the polymer can obstruct adsorption onto an undesirable surface, it promotes the polymer chain via mutual charge repulsion between polymer molecules [39]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (both those that are charged, irrespective of pH and those that can become charged under certain pH conditions) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in (1)–(3) as a function of the amount of ionic charge (qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [38, 40]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions
The degree of coagulation completion for effective treatment can be related to coagulant dosage and mixing conditions. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in Figure 5. The rapid or fast mixing occurs after the addition of the coagulants, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [24, 25, 29]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
Figure 5.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.
Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation. Slow mixing provides a velocity gradient for particles with similar size that can be larger than 1 μm. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [33, 36, 38]. In practice (Figure 5), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [24, 27]. In flotation principle, a lower dosage of the polymer can be used because the agitation creates a well-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [33, 41].
2.2.4 Effects of pH
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [36, 41]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [24, 38]. With an increase in pH, these species become charged resulting in a change in mechanism. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
2.2.5 Coagulant type and dosage
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [4, 41]. Coagulant dosage is an energetic factor in finding how the metal ions react with the organic matter in wastewater to enhance its clarity.
Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [15, 17]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [17, 18, 24]. Thus, the dosage needs to be stepped up in other to compensate for the loss of the polymer.
2.2.6 Ionic strength
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [24, 38, 40]. In contrast, like-charges of a polymer chain tend to expand when there is a mutual repulsion. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also, an increase in ionic strength shields the charged site of the polymer which then affects its hydrodynamic volume expansion by decreasing the viscosity of the solution [39, 40]. This causes a double layer compression to be formed around the floc surface area where there might be oppositely charged ions.
3. Coagulants
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [42]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However, each type of coagulant has its own unique properties with positive ions which will entrap the negative charge of the organic matter in the water that causes turbidity.
3.1 Inorganic coagulants
Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings. These include based aluminum metals (aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate) and iron based metals (ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [13, 17, 18]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+ and Fe (H2O)63+ for aluminum and iron respectively [26, 37, 39, 43]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH− ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+ and Fe (OH)2 which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [26, 29].
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [17, 18]. These include high dosage dependence, a high requirement on pH, weakness to temperature disparity and high sludge generation. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in Table 2. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [25, 33]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2 (SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used; produces less sludge than lime; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
Effective in hard waters; small dosage usually needed
Often used with alum; high cost; ineffective in soft waters
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent; produces large quantities of sludge; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Table 2.
Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [18, 33, 41].
3.2 Organic coagulants
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [15, 17]. Table 3 shows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [15]. There are various types of organic coagulants, which have different covalent charges and bonds of their polymeric molecules. These include the charge or ionic polymers (polyelectrolytes) and no charge or non-ionic polymers [15, 25]. In respect to the charge polymers, those with a positive charge are termed as cationic polymers, whereas those with negative charges are called anionic polymers.
Name
Formula
Typical properties
Uses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl
PAC 23
* 23–24% Al2O3 or 40–41% w/w ACH
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity. Has little impact on pH
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3 or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity. Has greater impact on pH than ACH
Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [16, 24].
4. General characteristics of coagulants
There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [15, 17]. These include (1) they have a very high charge density to neutralize the negative charges present on the surface of the colloidal material, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW) which allows good diffusion of the cationic charges around the particles. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103 centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103 centipoises [14, 15, 24]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105 and 106 and more than 106 respectively [14, 15, 17].
4.1 Methods of polymerization
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [15, 24].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions: The monomers are emulsified in a solvent before being polymerized. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions, making it effortlessness to use.
Dispersions: In this case, the monomers are usually dispersed in brine before being polymerized. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process, making it a cost-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater. Figure 6 shows the dissociation of the ionic charge of the polymer when introduced into a receiving medium (emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [14, 15, 17]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch, Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [11, 14, 44].
Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [11, 18]. For instance, Figure 7 shows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [15, 17, 24].
Figure 7.
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers, which gets a negative charge when their ionic groups dissociate in a medium [15, 17]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight, charge groups and density as well their structure being linear or branched as shown in Figure 8. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid. Subsequent hydrolysis of the polyacrylamide under basic pH conditions produces a polymer with anionic charges. Table 4 shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-monomers in terms of charge density (mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Cationic polymers are positively charged natural or synthetic based organic coagulants. Some of these polymers have charge ammonium groups making them strong electrolytes irrespective of their pH variation [15, 17]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously. The hydrolysis of the ester groups and consequent loss of cationic charge is CD and pH dependent. Table 5 outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer. The higher charge density shows that the polymer has a greater loop which enhances interparticle bridging and effective destabilization of the medium. Figure 9 shows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.
Polymer
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
PDADMAC
C8H16NCl
100
6.2
ECH/DMA
C5H12 ONCl
100
7.3
CPAM
C8H16 O2NCl
100
5.2
CPAM
(C8H16 O2NCl)0.5(C3H5 ON)0.5
50
3.8
CPAM
(C8H16 O2NCl)0.25(C3H5 ON)0.75
25
2.5
CPAM
(C8H16 O2NCl)0.1(C3H5 ON)0.9
10
1.2
Chitosan
C6H11 O4N.HCl
100
5.2
Table 5.
Charge densities of cationic polyelectrolytes [17].
Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [11]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [17, 38, 44]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes, metal ion removal and sludge conditioning.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [17, 25].
Furthermore, plants and minerals are a cardinal source of natural polymers. Some examples includes: Nirmali seeds, Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [14, 15, 44]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable, produce lower sludge, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover, natural coagulants have a wide range of effective dosage and do not change the value of pH for the treated water. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [3, 44].
4.2.4 Application of organic polymers
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [41]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [1, 11]. This concept is also applicable to primary coagulation of industrial wastewaters where the separation may be based on flotation, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal. Table 6 shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight, charge density, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However, to achieve optimum stabilization and agglomerating of flocs requires optimum dosage, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [39, 40].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus, the issue of sludge sedimentation which must be floated is relatively low to flotation systems utilizing organic polymers rather than inorganic coagulants. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Durban University of Technology and National Research Foundation South Africa for their support.
\n',keywords:"coagulation, organic polymers, water and wastewater, purification",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65706.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65706.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65706",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65706",totalDownloads:2492,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 13th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 19th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 3rd 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Coagulation is an essential mechanism that occurs in most conventional water and wastewater treatment plants. This occurs in a physical purification unit involving transport processes and the addition of coagulants for chemical reactions, charge neutralization, and formation of smaller flocs to agglomerate into larger flocs. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However, poor treatment of wastewater might have a high negative impact on biodiversity and the environment in general. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH, coagulant type and dosage to ease the high sludge production and discharge of residual metals into the downstream waters is addressed. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65706",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65706",book:{slug:"organic-polymers"},signatures:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh and Sudesh Rathilal",authors:[{id:"199957",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudesh",middleName:null,surname:"Rathilal",fullName:"Sudesh Rathilal",slug:"sudesh-rathilal",email:"rathilals@dut.ac.za",position:null,institution:null},{id:"262983",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kweinor Tetteh",fullName:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh",slug:"emmanuel-kweinor-tetteh",email:"ektetteh34@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Durban University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Chemical purification process",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.1 Effects of polymer molecular weight and charge density",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.2 Temperature",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.4 Effects of pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.5 Coagulant type and dosage",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.6 Ionic strength",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Coagulants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 Inorganic coagulants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2 Organic coagulants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. General characteristics of coagulants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.1 Methods of polymerization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Choy SY, Prasad KMN, Wu TY, Raghunandan ME, Ramanan RN. Utilization of plant-based natural coagulants as future alternatives towards sustainable water clarification. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2014;26(11):2178-2189'},{id:"B2",body:'Jones DL, Freeman C, Sánchez-Rodríguez AR. Waste water treatment. In: Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences. UK: Academic Press; 2016'},{id:"B3",body:'Yin CY. Emerging usage of plant-based coagulants for water and wastewater treatment. Process Biochemistry. 2010;45(9):1437-1444'},{id:"B4",body:'Konieczny K, Sakol D, Płonka J, Rajca M, Bodzek M. Coagulation-ultrafiltration system for river water treatment. Desalination. 2009;240(1-3):151-159'},{id:"B5",body:'de Sena RF, Tambosi JL, Genena AK, Moreira R d FPM, Schröder HF, José HJ. Treatment of meat industry wastewater using dissolved air flotation and advanced oxidation processes monitored by GC-MS and LC-MS. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2009;152(1):151-157'},{id:"B6",body:'Amaral Filho J, Azevedo A, Etchepare R, Rubio J. Removal of sulfate ions by dissolved air flotation (DAF) following precipitation and flocculation. International Journal of Mineral Processing. 2016;149(2016):1-8'},{id:"B7",body:'WHO, WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. 4th ed; 2011'},{id:"B8",body:'Tyagi S, Sharma B. Water quality assessment in terms of water quality index. American Journal of Water Resources. 2013, 2014;1(3):34-38'},{id:"B9",body:'The Environmental and Protection Agency. Parameters of water quality. Environmental Protection. 2002'},{id:"B10",body:'Yu L, Han M, He F. A review of treating oily wastewater. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2017;10:S1913-S1922'},{id:"B11",body:'Sillanpää M, Ncibi MC, Matilainen A, Vepsäläinen M. Removal of natural organic matter in drinking water treatment by coagulation: A comprehensive review. Chemosphere. 2018;190:54-71'},{id:"B12",body:'Teh CY, Budiman PM, Shak KPY, Wu TY. Recent advancement of coagulation-flocculation and its application in wastewater treatment. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 2016;55(16):4363-4389'},{id:"B13",body:'Gebbie P. Using Polyaluminium Coagulants in Water Treatment. 2001. Available from: https://mysullys.com/flow-chart-of-complete-sewage-treatment-plant/onondaga-county-department-water-environment-protection/#content [Accessed: 28 December 2018]'},{id:"B14",body:'Kango S, Kalia S, Celli A, Njuguna J, Habibi Y, Kumar R. Surface modification of inorganic nanoparticles for development of organic-inorganic nanocomposites—A review. Progress in Polymer Science. 2013;38(8):1232-1261'},{id:"B15",body:'V. Chandrasekhar, Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers. Berlin: Springer; 2005:108-112'},{id:"B16",body:'Santander M, Rodrigues RT, Rubio J. Modified jet flotation in oil (petroleum) emulsion/water separations. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2011;375(1-3):237-244'},{id:"B17",body:'Bolto B, Gregory J. Organic polyelectrolytes in water treatment. Water Research. 2007;41(11):2301-2324'},{id:"B18",body:'Zachmann HG. Advances in polymer science. Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 1976;255(8):729-734'},{id:"B19",body:'Konieczny K, Bodzek M, Rajca M. A coagulation-MF system for water treatment using ceramic membranes. Desalination. 2006'},{id:"B20",body:'Lightfoot EN. Membrane separations technology: Principles and applications. Chemical Engineering Science. 1996'},{id:"B21",body:'Sarkar S, Sengupta AK, Prakash P. The Donnan membrane principle: Opportunities for sustainable engineered processes and materials. Environmental Science and Technology. 2010'},{id:"B22",body:'Cumbal L, Sengupta AK. Arsenic removal using polymer-supported hydrated iron(III) oxide nanoparticles: Role of Donnan membrane effect. Environmental Science and Technology. 2005;39(17):6508-6515'},{id:"B23",body:'Tetteh EK, Rathilal S. Effects of a polymeric organic coagulant for industrial mineral oil wastewater treatment using response surface methodology (Rsm). Water SA. 2018;44(2):155-161'},{id:"B24",body:'SNF Floerger. Coagulation-Flocculation. Vol. 1. ZAC de Milieux; 2003'},{id:"B25",body:'Duan J, Gregory J. Coagulation by hydrolysing metal salts. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 2003;100:475-502'},{id:"B26",body:'Tzoupanos ND, Zouboulis AI. Coagulation-flocculation processes in water/wastewater treatment : The application of new generation of chemical reagents. In: 6th IASME/WSEAS International Conference on Heat Transfer, Thermal Engineering and Environment. 2008'},{id:"B27",body:'Rajasulochana P, Preethy V. Comparison on efficiency of various techniques in treatment of waste and sewage water—A comprehensive review. Resource-Efficient Technologies. 2016;2(4):175-184'},{id:"B28",body:'Sahu OP, Chaudhari PK. Review on chemical treatment of industrial waste water review on chemical treatment. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 2013;17(2):241-257'},{id:"B29",body:'Gupta VK, Ali I, Saleh TA, Nayak A, Agarwal S. Chemical treatment technologies for waste-water recycling—An overview. RSC Advances. 2012;2(16):6380-6388'},{id:"B30",body:'Edzwald JK. Dissolved air flotation and me. Water Research. 2010;44(7):2077-2106'},{id:"B31",body:'Sim TS, Goh A, Becker EW. Comparison of centrifugation, dissolved air flotation and drum filtration techniques for harvesting sewage-grown algae. Biomass. 1988;16(1):51-62'},{id:"B32",body:'Edzwald JK. Principles and applications of dissolved air flotation. Water Science and Technology. 1995;31(3-4):1-23'},{id:"B33",body:'Kyzas GZ, Matis KA. Electroflotation process: A review. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2016;220:657-664'},{id:"B34",body:'Tetteh EK, Rathilal S, Chollom MN. Treatment of industrial mineral oil wastewater—Optimisation of coagulation flotation process using response surface methodology (RSM). International Journal of Applied Engineering Research. 2017;12(23):13084-13091'},{id:"B35",body:'Behin J, Bahrami S. Modeling an industrial dissolved air flotation tank used for separating oil from wastewater. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification. 2012;59:1-8'},{id:"B36",body:'Zouboulis AI, Avranas A. Treatment of oil-in-water emulsions by coagulation and dissolved-air flotation. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2000;172(1-3):153-161'},{id:"B37",body:'Verma AK, Dash RR, Bhunia P. A review on chemical coagulation/flocculation technologies for removal of colour from textile wastewaters. Journal of Environmental Management. 2012;93(1):154-168'},{id:"B38",body:'Scholz M, Scholz M. Chapter 7—Coagulation and flocculation. In: Wetlands for Water Pollution Control. 2016'},{id:"B39",body:'Lee CS, Robinson J, Chong MF. A review on application of flocculants in wastewater treatment. Process Safety and Environment Protection. 2014'},{id:"B40",body:'Watanabe Y. Flocculation and me. Water Research. 2017;114:88-103'},{id:"B41",body:'Wei H, Gao B, Ren J, Li A, Yang H. Coagulation/flocculation in dewatering of sludge: A review. Water Research. 2018'},{id:"B42",body:'Tetteh EK, Rathilal S, Robinson K. Treatment of industrial mineral oil wastewater—Effects of coagulant type and dosage. Water Practice Technology. 2017;12(1):139-145'},{id:"B43",body:'Yang R, Li H, Huang M, Yang H, Li A. A review on chitosan-based flocculants and their applications in water treatment. Water Research. 2016;95:59-89'},{id:"B44",body:'Ndabigengesere A, Subba Narasiah K. Quality of water treated by coagulation using Moringa oleifera seeds. Water Research. 1998;32(3):781-791'},{id:"B45",body:'Rodrigues AC, Boroski M, Shimada NS, Garcia JC, Nozaki J, Hioka N. Treatment of paper pulp and paper mill wastewater by coagulation-flocculation followed by heterogeneous photocatalysis. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry. 2008;194(1):1-10'},{id:"B46",body:'Wang Z, Xue M, Huang K, Liu Z. Textile dyeing wastewater treatment. In: Advances in Treating Textile Effluent. UK: IntechOpen press; 2011'},{id:"B47",body:'Panizza M, Cerisola G. Electrochemical oxidation as a final treatment of synthetic tannery wastewater. Environmental Science and Technology. 2004;38(20):5470-5475'},{id:"B48",body:'El-Naas MH, Alhaija MA, Al-Zuhair S. Evaluation of a three-step process for the treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 2014;2(1):56-62'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh",address:"ektetteh34@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8357",title:"Organic Polymers",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Organic Polymers",slug:"organic-polymers",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8357.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202274",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"68396",title:"Introductory Chapter: Organic Polymer - Graft Copolymers",slug:"introductory-chapter-organic-polymer-graft-copolymers",totalDownloads:251,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Arpit Sand and Aparna Vyas",authors:[{id:"202274",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand",slug:"arpit-sand"},{id:"302309",title:"Dr.",name:"Aparna",middleName:null,surname:"Vyas",fullName:"Aparna Vyas",slug:"aparna-vyas"}]},{id:"67226",title:"Rapid Evaluation of the Properties of Natural Rubber Latex and Its Products Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"rapid-evaluation-of-the-properties-of-natural-rubber-latex-and-its-products-using-near-infrared-spec",totalDownloads:845,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Panmanas Sirisomboon and Chin Hock Lim",authors:[{id:"268630",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Panmanas",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisomboon",fullName:"Panmanas Sirisomboon",slug:"panmanas-sirisomboon"},{id:"268634",title:"Mr.",name:"Chin Hock",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",fullName:"Chin Hock Lim",slug:"chin-hock-lim"}]},{id:"67172",title:"Electron Donor-Acceptor Organic Polymers by “Click” Type Cycloaddition/Retroelectrocyclization Reaction",slug:"electron-donor-acceptor-organic-polymers-by-click-type-cycloaddition-retroelectrocyclization-reactio",totalDownloads:383,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Wenyi Huang",authors:[{id:"264605",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Wenyi",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Wenyi Huang",slug:"wenyi-huang"}]},{id:"65706",title:"Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment",slug:"application-of-organic-coagulants-in-water-and-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:2492,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh and Sudesh Rathilal",authors:[{id:"199957",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudesh",middleName:null,surname:"Rathilal",fullName:"Sudesh Rathilal",slug:"sudesh-rathilal"},{id:"262983",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kweinor Tetteh",fullName:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh",slug:"emmanuel-kweinor-tetteh"}]},{id:"65674",title:"Directed Self-Assembly of Block Copolymers Based on the Heterogeneous Nucleation Process",slug:"directed-self-assembly-of-block-copolymers-based-on-the-heterogeneous-nucleation-process",totalDownloads:281,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Rui Lu, Xiaobing Qu, Lu Zhang, Nana Zhu and Tao Yang",authors:[{id:"287953",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Tao Yang",slug:"tao-yang"},{id:"316422",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Rui Lu",slug:"rui-lu"},{id:"316423",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaobing",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",fullName:"Xiaobing Qu",slug:"xiaobing-qu"},{id:"316424",title:"Dr.",name:"Lu",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Lu Zhang",slug:"lu-zhang"},{id:"316425",title:"Dr.",name:"Nana",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Nana Zhu",slug:"nana-zhu"}]},{id:"69528",title:"New Methods in the Synthesis of (Meth)Acrylates",slug:"new-methods-in-the-synthesis-of-meth-acrylates",totalDownloads:221,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Cengiz Soykan",authors:[{id:"295591",title:"Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Soykan",fullName:"Cengiz Soykan",slug:"cengiz-soykan"}]},{id:"69280",title:"Biodegradable Polymers: Opportunities and Challenges",slug:"biodegradable-polymers-opportunities-and-challenges",totalDownloads:478,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Marieli Rosseto, Cesar V.T. Rigueto, Daniela D.C. Krein, Naiana P. Balbé, Lillian A. Massuda and Aline Dettmer",authors:[{id:"302139",title:"Prof.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Dettmer",fullName:"Aline Dettmer",slug:"aline-dettmer"},{id:"308026",title:"Mr.",name:"Cesar V.T.",middleName:null,surname:"Rigueto",fullName:"Cesar V.T. Rigueto",slug:"cesar-v.t.-rigueto"},{id:"308394",title:"Ms.",name:"Marieli",middleName:null,surname:"Rosseto",fullName:"Marieli Rosseto",slug:"marieli-rosseto"},{id:"308395",title:"Ms.",name:"Daniela D.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Krein",fullName:"Daniela D.C. Krein",slug:"daniela-d.c.-krein"},{id:"308396",title:"Ms.",name:"Naiana P.",middleName:null,surname:"Balbé",fullName:"Naiana P. Balbé",slug:"naiana-p.-balbe"},{id:"308398",title:"Ms.",name:"Lillian A.",middleName:null,surname:"Massuda",fullName:"Lillian A. Massuda",slug:"lillian-a.-massuda"}]},{id:"67521",title:"Lignin as Sustainable Antimicrobial Fillers to Develop PET Multifilaments by Melting Process",slug:"lignin-as-sustainable-antimicrobial-fillers-to-develop-pet-multifilaments-by-melting-process",totalDownloads:433,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Juliette Minet, Aurélie Cayla and Christine Campagne",authors:[{id:"229606",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurélie",middleName:null,surname:"Cayla",fullName:"Aurélie Cayla",slug:"aurelie-cayla"},{id:"303114",title:"Prof.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Campagne",fullName:"Christine Campagne",slug:"christine-campagne"},{id:"303115",title:"Mrs.",name:"Juliette",middleName:null,surname:"Minet",fullName:"Juliette Minet",slug:"juliette-minet"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6387",title:"Polyester",subtitle:"Production, Characterization and Innovative Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3a1fd3a0981aecc295467e1d7650c1af",slug:"polyester-production-characterization-and-innovative-applications",bookSignature:"Nurhan Onar Camlibel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6387.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198613",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurhan",surname:"Onar Camlibel",slug:"nurhan-onar-camlibel",fullName:"Nurhan Onar Camlibel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"59228",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to “Polyester – Production, Characterization and Innovative Applications”",slug:"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-polyester-production-characterization-and-innovative-applicatio",signatures:"Nurhan Onar Camlibel",authors:[{id:"198613",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurhan",middleName:null,surname:"Onar Camlibel",fullName:"Nurhan Onar Camlibel",slug:"nurhan-onar-camlibel"}]},{id:"58300",title:"PET Bottle Recycling for Sustainable Textiles",slug:"pet-bottle-recycling-for-sustainable-textiles",signatures:"Esin Sarioğlu and Hatice Kübra Kaynak",authors:[{id:"117486",title:"Dr.",name:"Hatice Kubra",middleName:null,surname:"Kaynak",fullName:"Hatice Kubra Kaynak",slug:"hatice-kubra-kaynak"},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu"}]},{id:"58335",title:"Flame-Retardant Unsaturated Polyester Resins: An Overview of Past and Recent Developments",slug:"flame-retardant-unsaturated-polyester-resins-an-overview-of-past-and-recent-developments",signatures:"Ewa Kicko-Walczak and Grażyna Rymarz",authors:[{id:"221591",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ewa",middleName:"Janina",surname:"Kicko-Walczak",fullName:"Ewa Kicko-Walczak",slug:"ewa-kicko-walczak"},{id:"231231",title:"Mr.",name:"Grazyna",middleName:null,surname:"Rymarz",fullName:"Grazyna Rymarz",slug:"grazyna-rymarz"}]},{id:"59499",title:"Polyester Usage in Manufacturing of Electrical and Mechanical Products and Assemblies",slug:"polyester-usage-in-manufacturing-of-electrical-and-mechanical-products-and-assemblies",signatures:"Ahmad Nawaz, Bilal Islam, M. Sadiq Khattak, Liaquat Ali, Umar\nSaleem, Azmat Ullah, M. Zafar Ijaz and Weiguo Mao",authors:[{id:"222043",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Nawaz",fullName:"Ahmad Nawaz",slug:"ahmad-nawaz"},{id:"238325",title:"Mr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",fullName:"Bilal Islam",slug:"bilal-islam"},{id:"238326",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sadiq Khattak",fullName:"Muhammad Sadiq Khattak",slug:"muhammad-sadiq-khattak"},{id:"238458",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiguo",middleName:null,surname:"Mao",fullName:"Weiguo Mao",slug:"weiguo-mao"}]},{id:"59092",title:"A Case Study: Particulate-Filled Polyester Hybrid Laminated Composites",slug:"a-case-study-particulate-filled-polyester-hybrid-laminated-composites",signatures:"Muhammad Azeem Munawar, Dirk Wolfram Schubert, Shahzad\nMaqsood Khan, Nafisa Gull, Atif Islam, Muhammad Atiq Ur Rehman\nand Monika M. Voigt",authors:[{id:"218680",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Atiq",middleName:null,surname:"Ur Rehman",fullName:"Muhammad Atiq Ur Rehman",slug:"muhammad-atiq-ur-rehman"},{id:"219669",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:"Azeem",surname:"Munawar",fullName:"Muhammad Munawar",slug:"muhammad-munawar"},{id:"220553",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad Maqsood",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Shahzad Maqsood Khan",slug:"shahzad-maqsood-khan"},{id:"239463",title:"Prof.",name:"Dirk Wolfram",middleName:null,surname:"Schubert",fullName:"Dirk Wolfram Schubert",slug:"dirk-wolfram-schubert"},{id:"239464",title:"Ms.",name:"Nafisa",middleName:null,surname:"Gull",fullName:"Nafisa Gull",slug:"nafisa-gull"},{id:"239465",title:"Dr.",name:"Atif",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",fullName:"Atif Islam",slug:"atif-islam"},{id:"239466",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika M",middleName:null,surname:"Voigt",fullName:"Monika M Voigt",slug:"monika-m-voigt"}]},{id:"59208",title:"Polyester Usage for Automotive Applications",slug:"polyester-usage-for-automotive-applications",signatures:"Canan Saricam and Nazan Okur",authors:[{id:"217470",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Saricam",fullName:"Canan Saricam",slug:"canan-saricam"},{id:"232183",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazan",middleName:null,surname:"Okur",fullName:"Nazan Okur",slug:"nazan-okur"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"71883",title:"Plasticity in Interferon Responses Modulates T-Cell Immunity in Parasitic Infections: Periphery to Thymus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92191",slug:"plasticity-in-interferon-responses-modulates-t-cell-immunity-in-parasitic-infections-periphery-to-th",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Parasitism is a relationship among species, in which one organism, the parasite, sustains on the host organism. Parasitic diseases can affect almost all living organisms. Parasites are dependent on the host organisms for their own survival. Not all parasites are harmful but some cause severe pathology to the host, such as Leishmania, Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, etc. Parasites known to affect humans are divided into three classes: protozoans, helminths and ectoparasites [1]. Parasite invasion triggers the innate, inflammatory and adaptive immune responses inside the mammalian host. Innate immunity recognizes the non-self and activates the T-cell–mediated adaptive immune system in order to eliminate the invader. Removal or recruitment of parasite is dependent on the production of distinct pattern of cytokines from specific T cells. T cells are formed through an intricate developmental process with the dynamic stage-specific changes in the developing lymphocytes. T-cell development takes place in multiple steps originating from bone marrow to progenitors of T cell maturation in the thymus. It has been known that “thymus” plays the main role in the production of a self-tolerant adaptive immune response that is critical against the pathogen’s threat [2]. A variety of infectious agents like protozoans mainly Trypanosoma spp., Plasmodium spp. and Leishmania spp. alter thymic structure and function. Thymic atrophy reflected by lymphocyte depletion is considered as a common feature in response to pathogens but the consequences on thymic function may differ significantly in different infections. Together with structural and functional changes induced by the parasite in the thymic microenvironmental niches, the development of thymocytes and thus the altered thymic output have direct implications in peripheral T-cell response. T-cell–based immune responses are further modulated via different types of cytokines viz. interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs) and interleukins (ILs) with implication in the disease outcome and progression. Different cytokines work independently or in collaboration as determinants of the disease establishment and progression. Host peripheral immune response influencing the disease outcome during parasitic infection is substantially studied in vitro on cell lines, in vivo in experimental models and in human subjects. A heterogeneous T-cell response marks the disease pathogenesis. A Th1 cell-mediated immune response is predominated by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ and TNF-α and plays a key role in arresting the disease by limiting the parasite replication. Contrary to this, a shift toward Th2 immune response, represented by increased expression of the anti-inflammatory IL-4, is associated with exacerbation of infection and uncontrolled parasite replication. This response is due to suppressive effects of Th2 cytokines on Th1 immunity. The important role played by the crucial IFN family of cytokines during parasitic diseases is emphasized in peripheral circulation as well as with regard to thymus-centric modulation of T-cell–based immunity in different infectious diseases.
\n
\n
\n
2. A brief note on interferons
\n
IFNs are the key soluble immune molecules belonging to the IFN family with specific structural and functional characteristics. They are divided into three main groups based on the structural details and functional contribution toward modulating the immune response during parasitic infections: IFN-I, II and III. The IFN-I family includes IFN-α and IFN-β. IFN-I signaling is mediated through a common cell surface receptor, (IFNAR). IFN-I production by a wide variety of cells mediates autocrine and paracrine signaling pathways upon viral infections. The IFN-II family represents IFN-γ. Its response is mediated by IFN-γ receptor (IFNGR). IFN-II plays a role in defense against intracellular pathogens by modulating diverse cellular functions. The third IFN-III family, or IFN-λ, comprises four different subtypes: IFN-λ1, λ2, λ3 and λ4. IFN-III is not well studied but has a role similar to IFN-I. The expression of IFN-λR receptor is mainly restricted to cells of epithelial origin [3].
\n
\n
\n
3. Protozoan diseases
\n
Protozoan parasitic infections are among the most common life-threatening infectious diseases. They can enter into the human body generally by a bite from an insect vector or through fecal-oral route. Protozoan parasites are responsible for serious infections. Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum), Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), Leishmania donovani (L. donovani), Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei) and Giardia intestinalis (G. intestinalis) are among the most common protozoan pathogenic parasites and cause malaria, toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, sleeping sickness and giardiasis, respectively. The three pathogenic parasitic diseases viz. Chagas disease caused by T. cruzi, malaria caused by Plasmodium spp. and leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania spp. will be discussed in length in relation to discrete T-cell–associated quantitative and qualitative alterations, reported in all these protozoan diseases. Disease-specific cytokine milieu with distinct role of IFNs is implicated in modulating disease progression and outcome. A snapshot of IFN-associated T-cell immune modulation in context to each of the protozoan disease is discussed in subsequent sections.
\n
\n
\n
4. Chagas disease caused by T. cruzi\n
\n
Chagas disease or American trypanosomiasis is caused by the parasite T. cruzi, transmitted to mammals by insect vectors. It is a hemoflagellate protozoan belonging to the kingdom Protista, phylum euglenozoa and class Zoomastigophora. It is a multi-host parasite transmitted by insect triatomines and is also called as “assassin bug” or “kissing bug.” It is common in parts of Mexico and Central and South America [4].
\n
\n
4.1 Disease transmission
\n
Transmission of T. cruzi parasite to humans is understood based on the route of infection as primary or secondary. The primary route is the most frequent route, and infection occurs through insect bite, blood transfusion or congenital and oral route. The secondary route is less frequent such as accidental infection during animal handling or infected organ transplant. The most common transmission route in the Brazilian region is oral transmission and the second is through contaminated food/beverage, whereas in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guinea and Venezuela, contaminated food consumption is the main reason of infection [4].
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Disease severity and diagnosis
\n
Chagas disease has two phases of infection: an acute and a chronic phase. Acute form is mild. The parasite remains in the blood circulation for a long time (few weeks to months). Acute phase is followed by prolonged asymptomatic “chronic phase,” marked by very few or negligible parasite in blood. Chronic Chagas disease symptoms include dilated colon or esophagus and different heart rhythm abnormalities. Diagnosis of acute phase of infection is marked by the presence of parasite in peripheral blood circulation and can be observed by microscopic examination of stained blood smear. Diagnosis of chronic Chagas disease is generally made by testing blood for parasite-specific antibodies [4].
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Peripheral T-cell response in T. cruzi infection
\n
Chagas disease is associated with several immunological alterations due to change in the expression pattern of cytokines that play a fundamental role in regulating the functionality of almost all cell types. T. cruzi infection triggers the nitric oxide (NO) production and may exert protective or toxic effects on the host immune system. NO can induce oxidative stress via damaging the host tissues. Inducible NO synthase pathway gets activated upon parasitic invasion, produces NO and is highly responsible for macrophage-mediated intracellular T. cruzi elimination within infected cells. The cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α and chemokines are produced in large amounts during T. cruzi acute infection and are potent inducers of NOS [5]. Along with NO synthase (NOS), several potent effector mechanisms such as T-cell–mediated immunity involving both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell compartments are essentially involved in defense against T. cruzi invasion and replication in mammalian host. Relevance of T cells is well documented in experimental T. cruzi mice model where mice lacking T-cell subsets develop disease with high parasite load in tissues and periphery [6, 7]. These findings support the important role of T-cell populations in dealing with acute and chronic phase of T. cruzi infection in humans. Double positive (DP) CD4+CD8+ T-cell population was found to be increased in number with increased expression of activation markers (CD38 and HLA-DR) during chronic Chagas disease demonstrating that these DP T cells contribute to immune response against T. cruzi infection [8]. Cardiac inflammatory infiltrate of DP T cells in patients who have undergone cardiac transplant suggests that their performance in controlling the cardiac disease in humans is worth considering [8].
\n
\n
\n
4.4 IFN-I–associated immune changes in T. cruzi infection
\n
IFN-I has an important role in inhibiting the parasite multiplication. Induction/production of IFN-I in response to T. cruzi is stage specific [9] and primarily dependent on the dose/amount of parasite, and route of infection. Exogenous IFN-I treatment in T. cruzi–infected mice showed that mice develop increased resistance to infection by stimulating natural killer and T-cell activities [10]. Protective action of IFN-I associated with LRG-47 [IFN-inducible p47GTPase] is well documented in experimental mice models. LRG-47 regulates host resistance against intracellular pathogens in a comparative study with wild-type (WT) and knockout (KO) mice, where LRG-47 KO mice exhibit severe anemia, thrombocytopenia and atrophy of thymus, in contrast to WT counterparts. Similar to in vivo model, IFN-I–induced in vitro stimulation of LRG-47 KO macrophages also display a defect in intracellular killing of amastigotes [11]. IFN-I is reported to play a dual role during disease: protection from disease and establishing pathology. Disease-exacerbating role of IFN-I has been reported in WT and IFNAR−/− mice model such that IFNAR−/− mice were able to restrict the parasite growth and survive, while the WT mice failed to resist the infection [12]. It suggests that under the conditions of increased parasite load, IFN-I contributes to the pathogenesis of infection [12].
\n
\n
\n
4.5 IFN-II (IFN-γ)–associated immune changes in T. cruzi infection
\n
IFN-γ has a central role in Chagas disease cardiomyopathy. The disease is characterized by increased production of IFN-γ in the periphery [13]. Several cytokines, including IFN-γ, IL-1-α, IL-6 and TNF-α, modulate the expression of immune cells and contribute to the inflammatory process by recruiting the T cells into the inflammatory sites. Conversely, IL-4, TGF-β and IL-10 negatively regulate NO production and downregulate the intracellular control of T. cruzi infection by IFN-γ–activated macrophages [14]. In humans, IFN-γ was detected as a predominant cytokine in circulation during T. cruzi infection [15]. IFN-γ regulates the expression of several genes, transcription factors, inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, chemokines, and other pathogen-resistance genes including inducible nitric oxide synthase 2 (iNOS or NOS2) [16]. Higher amount of IFN-γ along with TNF-α leads to an efficient parasite killing and enhanced function of memory T cells [17]. It is evident from the fact that mice deficient in IL-12 that is necessary for IFN-γ production exhibit severe tissue and systemic parasitism suggesting the importance of the IFN-γ in controlling intracellular parasitism [18]. It is known that T-cell–mediated control of the disease is dependent on the duration of infection and tissue damage. The detection of IFN-γ and TNF-α during early phase of chronic T. cruzi infection is associated with IL-10 production by CD4+ T cells [17]. IFN-γ production is higher in chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy compared to asymptomatic patients, wherein IL-10 is reported to be highly expressed [16]. IL-10 has a counter effect on Th1 responses via downmodulating IFN-γ response, which, if sustained for long time, may have harmful effects on the host [19]. Altered cytokine profile either quantitatively or qualitatively can be a major cause of chronic Chagas disease. IFN-γ is well known as a protective lymphokine against T. cruzi, but there are many reports stating the dual role (antiparasitic, protective and pathogenic) of IFN-γ in Chagas disease [13, 14]. Several reports suggest myocarditis and heart failure in patients with Chagas disease, possibly due to continuous production of IFN-γ by T cells [16]. IFN-γ controls infection through NOS production and activating ROS through induction of NADP oxidases, while resistance of T. cruzi to ROS induces serious alterations in heart function. The detrimental role of overexpression of IFN-γ has been proven in experiment with transgenic mice, where it results in TNF-α–dependent murine myocarditis and cardiomyopathy [20].
\n
\n
\n
4.6 IFN-III–associated immune changes in T. cruzi infection
\n
Type III IFNs serve as regulatory cytokines by reducing the damage caused by pro-inflammatory cytokines or by retaining the more potent IFN-I for times when immune responses are inadequate [21]. This subtype is poorly recognized and has not been studied in Chagas disease.
\n
\n
\n
4.7 Thymic alterations in T. cruzi infection
\n
Circulation of T cells in response to parasitic infection is securely controlled as various cytokines and chemokines influence the disease outcome. It has been reported that in T. cruzi infection, both Th1 and Th2 cytokines are associated with resistance and susceptibility to disease, respectively. Influence of cytokines on thymus function is not much studied. Pérez et al. [22] made a detailed evaluation of the effect of pro-inflammatory (IFN-γ, IL-12 and iNOS) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) on thymus in a study with experimental C57BL/6 murine model. Uninfected knock out mice for both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines showed thymocyte cellularity similar to wild-type mice, although apoptotic loss of DP thymocytes was seen in infected mice group, showing that thymic atrophy is independent of IFN-γ or iNOS [22]. However, in another study, it is shown that upon T. cruzi infection in C57BL/6 mice, IL-10 and IFN-γ play a role in controlling thymic T-cell activation via altering the thymic cell function, but the extent of immunological disturbances was not clearly described [23]. In experimental Chagas disease, it was observed that the increased level of extracellular matrix (ECM) in thymus favors the export of immature thymocytes from thymus. Increased migration of thymocytes in response to fibronectin leads to a high number of DP T cells’ migration from the thymus to peripheral lymphoid organs. The frequency of peripheral CD4+CD8+ DP T cells is increased in acute T. cruzi infection up to 16 times in subcutaneous lymph nodes [24, 25]. Thymic atrophy is an acute phenomenon observed in the infected mice, accompanied by alteration in the thymic structure. The mechanism is understood in terms of hormonal dysregulation induced under infection condition. The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-α increases during the infection and activates the HPA axis causing the release of glucocorticoids (GCs) [26]. GCs are steroidal hormones that lead to thymus atrophy with depletion of immature cortical thymocytes. Thymocyte depletion is seen to be directly proportional to increased TNF-α levels. However, this depletion is attributed to TNF-induced glucocorticoids rather than TNF-α directly such that it is not the cytokines, but the downstream molecules induced by them that lead to the observed thymic changes [27, 28]. It has been reported that during T. cruzi infection, prolactin (PRL) has a significant role in homeostatic balance of thymic corticosterone [29, 30]. Under stressful conditions, PRL balances the negative effects of GC by increasing thymocytes and thymic epithelial cell (TEC) proliferation. PRL rescues these cells from apoptosis in opposition to GC, which inhibits thymocyte growth. Recent reports show that PRL secretion is also altered along with GC secretion with decreased level of PRL paralleling increased GC levels during acute T. cruzi infection, causing an imbalanced cross talk that may correlate with the thymic involution [31, 32]. Thus, it can be said that GC and PRL are responsible for the loss of thymocytes, which leads to thymic atrophy. Thus, a dysregulated immuno-endocrine axis leads to profound effects on the thymus and disease outcome during T. cruzi infection. Peripheral and thymic changes associated with Trypanosoma infection are depicted in Figure 1.
\n
Figure 1.
Peripheral and thymic changes induced in host organism (mice and/or human) upon T. cruzi infection.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Malaria caused by Plasmodium spp.
\n
Malaria is a deadly disease caused by Plasmodium parasite belonging to the family Plasmodiidae. The disease is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito. Parasite species P. falciparum and P. vivax cause malaria in humans. Based on WHO reports, malaria is prevalent in 87 countries throughout the world, with estimated 219 million cases and 435,000 estimated death reports [33]. An estimated 91% of all deaths due to malaria occur in Africa.
\n
\n
5.1 Disease transmission
\n
Malaria is generally transmitted through the bite of Anopheles mosquitoes with high activity between dusk and dawn. Disease transmission is dependent on factors such as climatic conditions comprising rainfall patterns, temperature and humidity, host immunity, parasite species and the vector involved [33].
\n
\n
\n
5.2 Disease severity and diagnosis
\n
Malaria can be fatal if not treated. Disease outcome is determined by the parasite species and host immunity. Complications may arise in the form of cerebral malaria (CM) wherein the parasite infects the brain and leads to serious damage including seizures and coma accompanied with breathing problems, organ failure and low blood sugar. Early detection and disease treatment are important to reduce the risk of disease severity. Staining-based microscopic parasite diagnosis methods or malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are widely used for preliminary diagnosis of the disease. RDTs detect specific antigen produced by malaria parasite in human blood using a dye-labeled capture antibodies providing an evidence of malaria infection [33].
\n
\n
\n
5.3 Peripheral T-cell immune response associated with Plasmodium infection
\n
Host immune response against Plasmodium parasites in vitro and in vivo is well studied in murine models (P. yoelii, P. vinckei, P. chabaudi and P. berghei) and humans (P. malariae, P. vivax, P. falciparum, P. ovale and P. knowlesi) [3]. The parasite stimulates multifaceted immune responses, including antibodies, NK and NKT cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells [34]. T cells play a major role in protection against Plasmodium. Both Th1 and Th2 subsets of CD4+ T cells are the major players to control the systemic infections [35]. CD4+ T cells stimulate CD8+ T-cell cytotoxic activity, inhibit the development of liver stages and prevent the infection of red blood cells [36]. Thus, a balance between the cytokines and other immune molecules produced by different cell types is critical in determining the outcome of the infection.
\n
\n
\n
5.4 IFN-I–associated immune changes in Plasmodium infection
\n
IFN-γ is the most widely studied in malaria and has a versatile effect on the host. It may exert a protective or destructive effect, depending on the stage of the infection or the species of Plasmodium involved. Disease-protective phenomenon was observed in mice infected with P. berghei, where post-IFN-β treatment survival of mice is prolonged compared to non-treated counterparts [37]. Protection to disease is driven by a sensory mechanism against Plasmodium in the liver that mediates a functional antiparasite response driven by type I IFN. IFN-Ι is known to be active during the late phase of the liver stage infection. It is evident by the fact that treatment of P. yoelii–infected mice with recombinant IFN-α does not alter the hepatic parasite burden. This results in partially limiting the parasite growth in the liver and influences the commencement of erythrocytic stage infection. Leukocytes are recruited around the liver-stage of the parasite leading to reduced parasitemia [38]. Blood transcriptional profile of mild and severe malaria infection cases revealed that a specific set of genes was significantly associated with a mild form as compared to their expression pattern in severe form of malaria. Studies on malaria-infected individuals from Malawi region revealed that genes responsible for IFN-I signaling pathway have an important role in the development of protective immune response against malaria. This is proved by molecular studies wherein mutations within IFN-α receptor (IFN-αR) lead to disease susceptibility and severe disease in Malawian population [39]. In contrast to the protective effects discussed above, a pathogenic role for IFN-I in Plasmodium infections has also been described. This has been reported in murine models, where the absence of IFN-I signaling in P. berghei–infected mice led to reduced parasite load and resistance against CM. The development of CM occurs as a result of detrimental brain injuries due to damaging inflammatory host immune response [40, 41]. Expression analysis of CD4+ T cells from P. berghei ANKA (PbA)-infected mice revealed that CD4+ cells showed dominance of IFN-I and IFN-γ signaling pathway-related genes. Mice deficient in IFN-I signaling had reduced parasite burden and displayed no CM-related symptoms. IFN-I suppressed IFN-γ production via inhibiting CD4+ T-bet+ T-cell derived IFN-γ production and hampered protective Th1-mediated control of parasitemia in P. chabaudi–infected mice [41]. Progression to CM can be modified by host genetic factors. A robust association between IFNAR1 and CM protection is well documented in experimental CM in IFNAR1−/− mice infected with P. berghei [40]. It is reported that splenic CD8+ T cells from IFNAR1−/− mice got activated functionally but were unable to mediate any damage to brain tissue and cause CM development. This proves that IFNAR1 signaling promotes CD8+ effector activity, which is mandatory for CM, in both humans and mouse [40]. There are controversial reports stating the IFN-I–mediated suppression on IFN-γ activity. During early stage of P. chabaudi infection, IFN-I induced by the infection plays a disease-exacerbating role by suppressing IFN-γ producing CD4+ T cells in C57BL/6 mice [41]; however, in 129 Sv/Ev mice, IFN-I has minor roles in controlling the disease pathology [42]. Similar instance is observed in humans where polymorphism in human gene encoding for IFNARI strongly supports protection from the disease [43]. These controversial reports suggest that duration of activity and levels of IFN-I are important in regulating immune response against parasite growth [3].
\n
\n
\n
5.5 IFN-II (IFN-γ)–associated immune changes in Plasmodium infection
\n
IFN-γ regulates various components of the host immune system such as defense against intracellular pathogens by antigen presentation, antimicrobial mechanism, leukocyte development and immune cell trafficking. The protective role of IFN-γ is evident from the in vitro and in vivo studies, where inhibitory effect of IFN-γ on parasite multiplication was observed in P. berghei sporozoites-infected murine hepatocytes and/or human hepatic HEPG2 cells upon treatment with human recombinant IFN-γ [44, 45, 46, 47]. IFN-γ helps in controlling the parasitism by activating macrophages and promoting phagocytosis of circulating parasites and plays a crucial protective role during blood-stage infection. P. chabaudi AS-infected mice treated with monoclonal antibody against IFN-γ had less control of parasite multiplication, suggesting that IFN-γ is essential for limiting parasite multiplication. Similar effects were evident in P. chabaudi AS-infected mice that were lacking IFN-γ receptor. These mice had lower survival rates as compared to the WT controls [48]. This suggests that IFN-γ production at different stages during infection could alter parasite survival and hence disease outcome. In P. berghei infection, IFN-γ along with TNF-α also plays a protective role by parasite removal activity [49]. The natural resistance to Plasmodium infection is reported in humans from tribes in Mali where resistance was correlated with increased levels of IFN-γ [50], suggesting a protective role for IFN-γ against malaria. IFN-γ is essential in both protective immunity and pathogenesis of the diseases. During malaria infection, elevated levels of IgE antibodies are also observed. IgE containing immune complexes are pathogenic and not protective as they are involved in overproduction of TNF-α. TNF-α acts as a major pathogenic factor in malaria and poses an increased risk of severe disease or death due to P. falciparum infection [35]. IFN-γ promotes migration of leukocytes and pathogenic CD8+ T cells to the brain during infection induced by P. berghei ANKA in WT 129P2Sv/Ev mice compared to IFN-γ R1-deficient mice. The production of elevated levels of IFN-γ during parasite blood-stage is associated with susceptibility to severe CM malaria [51]. Its protective or harmful effect on the host depends on the stage of infection and target organ [44].
\n
\n
\n
5.6 IFN-III–associated immune changes in Plasmodium infection
\n
Type I and type II interferons [IFNs] are critical to govern the disease outcome; however, reports on the involvement of recently identified IFN-III humans during malaria infection are scarce [3].
\n
\n
\n
5.7 Thymic alterations in Plasmodium infection
\n
Malarial infection results in increased levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α in human serum. Both these cytokines have been shown to be involved in double positive T-cell death [52, 53, 54]. However, neutralizing the effect of IFN-γ and TNF-α did not alter the apoptosis-inducing capacity of the serum [28]. Conversely, TNF-α neutralization helps in the reduction of DP T-cell count due to increased apoptosis, stating that TNF-α exerts a protective rather than a destructive role in malaria-induced thymic atrophy [28]. Studies done on BALB/c mice model show a high level of apoptosis and premature migration of thymocytes in mice upon Plasmodium infection along with overexpression of TNF-α associated with thymic atrophy [55, 56]. Reports on direct effect of IFN family on thymic changes during malaria infection are scarce. In P. berghei–infected mice, changes in the thymic microenvironment alter the thymocytes’ migration pattern with the direct implication in the export of immature cells to the periphery [57]. It is modeled that in Plasmodium-infected mice, the number of CD4+ T cells decreases due to the destruction or reduced production of CD4+ T cells and the number of CD8+ T cells increases due to peripheral expansion or redistribution of preexisting cytotoxic T cells or due to an increase in thymic output [58]. Thymus atrophy seen in Plasmodium infection is accompanied by alterations in thymus architecture with loss of cortical-medullar delimitation [56]. The atrophy of thymus starts with an early stage of infection and the thymus weight is reduced markedly [59]. Plasmodium infection interferes with the positive and negative selection process of thymocytes resulting in apoptosis of thymocytes and thymic atrophy. This is evident from P. chabaudi non-lethal malaria model where thymic atrophy is reported to occur due to depletion of single positive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells [56, 60]. Changes in the thymic microenvironment, altered expression of the ECM proteins and chemokines observed in P. berghei–infected mice result in an altered intrathymic thymocyte migration pattern and defective thymocyte development [57]. Thus, a dysregulation in thymic immune cross talk comprising IFNs results in thymic structural and functional changes as depicted in Figure 2.
\n
Figure 2.
Peripheral and thymic changes induced in host organism (mice or human) upon Plasmodium infection.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania spp.
\n
\nLeishmania is a tropical protozoan parasite belonging to the family Trypanosomatidae. The parasite is transmitted by the bite of the female phlebotomine fly species in old world countries and by Lutzomyia species in new world countries. More than 20 Leishmania species are known to circulate in endemic foci in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, the Mediterranean region, Central-South America, and southern Europe. The L. donovani and L. infantum/chagasi complex is responsible for VL; the L. major, L. tropica, L. aethiopica and L. mexicana complex causes CL; and the subgenus L. Viannia complex causes CL and MCL as per the classical association of specific parasite species with distinct clinical outcomes. The disease has a wide geographical occurrence covering 97 countries and territories with endemic foci for each of the different clinical manifestations [61].
\n
\n
6.1 Disease transmission
\n
Female phlebotomine sandflies transmit the Leishmania parasite during blood meal. Disease transmission is dependent on the parasite or sandfly species, environmental conditions, host immunity and animal reservoir [62].
\n
\n
\n
6.2 Disease severity and diagnosis
\n
There are three main clinical forms of leishmaniasis: Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) or kala-azar is characterized by hepatosplenomegaly, fever and anemia. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is the most common form of the disease, characterized by skin lesions on exposed body parts, scars on the body and societal stigma. Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL) manifestation involves mucous membranes of the nose, mouth and throat. Diagnosis is generally based on microscopic examinations of Leishmania amastigotes in skin lesions in case of CL and rapid diagnostic recombinant K39 tests in case of VL with recent complementation with parasite-specific molecular diagnostics [62, 63, 64].
\n
\n
\n
6.3 Peripheral T-cell response associated with Leishmania infection
\n
There is a mixed Th1 and Th2 immune response during Leishmania infection with discrete quantitative and qualitative changes in T-cell subsets and the associated cytokines. Numerous reports explain counter-regulatory effects of T-cell subset–specific cytokines both at transcriptional and at translational levels. Leishmania-infected host exhibits a dynamic peripheral Th1/Th2 immune environment such that Th1 immune-activation is associated with IL-2, IFN-γ and TNF-α, which leads to macrophage activation and disease resolution, while Th2 response is associated with IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 that supports disease progression [65]. Treg cells that produce IL-4 and IL-10 cytokines are also involved in regulating Th2/Th1 balance toward disease outcome. In mice infected with L. donovani, CD4+ T cells are activated on the first day of infection and proliferate several folds resulting in splenomegaly [66]. CD8+ T cells also produce cytokines and chemokines, which enhance immunity to pathogens [67]. So along with CD4+ T-cell response, CD8+ T cells also provide a level of control through production of IFN-γ and contribute to disease outcome. In contrast to protection mechanism, CD8+ T cells induce cytotoxicity in L. braziliensis infection [68]. Thus, in the acute phase of Leishmania infection, CD8+ T cells are protective because they produce IFN-γ, while in the chronic phase, they promote pathology because of cytotoxicity. InL. infantum-infected murine model, alterations in the number of peripheral CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are observed, wherein increase in peripheral CD8+ T cells is responsible for the control of L. infantum infection with a slight decrease in the number of CD4+ T cells [69].
\n
\n
\n
6.4 IFN-I–associated immune changes in Leishmania infection
\n
IFN-II is considered the main player in cell-mediated immune responses against infections, but recently, IFN-I is also being reported to play a role in Leishmaniasis pathology outcome. Activated macrophages initiate the parasite elimination via the production of iNOS. Deficiency of this enzyme in mice promotes susceptibility to L. major infection [70]. The protective role of IFN-I was studied in vivo where neutralizing IFN-I in mice experimentally infected with L. major made them more vulnerable to infection and increase in parasite load due to enhanced parasite multiplication. Blocking IFN-I function led to dissolution of iNOS activity and reduced cytotoxicity at early stages of infection [71]. The stage of parasitic infection and the dose of IFN-I play a significant role in predicting the consequences of the disease [12, 37]. Mattner et al. [72] revealed that IFN-I acts in a dose-dependent manner, where a low dose against a high dose of IFN-I protected the L. major-infected BALB/c mice from progressive leishmaniasis. IFN-I treatment aids in IFN-γ production via STAT4-dependent pathway [72].
\n
\n
\n
6.5 IFN-II (IFN-γ)-associated immune changes in Leishmania infection
\n
\nLeishmania immunity is mostly mediated by T lymphocytes and immune response is shown to be dependent on host genotype. This is evident from the fact that some inbred strains of mouse are susceptible, while others are resistant to Leishmania infection. In the human body, IFN-γ is not secreted alone, but other cytokines mainly IL-12, IL-10 and IL-4 influence the IFN-γ both at the level of induction and at the level of effector function. This further determines the course of infection [73, 74]. Several in vivo and in vitro experiments have shown that IFN-γ hinders the activation/expansion of CD4+ Th2 cells, resulting in the preferential expression of Th1 immune response and Th1 immunity. IFN-γ expression pattern is well documented for correlation with protection against the parasitic diseases in old and new world Leishmania infection model. The absence of IFN-γ or IFN-γ receptor leads to expansion of Th2-type cellular response in C57BL/6 mice making the host highly vulnerable to L. major or L. amazonensis infection [75]. IFN-γ-mediated immune protection against Leishmania infection is also evident where CXCL10-treated, L. donovani-infected BALB/c mice display generation of perforins and granzyme B via CD8+ T-cell–dependent strong host-protective Th1 response, accompanied by significant downregulation in Th2- and Treg-associated cytokines [76, 77]. Pretreatment of macrophages obtained from BALB/c, C57BL/6 and C3H/HeJ mice significantly reduces L. amazonensis load via an NO-mediated mechanism of IFN-γ production in the presence of recombinant CXCL10 [78]. Immune response against leishmaniasis is also dependent on Leishmania spp. involved in infection. Several comparative studies conducted with crude antigen extracts of L. braziliensis and L. amazonensis reported that the extracts of L. braziliensis are more potent over L. amazonensis in stimulating CXCL10 production correlating to IFN-γ-positivity and multi-functional CD4+ T cells in CL patients. Therefore, in agreement with the findings from murine infection models, CXCR3 and CXCL10 chemokines are also involved in protection and disease pathogenesis in leishmaniasis [79, 80]. Human VL is generally known to be predominated by Th2-type response. Anti-leishmanial drug treatments induce a significant Th1-type response in cured patients marked by the production of IFN-γ and IL-4 in the viscera. Contrary to VL, CL patients show a disease-healing response dominated by IFN-γ. IL-4, a Th2 cytokine, is rarely detected in CL cases [81]. In patients with active VL, the expression of IFN-γ is increased in the periphery, but it may be possible that the effect is not enough to overcome the parasite multiplication or there is unresponsiveness to L. donovani antigen. This may be due to elevated level of immunosuppressive Th2-specific cytokines in active VL patients [82].
\n
\n
\n
6.6 Thymic alterations in Leishmania infection
\n
Thymus is the least studied in context of Leishmania infection. A recent report demonstrates a decrease in thymic cellularity and concomitant thymic atrophy with severely compromised thymic microenvironment in a murine model co-conditioned with protein malnutrition and L. infantum infection. These mice exhibited a significant reduction of the thymic corticomedullary ratio [83]. Similar studies done in our laboratory with L. donovani infected VL murine model demonstrate that the parasite homes to thymus and lead to expansion of medullary regions when compared to control uninfected mice (unpublished data). L. infantum infection in protein-malnourished mice causes thymic atrophy due to a decrease of DP thymocytes and alters thymic chemotactic factors by diminishing CCL5, IGF1, CXCL9, 10 and 12 with significantly increased levels of IL-1α and IL-10 [83, 84]. It has been observed that due to Leishmania infection in mice, positively selected CD8+ or CD4+ T cells upregulate CCR7 and migrate to the medulla in response to CCL19/CCL21. CCR7 knockout mice were associated with cortical accumulation of SP thymocytes and decreased medullary CD4+SP and CD8+SP T cells. The migration of T cell is decreased in protein-malnourished infected mice as the components of extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules are altered that compromise the migratory capabilities necessary for adequate lymphocyte proliferation, intrathymic maturation and extrathymic activation [85]. Peripheral and thymic changes associated with Leishmania infection are depicted in Figure 3.
\n
Figure 3.
Peripheral and thymic changes induced in host organism (mice or human) upon Leishmania infection.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusions
\n
In conclusion, the role of IFN family in both immune-protective and immune-pathogenic processes in parasitic infections makes it a key set of molecules to be studied in depth (Figure 4). Modulatory effect of IFNs on T cells and downstream effector function of T cells along with their complex cross-network functionality in other circulating blood and tissue-resident immune cells warrant further understanding on their role in disease manifestation and outcome. IFNs as the modulators of thymic structure and function are an interesting dimension of the immune-regulatory capabilities of these soluble immune molecules in infectious diseases. IFNs work as double-edged sword to modulate immune effector mechanisms determined by parasite and host components. This family of important cytokines can be tailored to be used as immunomodulators and/or immunotherapeutic molecules.
\n
Figure 4.
Mechanistic of IFNs (IFN-I and IFN-γ) upon parasitic invasion in host organism. IFNs play a dual role in disease progression and/or protection, depending on the type and expression levels in relation to other secretory molecules and cytokines (Th1/Th2/Treg) and cause-effect cross talk between different IFN producers and effector immune cells.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Aklank Jain and Manju Jain would like to acknowledge Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India, for providing Research Seed Money Grant.
\n
\n',keywords:"parasitic diseases, periphery, IFN, T cells, thymus, immunomodulation, disease outcome",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71883.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71883.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71883",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71883",totalDownloads:149,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 19th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 22nd 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Parasitic infections are the major threat prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. Different parasitic infections take a huge toll on mortality and morbidity at global level. Different parasites invade the host system, multiply inside host cells of their choice and sabotage defense mechanisms to overpower the host. T-cell immunity is majorly affected in different parasitic diseases such that the peripheral T-cell immune response is altered along with lesser explored thymic changes. Direct and/or indirect effect of parasitic infection leads to alterations in T-cell development, differentiation and activation resulting in deregulated T-cell immune mechanisms. Cytokines of interferon family play a significant role in determining the disease outcome and severity. Therefore, in this chapter, we here provide a detailed overview of the functional role played by IFNs during parasitic diseases in terms of their influence on peripheral T-cell activation and tolerance along with lesser explored impact on developing T cells in the thymus with altered microenvironmental niches.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71883",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71883",signatures:"Lovlesh Thakur, Nadeem Akhtar, Aklank Jain, Hridayesh Parkash and Manju Jain",book:{id:"8959",title:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8959.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. A brief note on interferons",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Protozoan diseases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Chagas disease caused by T. cruzi\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Disease transmission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Disease severity and diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Peripheral T-cell response in T. cruzi infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 IFN-I–associated immune changes in T. cruzi infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5 IFN-II (IFN-γ)–associated immune changes in T. cruzi infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6 IFN-III–associated immune changes in T. cruzi infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.7 Thymic alterations in T. cruzi infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Malaria caused by Plasmodium spp.",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.1 Disease transmission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.2 Disease severity and diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.3 Peripheral T-cell immune response associated with Plasmodium infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.4 IFN-I–associated immune changes in Plasmodium infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.5 IFN-II (IFN-γ)–associated immune changes in Plasmodium infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.6 IFN-III–associated immune changes in Plasmodium infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.7 Thymic alterations in Plasmodium infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania spp.",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.1 Disease transmission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.2 Disease severity and diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"6.3 Peripheral T-cell response associated with Leishmania infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"6.4 IFN-I–associated immune changes in Leishmania infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"6.5 IFN-II (IFN-γ)-associated immune changes in Leishmania infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"6.6 Thymic alterations in Leishmania infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Parasites. 2016. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nSavino W, de Moraes MC, Barbosa SD, Da Fonseca EC, De Almeida VC, Hontebeyrie-Joscowicz M. Is the thymus a target organ in infectious diseases? Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 1992;87(Suppl 5):73-78\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nSilva-Barrios S, Stäger S. Protozoan parasites and type I IFNs. Frontiers in Immunology. 2017;8:14\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Parasites—American Trypanosomiasis (also Known as Chagas Disease). 2019. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/chagas/\n\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nGutierrez FR, Mineo TW, Pavanelli WR, Guedes PM, Silva JS. The effects of nitric oxide on the immune system during T. cruzi infection. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104:236-245\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nTarleton RL, Sun J, Zhang L, Postan M. Depletion of T-cell subpopulations results in exacerbation of myocarditis and parasitism in experimental Chagas’ disease. Infection and Immunity. 1994;62(5):1820-1829\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nRottenberg M, Bakhiet M, Olsson T, Kristensson K, Mak T, Wigzell H, et al. Differential susceptibilities of mice genomically deleted of CD4 and CD8 to infections with T. cruzi or Trypanosoma brucei. Infection and Immunity. 1993;61(12):5129-5133\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nGiraldo NA, Bolaños NI, Cuellar A, Guzman F, Uribe AM, Bedoya A, et al. Increased CD4+/CD8+ double-positive T cells in chronic Chagasic patients. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2011;5(8):e1294\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nChessler A-DC, Ferreira LR, Chang T-H, Fitzgerald KA, Burleigh BA. A novel IFN regulatory factor 3-dependent pathway activated by trypanosomes triggers IFN-β in macrophages and fibroblasts. The Journal of Immunology. 2008;181(11):7917-7924\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nRottenberg M, Cardoni R, Andersson R, Segura E, Örn A. Role of T helper/inducer cells as well as natural killer cells in resistance to T. cruzi infection. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology. 1988;28(5):573-582\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nSantiago HC, Feng CG, Bafica A, Roffe E, Arantes RM, Cheever A, et al. Mice deficient in LRG-47 display enhanced susceptibility to T. cruzi infection associated with defective hemopoiesis and intracellular control of parasite growth. The Journal of Immunology. 2005;175(12):8165-8172\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nChessler A-DC, Caradonna KL, Da’dara A, Burleigh BA. Type I interferons increase host susceptibility to T. cruzi infection. Infection and Immunity. 2011;79(5):2112-2119\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nFerreira LRP, Frade AF, Baron MA, Navarro IC, Kalil J, Chevillard C, et al. Interferon-γ and other inflammatory mediators in cardiomyocyte signaling during Chagas disease cardiomyopathy. World Journal of Cardiology. 2014;6(8):782-790\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nLaucella S, Rottenberg M. Role of cytokines in resistance and pathology in T. cruzi infection. Revista Argentina de microbiologia. 1996;28(2):99-109\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nAlbareda MC, Laucella SA. Modulation of T. cruzi-specific T-cell responses after chemotherapy for chronic Chagas disease. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110(3):414-421\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nChevillard C, Nunes JPS, Frade AF, Almeida RR, Pandey RP, Nascimento MS, et al. Disease tolerance and pathogen resistance genes may underlie T. cruzi evasion, parasite persistence and differential progression to Chagas disease cardiomyopathy. Frontiers in Immunology. 2018;9:2791\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nSathler-Avelar R, Vitelli-Avelar D, Massara R, Borges J, Lana M, Teixeira-Carvalho A, et al. Benznidazole treatment during early-indeterminate Chagas’ disease shifted the cytokine expression by innate and adaptive immunity cells toward a type 1-modulated immune profile. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology. 2006;64(5):554-563\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nMichailowsky V, Silva NM, Rocha CD, Vieira LQ , Lannes-Vieira J, Gazzinelli RT. Pivotal role of interleukin-12 and interferon-γ axis in controlling tissue parasitism and inflammation in the heart and central nervous system during T. cruzi infection. The American Journal of Pathology. 2001;159(5):1723-1733\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nDutra WO, Gollob KJ. Current concepts in immunoregulation and pathology of human Chagas disease. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 2008;21(3):287\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nTorzewski M, Wenzel P, Kleinert H, Becker C, El-Masri J, Wiese E, et al. Chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy of interferon γ–overexpressing transgenic mice is mediated by tumor necrosis factor-α. The American Journal of Pathology. 2012;180(1):73-81\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nLazear HM, Schoggins JW, Diamond MS. Shared and distinct functions of type I and type III interferons. Immunity. 2019;50(4):907-923\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nPérez AR, Silva-Barbosa SD, Roggero E, Calmon-Hamaty F, Villar SR, Gutierrez FR, et al. Immunoendocrinology of the thymus in Chagas disease. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2011;18(5):328-338\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nraes d M, ML, Minoprio P, Dy M, Dardenne M, Savino W, Hontebeyrie-Joskowicz M. Endogenous IL-10 and IFN-γ production controls thymic cell proliferation in mice acutely infected by T. cruzi. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology. 1994;39(1):51-58\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nCotta-de-Almeida V, Bonomo A, Mendes-da-Cruz DA, Riederer I, is DM, J, Lima-Quaresma KR, et al. T. cruzi infection modulates intrathymic contents of extracellular matrix ligands and receptors and alters thymocyte migration. European Journal of Immunology. 2003;33(9):2439-2448\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nMendes-da-Cruz DA, eis d M, J, Cotta-de-Almeida V, Savino W. Experimental T. cruzi infection alters the shaping of the central and peripheral T-cell repertoire. Microbes and Infection. 2003;5(10):825-832\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nRoggero E, Perez AR, Tamae-Kakazu M, Piazzon I, Nepomnaschy I, Besedovsky HO, et al. Endogenous glucocorticoids cause thymus atrophy but are protective during acute T. cruzi infection. Journal of Endocrinology. 2006;190(2):495-503\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nCohen O, Kfir-Erenfeld S, Spokoini R, Zilberman Y, Yefenof E, Sionov RV. Nitric oxide cooperates with glucocorticoids in thymic epithelial cell-mediated apoptosis of double positive thymocytes. International Immunology. 2009;21(10):1113-1123\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nKhanam S, Sharma S, Pathak S. Lethal and nonlethal murine malarial infections differentially affect apoptosis, proliferation, and CD 8 expression on thymic T cells. Parasite Immunology. 2015;37(7):349-361\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nLepletier A, de Carvalho VF, Rodrigues e Silva PM, Villar S, Perez AR, Savino W, et al. T. cruzi disrupts thymic homeostasis by altering intrathymic and systemic stress-related endocrine circuitries. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2013;7(11):e2470\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nLepletier A, de Almeida L, Santos L, da Silva Sampaio L, Paredes B, Gonzalez FB, et al. Early double-negative thymocyte export in T. cruzi infection is restricted by sphingosine receptors and associated with human Chagas disease. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2014;8(10):e3203\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nLepletier A, de Frias Carvalho V, Morrot A, Savino W. Thymic atrophy in acute experimental Chagas disease is associated with an imbalance of stress hormones. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2012;1262:45-50\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nPérez AR, Morrot A, Carvalho VF, de Meis J, Savino W. Role of hormonal circuitry upon T cell development in Chagas disease: Possible implications on T cell dysfunctions. Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2018;9:334\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nWorld Health Organization. Fact Sheets, Malaria. 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria\n\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nTsuji M, Zavala F. T cells as mediators of protective immunity against liver stages of Plasmodium. Trends in Parasitology. 2003;19(2):88-93\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nPerlmann P, Troye-Blomberg M. Malaria blood-stage infection and its control by the immune system. Folia Biologica. 2000;46(6):210-218\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nMorrot A, Zavala F. Regulation of the CD8+ T cell responses against Plasmodium liver stages in mice. International Journal of Parasitology. 2004;34(13-14):1529-1534\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nMorrell CN, Srivastava K, Swaim AM, Lee MT, Chen J, Nagineni C, et al. Beta interferon suppresses the development of experimental cerebral malaria. Infection and Immunity. 2011;79(4):1750-1758\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nLiehl P, Zuzarte-Luís V, Chan J, Zillinger T, Baptista F, Carapau D, et al. Host-cell sensors for Plasmodium activate innate immunity against liver-stage infection. Nature Medicine. 2014;20(1):47-53\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nKrupka M, Seydel K, Feintuch CM, Yee K, Kim R, Lin C-Y, et al. Mild P. falciparum malaria following an episode of severe malaria is associated with induction of the interferon pathway in Malawian children, Infection and Immunity. 2012;80(3):1150-1155\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nBall EA, Sambo MR, Martins M, Trovoada MJ, Benchimol C, Costa J, et al. IFNAR1 controls progression to cerebral malaria in children and CD8+ T cell brain pathology in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. Journal of Immunology. 2013;190(10):5118-5127\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nHaque A, Best SE, Ammerdorffer A, Desbarrieres L, de Oca MM, Amante FH, et al. Type I interferons suppress CD4+ T-cell-dependent parasite control during blood-stage Plasmodium infection. European Journal of Immunology. 2011;41(9):2688-2698\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nVoisine C, Mastelic B, Sponaas AM, Langhorne J. Classical CD11c+ dendritic cells, not plasmacytoid dendritic cells, induce T cell responses to Plasmodium chabaudi malaria. International Journal of Parasitology. 2010;40(6):711-719\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nAucan C, Walley AJ, Hennig BJ, Fitness J, Frodsham A, Zhang L, et al. Interferon-alpha receptor-1 (IFNAR1) variants are associated with protection against cerebral malaria in the Gambia. Genes and Immunity. 2003;4(4):275-282\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nGun SY, Claser C, Tan KSW, Rénia L. Interferons and interferon regulatory factors in Malaria. Mediators of Inflammation. 2014;2014:243713\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nSchofield L, Villaquiran J, Ferreira A, Schellekens H, Nussenzweig R, Nussenzweig V. Gamma interferon, CD8+ T cells and antibodies required for immunity to malaria sporozoites. Nature. 1987;330(6149):664-666\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nMellouk S, Green SJ, Nacy CA, Hoffman SL. IFN-gamma inhibits development of Plasmodium berghei exoerythrocytic stages in hepatocytes by an L-arginine-dependent effector mechanism. Journal of Immunology. 1991;146(11):3971-3976\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nDoolan DL, Sedegah M, Hedstrom RC, Hobart P, Charoenvit Y, Hoffman SL. Circumventing genetic restriction of protection against malaria with multigene DNA immunization: CD8+ cell-, interferon gamma-, and nitric oxide-dependent immunity. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 1996;183(4):1739-1746\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nZhong S, Stevenson MM. Central role of endogenous gamma interferon in protective immunity against blood-stage Plasmodium chabaudi AS infection. Infection and Immunity. 2000;68(8):4399-4406\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nTaylor E, Onditi F, Maina N, Ozwara H. Immunization of mice with soluble lysate of interferon gamma expressing Plasmodium berghei ANKA induces high IFN-γ production, Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines. 2017;3(1):11\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nMcCall MBB, Hopman J, Daou M, Maiga B, Dara V, Ploemen I, et al. Early interferon-γ response against P. falciparum correlates with interethnic differences in susceptibility to Parasitemia between sympatric Fulani and Dogon in Mali. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2010;201(1):142-152\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nBelnoue E, Potter SM, Rosa DS, Mauduit M, Grüner AC, Kayibanda M, et al. Control of pathogenic CD8+ T cell migration to the brain by IFN-gamma during experimental cerebral malaria. Parasite Immunology. 2008;30(10):544-553\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nGuevara Patiño JA, Marino MW, Ivanov VN, Nicolić-Žugić J. Sex steroids induce apoptosis of CD8+ CD4+ double-positive thymocytes via TNF-α. European Journal of Immunology. 2000;30(9):2586-2592\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nPérez AR, Roggero E, Nicora A, Palazzi J, Besedovsky HO, del Rey A, et al. Thymus atrophy during T. cruzi infection is caused by an immuno-endocrine imbalance. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2007;21(7):890-900\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nFayad R, Sennello JA, Kim SH, Pini M, Dinarello CA, Fantuzzi G. Induction of thymocyte apoptosis by systemic administration of concanavalin A in mice: Role of TNF-α, IFN-γ and glucocorticoids. European Journal of Immunology. 2005;35(8):2304-2312\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nLiepinsh DJ, Kruglov AA, Galimov AR, Shakhov AN, Shebzukhov YV, Kuchmiy AA, et al. Accelerated thymic atrophy as a result of elevated homeostatic expression of the genes encoded by the TNF/lymphotoxin cytokine locus. European Journal of Immunology. 2009;39(10):2906-2915\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nFrancelin C, Paulino LC, Gameiro J, Verinaud L. Effects of Plasmodium berghei on thymus: High levels of apoptosis and premature egress of CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes in experimentally infected mice. Immunobiology. 2011;216(10):1148-1154\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nGameiro J, Nagib PR, Andrade CF, Villa-Verde DM, Silva-Barbosa SD, Savino W, et al. Changes in cell migration-related molecules expressed by thymic microenvironment during experimental Plasmodium berghei infection: Consequences on thymocyte development. Immunology. 2010;129(2):248-256\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nGravely SM, Hamburger J, Kreier JP. T and B cell population changes in young and in adult rats infected with Plasmodium berghei. Infection and Immunity. 1976;14(1):178-183\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nAndrade CF, Gameiro J, Nagib PR, Carvalho BO, Talaisys RL, Costa FT, et al. Thymic alterations in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. Cellular Immunology. 2008;253(1-2):1-4\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nSeixas E, Ostler D. Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi (AS): Differential cellular responses to infection in resistant and susceptible mice. Experimental Parasitology. 2005;110(4):394-405\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nThakur L, Singh KK, Shanker V, Negi A, Jain A, Matlashewski G, et al. Atypical leishmaniasis: A global perspective with emphasis on the Indian subcontinent. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2018;12(9):e0006659\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nWorld Health Organization. Fact sheets, Details, Leishmaniasis. 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/Leishmaniasis\n\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nSalotra P, Sreenivas G, Pogue GP, Lee N, Nakhasi HL, Ramesh V, et al. Development of a species-specific PCR assay for detection of Leishmania donovani in clinical samples from patients with kala-azar and post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2001;39(3):849-854\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nEl Tai N, Osman O, El Fari M, Presber W, Schönian G. Genetic heterogeneity of ribosomal internal transcribed spacer in clinical samples of Leishmania donovani spotted on filter paper as revealed by single-strand conformation polymorphisms and sequencing. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2000;94(5):575-579\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nLoeuillet C, Banuls AL, Hide M. Study of Leishmania pathogenesis in mice: Experimental considerations. Parasites and Vectors. 2016;9:144\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nSarween N, Chodos A, Raykundalia C, Khan M, Abbas AK, Walker LS. CD4+CD25+ cells controlling a pathogenic CD4 response inhibit cytokine differentiation, CXCR-3 expression, and tissue invasion. Journal of Immunology. 2004;173(5):2942-2951\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nNovais FO, Scott P. CD8+ T cells in cutaneous Leishmaniasis: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Seminars in Immunopathology. 2015;37(3):251-259\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nBousoffara T, Louzir H, Ben Salah A, Dellagi K. Analysis of granzyme B activity as a surrogate marker of Leishmania-specific cell-mediated cytotoxicity in zoonotic cutaneous Leishmaniasis. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2004;189(7):1265-1273\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nDaoudaki M, Diakou A, Frydas S, Fouzas I, Karagouni E, Vavatsi N, et al. Vaccination with Trichinella spirallis antigens increases CD8+ peripheral T cells and enhances the Th2 immune response in Leishmania infantum challenged mice. International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology. 2009;22(1):169-174\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nOlekhnovitch R, Ryffel B, Müller AJ, Bousso P. Collective nitric oxide production provides tissue-wide immunity during Leishmania infection. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2014;124(4):1711-1722\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nDiefenbach A, Schindler H, Donhauser N, Lorenz E, Laskay T, MacMicking J, et al. Type 1 interferon (IFNα/β) and type 2 nitric oxide synthase regulate the innate immune response to a protozoan parasite. Immunity. 1998;8(1):77-87\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nMattner J, Wandersee-Steinhäuser A, Pahl A, Röllinghoff M, Majeau GR, Hochman PS, et al. Protection against progressive Leishmaniasis by IFN-β. The Journal of Immunology. 2004;172(12):7574-7582\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nAlexander J, Brombacher F. T helper1/t helper2 cells and resistance/susceptibility to Leishmania infection: Is this paradigm still relevant? Frontiers in Immunology. 2012;3:80\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nKumar R, Singh N, Gautam S, Singh OP, Gidwani K, Rai M, et al. Leishmania specific CD4 T cells release IFNγ that limits parasite replication in patients with visceral leishmaniasis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2014;8(10)\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nPinheiro RO, Rossi-Bergmann B. Interferon-gamma is required for the late but not early control of Leishmania amazonensis infection in C57Bl/6 mice. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 2007;102(1):79-82\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nGupta G, Majumdar S, Adhikari A, Bhattacharya P, Mukherjee AK, Majumdar SB, et al. Treatment with IP-10 induces host-protective immune response by regulating the T regulatory cell functioning in Leishmania donovani-infected mice. Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 2011;200(4):241-253\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nMajumder S, Bhattacharjee S, Chowdhury BP, Majumdar S. CXCL10 is critical for the generation of protective CD8 T cell response induced by antigen pulsed CpG-ODN activated dendritic cells. PLoS One. 2012;7(11):e48727\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nVasquez RE, Xin L, Soong L. Effects of CXCL10 on dendritic cell and CD4+ T-cell functions during Leishmania amazonensis infection. Infection and Immunity. 2008;76(1):161-169\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nMacedo ABB, Sánchez-Arcila JC, Schubach AO, Mendonça SCF, Marins-Dos-Santos A, de Fatima Madeira M, et al. Multifunctional CD4+T cells in patients with American cutaneous Leishmaniasis. Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 2012;167(3):505-513\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nSchnorr D, Muniz AC, Passos S, Guimaraes LH, Lago EL, Bacellar O, et al. IFN-γ production to Leishmania antigen supplements the Leishmania skin test in identifying exposure to L. braziliensis infection. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2012;6(12):e1947\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nDayakar A, Chandrasekaran S, Kuchipudi SV, Kalangi SK. Cytokines: Key determinants of resistance or disease progression in visceral Leishmaniasis: Opportunities for novel diagnostics and immunotherapy. Frontiers in Immunology. 2019;10:670\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nAndargie TE, Ejara ED. Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in visceral Leishmaniasis. Journal of Cell Science & Therapy. 2015;6(3):1\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nLosada-Barragán M, Umaña-Pérez A, Durães J, Cuervo-Escobar SA, Rodríguez-Vega A, Ribeiro-Gomes FL, et al. Thymic microenvironment is modified by malnutrition and Leishmania infantum infection. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2019;9:252\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nLosada-Barragan M, Umana-Perez A, Cuervo-Escobar S, Berbert LR, Porrozzi R, Morgado FN, et al. Protein malnutrition promotes dysregulation of molecules involved in T cell migration in the thymus of mice infected with Leishmania infantum. Scientific Reports. 2017;7:45991\n'},{id:"B85",body:'\nCuervo-Escobar S, Losada-Barragan M, Umana-Perez A, Porrozzi R, Saboia-Vahia L, Miranda LH, et al. T-cell populations and cytokine expression are impaired in thymus and spleen of protein malnourished BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania infantum. PLoS One. 2014;9(12):e114584\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Lovlesh Thakur",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Zoology, Central University of Punjab, India
Department of Biochemistry, Central University of Punjab, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8959",title:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8959.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Shirowzhan",email:"s.shirowzhan@unsw.edu.au",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",position:null,biography:"Dr. Sara Shirowzhan completed her Ph.D. in Geomatic Engineering at UNSW and her strong capability in designing and conducting high-quality multi-disciplinary research has been demonstrated by solving complex problems facing digital representation and analysis of the built environment and civil engineering infrastructures. Her areas of interest for research are automation, laser scanning technologies and robotics for construction, remote sensing and advanced GIS for Smart Cities and monitoring 3D urban growth, metric development for sustainability assessment and urban infrastructures. Some of her areas of expertise include lidar technology, machine learning algorithms, and app development. She has taught and supervised students in architecture, urban planning and construction departments as a lecturer, and research supervisor in several universities for over 10 years.",institutionString:"UNSW Sydney",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273838/images/system/273838.jpeg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalEditedBooks:"1",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},booksEdited:[{type:"book",slug:"smart-cities-and-construction-technologies",title:"Smart Cities and Construction Technologies",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9431.jpg",abstract:"This book includes nine chapters presenting the outcome of research projects relevant to building, cities, and construction. A description of a smart city and the journey from conventional to smart cities is discussed at the beginning of the book. Innovative case studies of underground cities and floating city bridges are presented in this book. BIM and GIS applications on different projects, and the concept of intelligent contract and virtual reality are discussed. Two concepts relevant to conventional buildings including private open spaces and place attachments are also included, and these topics can be upgraded in the future by smart technologies.",editors:[{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"A GIS-Based Risk and Safety Analysis of Entrance Areas in Educational Buildings Based on Students’ Experience",slug:"a-gis-based-risk-and-safety-analysis-of-entrance-areas-in-educational-buildings-based-on-students-ex",abstract:"The architecture of educational buildings is required to meet the contemporary needs and follow regulations concerning safety issues in an intelligent, resilient, and systematic manner. However, the current literature generally neglects to identify geo-referenced risks within GIS environment based on the users’ perceptions of educational environments. This research aims to present a newly formulated risk evaluation criteria for assessing the spaces within and outside educational buildings. This chapter investigates students’ experience of using different micro-spaces, architects’ predesign assumptions and expectations of the spaces, and post-design assessment of the spaces. Two case studies of educational spaces within University of New South Wales campus in Kensington, Sydney was selected, and the questionnaire method was employed to collect data from students, who routinely use the selected areas. By comparing the results of the two buildings and mapping them in GIS, it is suggested that feelings of safety and security can be increased via improving the building features and enhancing the building control and security control, for example, installing CCTV and other security infrastructure. Data-driven findings mapped into GIS create a prototype for the identification of problematic areas on a map. The results help decision-makers to understand risks and strengthen risk reduction strategies. This work is also a step towards smarter buildings and enhanced preparedness for an effective response to a security threat, both minimal and extreme.",signatures:"Sara Shirowzhan, Laurence Kimmel, Mohammad Mojtahedi, Samad Sepasgozar and Jack Peacock",authors:[{id:"193947",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Mojtahedi",fullName:"Mohammad Mojtahedi",slug:"mohammad-mojtahedi",email:"m.mojtahedi@unsw.edu.au"},{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",surname:"Sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",email:"samad.sepasgozar@gmail.com"},{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",email:"s.shirowzhan@unsw.edu.au"},{id:"306365",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurence",surname:"Kimmel",fullName:"Laurence Kimmel",slug:"laurence-kimmel",email:"laurence.kimmel@unsw.edu.au"},{id:"306367",title:"Mr.",name:"Jack",surname:"Peacock",fullName:"Jack Peacock",slug:"jack-peacock",email:"j.peacock@unsw.edu.au"}],book:{title:"Smart Cities and Construction Technologies",slug:"smart-cities-and-construction-technologies",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"New Metrics for Spatial and Temporal 3D Urban Form Sustainability Assessment Using Time Series Lidar Point Clouds and Advanced GIS Techniques",slug:"new-metrics-for-spatial-and-temporal-3d-urban-form-sustainability-assessment-using-time-series-lidar",abstract:"Monitoring sustainability of urban form as a 3D phenomenon over time is crucial in the era of smart cities for better planning of the future, and for such a monitoring system, appropriate tools, metrics, methodologies and time series 3D data are required. While accurate time series 3D data are becoming available, a lack of 3D sustainable urban form (3D SUF) metrics, appropriate methodologies and technical problems of processing time series 3D data has resulted in few studies on the assessment of 3D SUF over time. In this chapter, we review volumetric building metrics currently under development and demonstrate the technical problems associated with their validation based on time series airborne lidar data. We propose new metrics for application in spatial and temporal 3D SUF assessment. We also suggest a new approach in processing time series airborne lidar to detect three-dimensional changes of urban form. Using this approach and the developed metrics, we detected a decreased volume of vegetation and new areas prepared for the construction of taller buildings. These 3D changes and the proposed metrics can be used to numerically measure and compare urban areas in terms of trends against or in favor of sustainability goals for caring for the environment.",signatures:"Sara Shirowzhan, John Trinder and Paul Osmond",authors:[{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",email:"s.shirowzhan@unsw.edu.au"},{id:"267958",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Trinder",fullName:"John Trinder",slug:"john-trinder",email:"j.trinder@unsw.edu.au"},{id:"295989",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Osmond",fullName:"Paul Osmond",slug:"paul-osmond",email:"p.osmond@unsw.edu.au"}],book:{title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"5D BIM Applications in Quantity Surveying: Dynamo and 3D Printing Technologies",slug:"5d-bim-applications-in-quantity-surveying-dynamo-and-3d-printing-technologies",abstract:"Digital construction is increasingly introduced to the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. The fifth dimension of Building Information Modeling (5D BIM) has a significant contribution to the AEC industry, such as managing time and costs and resources management. However, 5D BIM has not fulfilled its promise completely. The major challenge of implementing the 5D BIM technology and applications is the interoperability between technologies and the low accuracy of measurement estimations. Dynamo is adopted in this chapter for detailed quantity measurement. Three-dimensional printing (3DP) is one of the additive manufacturing technologies which is recommended to be used in construction. 3DP is aiming to create complex and customized geometries. This chapter demonstrates how to apply the Dynamo scripts of detailed quantity take-off for estimating the volume of elements created by 3DP. Dynamo as a quantity take-off Add-in in Revit is always used for detailed quantity take-off or precise model created. After the detailed quantity take-off from Revit, the data can be exported into Excel extension, which allows the quantity surveyors to insert the price per unit to the file and to generate a Bill of Quantity (BOQ). This chapter will offer a procedure for applying Dynamo through two selected case studies.",signatures:"Anqi Shi, Sara Shirowzhan, Samad M.E. Sepasgozar and Alireza Kaboli",authors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",surname:"Sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",email:"samad.sepasgozar@gmail.com"},{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",email:"s.shirowzhan@unsw.edu.au"},{id:"303523",title:"Ms.",name:"Anqi",surname:"Shi",fullName:"Anqi Shi",slug:"anqi-shi",email:"anqi.shi@student.unsw.edu.au"},{id:"313050",title:"Mr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Kaboli",fullName:"Alireza Kaboli",slug:"alireza-kaboli",email:"sa.kaboli@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Smart Cities and Construction Technologies",slug:"smart-cities-and-construction-technologies",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"193947",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Mojtahedi",slug:"mohammad-mojtahedi",fullName:"Mohammad Mojtahedi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"211659",title:"Dr.",name:"Faham",surname:"Tahmasebinia",slug:"faham-tahmasebinia",fullName:"Faham Tahmasebinia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211659/images/system/211659.jpg",biography:"Faham Tahmasebinia holds ME and ME-Research degrees in Civil/Structural Engineering from the University of Wollongong – Australia. He has also completed two Ph.D. degrees in the field of Structural Engineering at the University of Sydney and in the field of Rock Mechanics at the University of New South Wales – Sydney. Currently, he is an academic at the University of Sydney – Australia. His research areas are numerical and analytical simulations in both ductile and brittle materials.",institutionString:"The University of Sydney",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221172/images/system/221172.JPG",biography:"Dr. Samad M.E. Sepasgozar is a senior lecturer in digital construction and property management who has published more than 100 trending papers in the last seven years. He has been granted funds as chief investigator for different projects on the application of advanced technologies. Dr. Sepasgozar has a strong background in developing smart technologies for the built environment. His work has been recognized by world leaders, as evidenced by 'best paper’” awards for some of his publications in high-quality journals and world-class conferences. He is an editorial board member for a leading Q1 journal, and guest editor and reviewer of many high-ranked journals focusing on innovation and smart technologies.",institutionString:"UNSW Sydney",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"303523",title:"Ms.",name:"Anqi",surname:"Shi",slug:"anqi-shi",fullName:"Anqi Shi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"306365",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurence",surname:"Kimmel",slug:"laurence-kimmel",fullName:"Laurence Kimmel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"306367",title:"Mr.",name:"Jack",surname:"Peacock",slug:"jack-peacock",fullName:"Jack Peacock",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"308025",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reyhaneh",surname:"Karimi",slug:"reyhaneh-karimi",fullName:"Reyhaneh Karimi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"309432",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Alan",surname:"McNamara",slug:"alan-mcnamara",fullName:"Alan McNamara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"310530",title:"Ms.",name:"Behnaz",surname:"Avazpour",slug:"behnaz-avazpour",fullName:"Behnaz Avazpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"311199",title:"Mr.",name:"Farhad",surname:"Soheili",slug:"farhad-soheili",fullName:"Farhad Soheili",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Science and Culture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15791}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{},books:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Cancer, Autoimmunity and Inflammation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Ms. Katja Lakota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9662",title:"Vegetation Index and Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Eusebio Cano Carmona, Dr. Ricardo Quinto Canas, Dr. Ana Cano Ortiz and Dr. Carmelo Maria Musarella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9667",title:"Neuroimmunology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9cf0e8203ce088c0b84add014fd8d382",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Robert Weissert",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9667.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"79343",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Weissert",slug:"robert-weissert",fullName:"Robert Weissert"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9816",title:"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"365bb9762ba33db2d07e677690af1772",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Salim Surani and Dr. Venkat Rajasurya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9816.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15654",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim",surname:"Surani",slug:"salim-surani",fullName:"Salim Surani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10218",title:"Flagellar Motility in Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcc15570365a82d9f2c4816f4e0ee2e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10218.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10270",title:"Fog Computing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"54853b3034f0348a6157b5591f8d95f3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Isiaka Ajewale Alimi, Dr. Nelson Muga, Dr. Qin Xin and Dr. Paulo P. Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10270.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"208236",title:"Dr.",name:"Isiaka",surname:"Alimi",slug:"isiaka-alimi",fullName:"Isiaka Alimi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10343",title:"Ocular Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0ff71cc7e0d9f394f41162c0c825588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10343.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10370",title:"Advances in Fundamental and Applied Research on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f16232a481c08a05cc191ac64cf2c69e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brian FG Katz and Dr. Piotr Majdak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10370.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278731",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian FG",surname:"Katz",slug:"brian-fg-katz",fullName:"Brian FG Katz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:191},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5238},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1134",title:"Population Health",slug:"population-health",parent:{title:"Public Health",slug:"medicine-public-health"},numberOfBooks:7,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:241,numberOfWosCitations:118,numberOfCrossrefCitations:81,numberOfDimensionsCitations:177,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"population-health",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6142",title:"Family Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4993c79cffba3126a9ca1ef7c9902c7e",slug:"family-planning",bookSignature:"Zouhair O. Amarin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6142.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair",middleName:null,surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Amarin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5483",title:"Adiposity",subtitle:"Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f19b6a0755b8a29538e3b2043d4a854",slug:"adiposity-epidemiology-and-treatment-modalities",bookSignature:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5483.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:"Oxholm",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5378",title:"The Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"862e269e0512a4763bba54d355c3c44f",slug:"the-epidemiology-and-ecology-of-leishmaniasis",bookSignature:"David Claborn",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5378.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5287",title:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases",subtitle:"Attributes of Lifestyle and Nature on Humankind",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c8ce64cf0b96dce4c16042b2982ef5bb",slug:"epidemiology-of-communicable-and-non-communicable-diseases-attributes-of-lifestyle-and-nature-on-humankind",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5287.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2140",title:"Epidemiology Insights",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30ed18695c28d4af7aa8fe536a765829",slug:"epidemiology-insights",bookSignature:"Maria de Lourdes Ribeiro de Souza da Cunha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2140.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87931",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Ribeiro De Souza Da Cunha",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-ribeiro-de-souza-da-cunha",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Ribeiro De Souza Da Cunha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"313",title:"Health Management",subtitle:"Different Approaches and Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"50844b8973e93e755acd2e5a950f2766",slug:"health-management-different-approaches-and-solutions",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Śmigórski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12528",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Smigorski",slug:"krzysztof-smigorski",fullName:"Krzysztof Smigorski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5115",title:"Health Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6af1c688ae4cf514c5c3ed6e801f6725",slug:"health-management",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Smigorski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12528",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Smigorski",slug:"krzysztof-smigorski",fullName:"Krzysztof Smigorski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"35769",doi:"10.5772/31746",title:"Epidemiology of Lymphoid Malignancy in Asia",slug:"epidemiology-of-lymphoid-malignancy-in-asia",totalDownloads:4675,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"epidemiology-insights",title:"Epidemiology Insights",fullTitle:"Epidemiology Insights"},signatures:"Zahra Mozaheb",authors:[{id:"88507",title:"Prof.",name:"Zahra",middleName:null,surname:"Mozaheb",slug:"zahra-mozaheb",fullName:"Zahra Mozaheb"}]},{id:"24997",doi:"10.5772/21387",title:"Human Walking Analysis, Evaluation and Classification Based on Motion Capture System",slug:"human-walking-analysis-evaluation-and-classification-based-on-motion-capture-system",totalDownloads:2964,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"health-management-different-approaches-and-solutions",title:"Health Management",fullTitle:"Health Management - Different Approaches and Solutions"},signatures:"Bofeng Zhang, Susu Jiang, Ke Yan and Daming Wei",authors:[{id:"42911",title:"Prof.",name:"Daming",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",slug:"daming-wei",fullName:"Daming Wei"},{id:"52921",title:"Prof.",name:"Bofeng",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"bofeng-zhang",fullName:"Bofeng Zhang"},{id:"52924",title:"Ms",name:"Susu",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"susu-jiang",fullName:"Susu Jiang"},{id:"52937",title:"Mr",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",slug:"ke-yan",fullName:"Ke Yan"}]},{id:"24998",doi:"10.5772/22790",title:"The Role of Mass Media Communication in Public Health",slug:"the-role-of-mass-media-communication-in-public-health",totalDownloads:10305,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"health-management-different-approaches-and-solutions",title:"Health Management",fullTitle:"Health Management - Different Approaches and Solutions"},signatures:"Daniel Catalán-Matamoros",authors:[{id:"49198",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Catalan-Matamoros",slug:"daniel-catalan-matamoros",fullName:"Daniel Catalan-Matamoros"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58916",title:"Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Women toward Family Planning",slug:"factors-affecting-the-attitudes-of-women-toward-family-planning",totalDownloads:5944,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",middleName:null,surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",middleName:null,surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}]},{id:"58297",title:"Family Planning Services in Africa: The Successes and Challenges",slug:"family-planning-services-in-africa-the-successes-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1195,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Alhaji A Aliyu",authors:[{id:"217688",title:"Prof.",name:"Alhaji A",middleName:null,surname:"Aliyu",slug:"alhaji-a-aliyu",fullName:"Alhaji A Aliyu"}]},{id:"53472",title:"Nutrition Labelling: Educational Tool for Reducing Risks of Obesity-Related Non-communicable Diseases",slug:"nutrition-labelling-educational-tool-for-reducing-risks-of-obesity-related-non-communicable-diseases",totalDownloads:1224,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"adiposity-epidemiology-and-treatment-modalities",title:"Adiposity",fullTitle:"Adiposity - Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities"},signatures:"Visith Chavasit, Wantanee Kriengsinyos, Mayuree Ditmetharoj,\nManasuwee Phaichamanan, Kangsadan Singsoong, Prapaisri\nSirichakwal and Araya Rojjanawanicharkorn",authors:[{id:"191830",title:"Prof.",name:"Visith",middleName:null,surname:"Chavasit",slug:"visith-chavasit",fullName:"Visith Chavasit"}]},{id:"53594",title:"Application of the Eco-Epidemiological Method in the Study of Leishmaniasis Transmission Foci",slug:"application-of-the-eco-epidemiological-method-in-the-study-of-leishmaniasis-transmission-foci",totalDownloads:1044,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"the-epidemiology-and-ecology-of-leishmaniasis",title:"The Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis",fullTitle:"The Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis"},signatures:"Iván D. Vélez, Lina M. Carrillo, Horacio Cadena, Carlos Muskus and\nSara M. Robledo",authors:[{id:"187783",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara M.",middleName:null,surname:"Robledo",slug:"sara-m.-robledo",fullName:"Sara M. Robledo"},{id:"189117",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan D.",middleName:null,surname:"Velez",slug:"ivan-d.-velez",fullName:"Ivan D. Velez"},{id:"189118",title:"Dr.",name:"Lina M.",middleName:null,surname:"Carrillo",slug:"lina-m.-carrillo",fullName:"Lina M. Carrillo"},{id:"189119",title:"Dr.",name:"Horacio",middleName:null,surname:"Cadena",slug:"horacio-cadena",fullName:"Horacio Cadena"},{id:"189120",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Muskus",slug:"carlos-muskus",fullName:"Carlos Muskus"}]},{id:"52377",title:"Lay Theories of Obesity: Causes and Consequences",slug:"lay-theories-of-obesity-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"adiposity-epidemiology-and-treatment-modalities",title:"Adiposity",fullTitle:"Adiposity - Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities"},signatures:"Paul H. Thibodeau and Stephen J. Flusberg",authors:[{id:"190818",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Thibodeau",slug:"paul-thibodeau",fullName:"Paul Thibodeau"},{id:"190820",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Flusberg",slug:"stephen-flusberg",fullName:"Stephen Flusberg"}]},{id:"50982",title:"Epidemiology of Vitamin B12 Deficiency",slug:"epidemiology-of-vitamin-b12-deficiency",totalDownloads:1687,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"epidemiology-of-communicable-and-non-communicable-diseases-attributes-of-lifestyle-and-nature-on-humankind",title:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases",fullTitle:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases - Attributes of Lifestyle and Nature on Humankind"},signatures:"Tekin Guney, Aysun Senturk Yikilmaz and Imdat Dilek",authors:[{id:"182835",title:"M.D.",name:"Tekin",middleName:null,surname:"Guney",slug:"tekin-guney",fullName:"Tekin Guney"},{id:"183364",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysun",middleName:null,surname:"Senturk Yikilmaz",slug:"aysun-senturk-yikilmaz",fullName:"Aysun Senturk Yikilmaz"},{id:"183366",title:"Prof.",name:"Imdat",middleName:null,surname:"Dilek",slug:"imdat-dilek",fullName:"Imdat Dilek"}]},{id:"52888",title:"Dietary and Hormonal Factors Involved in Healthy or Unhealthy Visceral Adipose Tissue Expansion",slug:"dietary-and-hormonal-factors-involved-in-healthy-or-unhealthy-visceral-adipose-tissue-expansion",totalDownloads:1180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"adiposity-epidemiology-and-treatment-modalities",title:"Adiposity",fullTitle:"Adiposity - Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities"},signatures:"María Guillermina Zubiría, Ana Alzamendi, Luisina Ongaro, Eduardo\nSpinedi and Andrés Giovambattista",authors:[{id:"191011",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrés",middleName:null,surname:"Giovambattista",slug:"andres-giovambattista",fullName:"Andrés Giovambattista"},{id:"191724",title:"Dr.",name:"María Guillermina",middleName:null,surname:"Zubiría",slug:"maria-guillermina-zubiria",fullName:"María Guillermina Zubiría"},{id:"191729",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Alzamendi",slug:"ana-alzamendi",fullName:"Ana Alzamendi"},{id:"191731",title:"Dr.",name:"Luisina",middleName:null,surname:"Ongaro Gambino",slug:"luisina-ongaro-gambino",fullName:"Luisina Ongaro Gambino"},{id:"191733",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Spinedi",slug:"eduardo-spinedi",fullName:"Eduardo Spinedi"}]},{id:"53011",title:"Multimodal Lifestyle Intervention: Outlines and Outcomes",slug:"multimodal-lifestyle-intervention-outlines-and-outcomes",totalDownloads:1095,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"adiposity-epidemiology-and-treatment-modalities",title:"Adiposity",fullTitle:"Adiposity - Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities"},signatures:"Mahmoud M. A. Abulmeaty",authors:[{id:"190647",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",middleName:null,surname:"Abulmeaty",slug:"mahmoud-abulmeaty",fullName:"Mahmoud Abulmeaty"}]},{id:"58267",title:"Birth Control and Family Planning Using Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)",slug:"birth-control-and-family-planning-using-intrauterine-devices-iuds-",totalDownloads:1403,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Iliescu Dominic Gabriel, Ștefania Tudorache, Simona Vlădăreanu,\nNuți Daniela Oprescu, Maria Cezara Mureșan, Roxana Cristina\nDrăgușin and Iuliana Ceaușu",authors:[{id:"209081",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania",middleName:null,surname:"Tudorache",slug:"stefania-tudorache",fullName:"Stefania Tudorache"},{id:"212459",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Iliescu",slug:"dominic-iliescu",fullName:"Dominic Iliescu"},{id:"212490",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragusin",middleName:null,surname:"Roxana",slug:"dragusin-roxana",fullName:"Dragusin Roxana"},{id:"215126",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Vladareanu",slug:"simona-vladareanu",fullName:"Simona Vladareanu"},{id:"215135",title:"Prof.",name:"Iuliana",middleName:null,surname:"Ceausu",slug:"iuliana-ceausu",fullName:"Iuliana Ceausu"},{id:"216852",title:"Prof.",name:"Dana",middleName:null,surname:"Oprescu",slug:"dana-oprescu",fullName:"Dana Oprescu"},{id:"230814",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Maria Cezara",middleName:null,surname:"Muresan",slug:"maria-cezara-muresan",fullName:"Maria Cezara Muresan"}]},{id:"58484",title:"Male Contraceptives",slug:"male-contraceptives",totalDownloads:576,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Eka Rusdianto Gunardi and Yohanes Handoko",authors:[{id:"217138",title:"Dr.",name:"Eka Rusdianto",middleName:null,surname:"Gunardi",slug:"eka-rusdianto-gunardi",fullName:"Eka Rusdianto Gunardi"},{id:"217139",title:"M.D.",name:"Yohanes",middleName:null,surname:"Handoko",slug:"yohanes-handoko",fullName:"Yohanes Handoko"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"population-health",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/273838/sara-shirowzhan",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"273838",slug:"sara-shirowzhan"},fullPath:"/profiles/273838/sara-shirowzhan",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()