Summary of the experimental results of some reviewed publications involving the application of extrusion assisted by ultrasound for preparation of polymer nanocomposites, last 10 years.
\r\n\t1. Emphasizing the unique power of the molecular docking method in new drug discovery;
\r\n\t2. Demonstration of how the molecular docking technique has led to the discovery of new molecules in cancer therapy, proteasome, and STAT3 inhibition, and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
\r\n\t3. Underlining the importance of molecular docking-based modeling methods in the various branches of biotechnology
\r\n\tWe hope that this book will be a common point where researchers working in the fields of life sciences and drug development will eventually meet.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-468-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-467-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-469-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",keywords:"Protein-Ligand Interaction, Lead Discovery, Molecular Recognition, Enzyme-Ligand Interaction, Mutant Enzymes, Alanine Screening, Proteasome Inhibitors, Signal Transducers, Transcription Activators (STATs), DNA Recognition Motifs, Neoplastic Cells, Amyloid-Beta Proteins",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A multidisciplinary researcher working in the fields of cytogenetics, molecular genetics, and bioinformatics-based molecular modeling (currently on the structural biology of COVID-19 and the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease). Dr. Istifli previously joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany where he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179007/images/system/179007.JPG",biography:"Dr. Erman Salih İstifli received his Ph.D. from Biology Department of Cukurova University, Insitute of Science and Letter. In his doctoral study, Dr. İstifli focused on the elucidation of the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of a commonly used anticancer agent (antifolate) on human lymphocytes. During his period of doctoral research, he joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany, and he focused there on investigating the molecular cytogenetic causes of some human rare diseases. During these studies, he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R) responsible for intelligence and obesity. He was assigned as an expert and rapporteur on eight candidate projects in the Marie-Sklodowska Curie-Actions Innovative Training Networks in 2016. In 2017, he completed the online theoretical and practical course 'Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life', run by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on the edX platform. In April 2019, within the framework of Erasmus+ staff mobility program, he gave seminars on 'DNA microarrays and their use in genotoxicity' at Tirana University in Tirana, Albania. He is a published author of several articles in journals covered by the SCI and SCI-E, and has manuscripts in other refereed scientific journals. He currently serves as a referee in several journals covered by the SCI and SCI-E. His studies mainly fall into the field of genetic toxicology. He continues his current research on the structural biology of COVID-19 as well as identification of novel plant-based hit compounds in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.",institutionString:"Çukurova University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8068",title:"Cytotoxicity",subtitle:"Definition, Identification, and Cytotoxic Compounds",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20a09223d92829b5478b5f241f6a03ce",slug:"cytotoxicity-definition-identification-and-cytotoxic-compounds",bookSignature:"Erman Salih Istifli and Hasan Basri Ila",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8068.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6969",title:"Lymphocytes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1aa8ac01c934ebdeedd5d7813036beef",slug:"lymphocytes",bookSignature:"Erman Salih Istifli and Hasan Basri İla",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63406",title:"Ultrasound-Assisted Melt Extrusion of Polymer Nanocomposites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80216",slug:"ultrasound-assisted-melt-extrusion-of-polymer-nanocomposites",body:'\nThe study of polymeric nanocomposites has grown during the last 10 years due to the remarkable properties that result from the combination of a continuous phase (polymer matrix) and a dispersed phase (nanoparticles), where at least one dimension of the dispersed phase is found in the scale of nanometric size (<100 nm). Such nanocomposites have attracted the attention of academic and industrial researchers due to their extraordinary electrical, thermal, chemical, and biological properties and potential applications in various sectors of the industry such as in the health sector, automotive industry, energy, construction, and food industry among others [1, 2]. One of the most popular methods used to prepare such materials is melt extrusion, since it is a flexible and versatile process, which does not require the use of solvents and can be scaled up at industrial level.
\nHowever, even with all these advantages, the lack of homogeneous dispersion of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix is still a problem with melt extrusion. An alternative to improve the dispersion is the application of ultrasound waves during the polymer processing in the molten state, named ultrasound-assisted extrusion. The first report of the use of ultrasound coupled in extrusion was made by Isayev et al. for processing vulcanized elastomers devulcanization [3]. These authors reported that the ultrasound waves have the ability to cause an incision in the C-S and S-S bonds of the crosslinked rubber, causing the breaking of the reticulated network and thereby achieving the devulcanization of the rubber. Later, it was applied to the study of polymer mixtures in the molten state [4], and in the last decade, this technology has been used for the preparation of polymer nanocomposites. Although it has been proven that this technology improves the dispersion of nanoparticles and that it has a great potential for application, the fundamentals for applying this technology in melt extrusion process are still not well understood. For example, the effects observed by the application of ultrasound have been explained on the basis of acoustic cavitation, treating the molten polymer as a Newtonian system; however, polymer cannot be considered as Newtonian fluids. For this reason, a general overview of the basic principles of ultrasound, the development and use of this technology in the preparation of polymeric nanocomposites in the molten state, and the mechanisms that have been proposed so far for the understanding of the phenomenon that generates the dispersion of the nanoparticles in the polymer is described below.
\nThermoplastic polymers and nanoparticles are the main materials used to produce polymer nanocomposites by melt extrusion. Thermoplastic polymers include polyolefins, polyesters, and polyamides among other polymer families. On the other hand, the nanoparticles can be classified according to the number of dimensions in the nanometer range. Zero-dimensional (0D): it is defined as a particle that is measured within a nanoscale range, that is, less than 100 nm, among them are all the nanoparticles, for example ZnO, TiO2, etc. One-dimensional (1D) has two dimensions in this scale, such as nanotubes and nanofiber. Finally, two-dimensional (2D) is referred to nanoparticles, where one dimension is in the nanometer scale, for example graphene and nanodisks [5].
\nUnlike particles of micro size, in the nanoparticles, the interparticle forces such as Van der Waals and electrostatic forces, as well as the magnetic attraction, become stronger, which results in the nanoparticles forming agglomerates, which are difficult to disperse individually and uniformly in the polymeric matrix; this implies obtaining compounds similar to conventional composites [6]. For this reason, various techniques in the modification of nanoparticles have been explored.
\nThe modification of the surface, in general, decreases the surface energy of the nanoparticles, improving the affinity between the polymer matrix and the nanoparticles. Natural clays have a stratified structure bonded by strong covalent bonds [7], thus hindering its homogeneous dispersion in many polymers. Therefore, a surface modification is needed, and in this case, it is carried out through a cation exchange process, in which the sodium and calcium cations present in the inter-clay galleries are replaced by alkylammonium species, usually quaternary ammonium containing alkyl, phenyl, benzyl, and pyridyl groups [8]. In metal nanoparticles such as nanoparticles of silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide and aluminum oxide are surface modified with organosilane coupling agents [9], while in carbon-based nanoparticles, surface modification is carried out by covalent functionalization or not covalent. In CNT for example, functionalization of the covalent bond of functional entities can be performed at the ends of the tubes or on their side walls. This process can be carried out by reaction with some molecules with high chemical reactivity, such as fluorine [10]. A noncovalent functionalization is the π-π interactions with aromatic molecules, such as pyrene, widely used to modify graphene [11].
\nAnother approach to modify the surfaces of nanoparticles is based on grafting synthetic polymers on the surface of the substrate, which improves the chemical functionality and alters the topology of the surface of the materials [12]. The graft can be done in two ways: (1) by means of obtaining a polymer with a reactive terminal group and subsequently it is grafted to the surface of the nanomaterial, and (2) the graft is made from the growth of the polymer from an initiator [13].
\nIn spite of all the available modifications for nanoparticles, sometimes they are not usually enough and it is necessary to look for alternative or previous methods to the extrusion process that helps us to de-agglomerate the nanoparticles and to reduce the size of these. One of these methods is mechanical milling by high-energy ball mill. The alteration of the solids by mechanical grinding gives rise not only to the fragmentation of the particles but also to structural changes, polymorphic transformations, variation of the properties of the surface, generation of defects, increases of reactivity, induction of chemical reactions, etc. [14]. Mechanical grinding has been applied in phyllosilicates, for example some studies have been carried out on kaolinite, pyrophyllite and some smectites, finding that grinding originates first a disordered phase of the mineral and later a more amorphous phase giving a structural destruction of the same, resulting in an exfoliation of the clay layers [15, 16]. It has also been successfully applied to carbon materials either to modify the morphology of carbon nanotubes or to introduce functional groups, which allow an improvement in dispersion and compatibility with the polymer matrix.
\nAnother way is to carry out a premixing of the nanoparticles with the polymer using by calendaring. This method has been used in the exfoliation and dispersion of montmorillonite in a DEGBA epoxy resin [17], as well as in dispersion of multiple-wall carbon nanotubes in an epoxy resin [18]. In both cases, a better dispersion of the nanoparticles in the polymer matrix was observed.
\nMechanical agitation is a common technique for the dispersion of nanoparticles in liquid systems; however, after a while, the nanoparticles tend to agglomerate. To improve the efficiency of dispersion and exfoliation, the ultrasound waves have been applied to stir particles, taking as the separation of individualized nanoparticles results. Ultrasonication is an effective method to disperse CNT in liquids that have a low viscosity, such as water, acetone, and ethanol. In this stage of application of ultrasound, some power factors must be taken care of, for example, because in the case of nanotubes, it has been seen that ultrasound waves can induce defects such as the formation of amorphous carbon in the CNT [19]; recommendations have been made as a sonication of the low power bath to preserve the length and structure of the CNT [20].
\nAfter applying these methods to modify the nanoparticles aiming to improve their dispersion in the polymer, it is necessary to consider the conditions of the extrusion process where these nanoparticles are incorporated, since it can be in different modalities or extrusion conditions in order to avoid reagglomerations or degradations of the polymer.
\nIn general, the most used mixing methods for the preparation of nanocomposites are in-situ polymerization, solution, and melt mixing. In the in-situ polymerization method, the nanoparticles are first dispersed in the liquid monomer (or a monomer solution), and from there, they are mixed to carry out the polymerization, which can be initiated by heat or by the diffusion of an initiator. In the solution method, the polymer is dissolved in a solvent, and the filler is dispersed in the same solution. The intercalated nanocomposite is obtained by removing the solvent by vaporization or precipitation [21]. Because both processes use a solvent, it is not practical at the industrial level. The melt mixing method takes advantage of the melt temperature of the polymer matrix, and in this way, it achieves the mixing with the nanoparticles. Within this method, one of the most striking is the melt extrusion process [22].
\nMelt extrusion is a continuous process that consists of passing a material in the molten state through a profile or given geometry. The preparation of a large variety of polymeric nanocomposites has been reported through this process from varying the polymer matrix to modifying the geometry and size of the nanoparticles to be used. It has been observed that the size and dispersion of the nanoparticles in the polymer are related to the improvement in the properties of the final nanocomposite. A great challenge in the preparation of polymeric nanocomposites is to achieve the homogeneous dispersion of the nanoparticles in the polymer matrix, knowing that a complete dispersion of the nanoparticles allows a greater matrix-nanoparticle interaction responsible for the improved properties in the final material [23].
\nIn a broad definition, the extrusion process refers to any transformation operation in which a molten material is forced to traverse a nozzle to produce an article of constant cross section and in principle of indefinite length [24]. From the point of view of plastics, melt extrusion is clearly one of the most important processes of transformation, where the polymer is fed in solid form; it is heated until reaching the molten state and leaves the extruder in the latest state. In this case, the extruder acts as a pump, providing the necessary pressure to pass the polymer through the nozzle.
\nAn extruder must have a system for feeding the material, a system for melting-plasticizing it, a pumping and pressurizing system (which usually generates a mixing effect), and finally, a device for forming the molten material. Figure 1a shows a basic scheme of an extruder [25]. Depending on the pressure that is exerted along the barrel or extrusion barrel, three main zones can be identified as indicated in Figure 1b. The feeding zone is the closest to the feeding of the material, where it is gradually compacted at a certain speed. The transition zone is a zone of intermediate compression of the material where the fusion takes place, in addition to which the air that could be trapped in the same escapes by means of the feed hopper. Finally, there is the dosing zone, in which the molten material is homogenized and pressurized to exit the extruder by means of the forming nozzle [26].
\n(a) Basic diagram of an extruder, (b) evolution of the pressure along an extruder [
One of the most important parts in this process is the screw and the barrel, since they contribute to carry out the functions of transporting, heating, melting, and mixing the material. For this reason, the stability of the process and the quality of the final product depend to a great extent on the screw design. The screw consists of a long cylinder surrounded by a helical fillet (Figure 2). The most important parameters to design it are: the length (L), diameter (D), the angle of the propeller (θ), and the thread pitch (w). When only one screw is used, the machine is called single-screw extruder, while when two screws are used, the term double-screw or twin-screw extruder is used. The mixing is highly dependent on the number of screws and its configuration. In the case of twin-screw extruders, the screws can co-rotate or counter-rotate and have different degrees of interpenetration. In Figure 3, some possible variants are shown. The advantages of its use include a good mixing and degassing capacity, as well as good control of the residence time and its distribution. Some disadvantages of these extruders are their price superior to that of the single screw and the fact that their performance is difficult to predict.
\nScrew of an extruder [
Possible arrangement of the spindles in the twin screw extruders; (a) rotation against rotary and (b) rotary rotation; different degrees of interpenetration of the screws [
It is important to mention that the selection of a twin-screw extruder to a single-screw extruder depends mainly on the efficient transport as a function of the friction of the material with the barrel and the extrusion screw. In a single screw-extruder, a high level of friction material/barrel and a low level in the screw provide a high carry per revolution. On the other hand, a poor carry per revolution will result in a low level of friction in the barrel and a high level in the screw. In addition, the amount of friction between the metal of the barrel or the screw and the performance of the extruder can change caused by a decrease in temperature. These troubles are minimized in a twin-screw extruder, where the interlock between the screws forms very close chambers, carrying the material forward [27].
\nOne aspect of great relevance is the definitive choice of the number and geometric design of the areas of the screw; this decision depends not only on the design of the nozzle and the expected flow rates but also on the melting characteristics of the polymer, its rheological behavior, and the speed of the screw. A simple screw, of three zones, is usually defined according to the number of turns of the propeller in the areas of feeding, compression, and dosing. An example of different screw configurations is shown in Figure 4.
\nExamples of different types of screw [
Most plastics need a previous stage of mixing before processing. Sometimes, it requires only extensive mixing, where the components of the formulation are mixed superficially and is made in fast mixers, and in other, intensive mixing of the different components of the formulation is necessary and is usually carried out in extruders. In some cases, both are necessary, extensive mixing prior to intensive. The use of twine-screw extruders is common in mixing lines. The configuration of the line is determined, among other things, by the type of additives to be combined in the extrusion. These lines usually have pelletizers at the extruder exit to obtain the material in pellet form. When additives or abrasive fillers have to be mixed with the polymer, the polymer is usually added in the first feed hopper, and the filler is added once the plastic has melted, thereby reducing wear of the extruder caused by the filling. With large amounts of filler, the melt often has a large amount of air, steam, or gases, and so the extruder must have a vent zone (Figure 5).
\nTypical mixing line [
The characteristics of the melt extrusion process both in the selection and configuration of the screw type, as well as the feeding of the materials, affect the pre-dispersion of the nanoparticles, since a homogeneous predispersion will improve the dispersion efficiency when using ultrasound.
\nIn the last decade, the application of ultrasound waves for the preparation of polymer nanocomposites by melt extrusion has shown a growing interest. It seems that the scientific interest is ten times larger than the industrial interest, since only 3 patents have been registered in comparison to 36 published articles, as can be seen in Figure 6. This gives us a perspective of the relevance that this technology has had in recent years. Several studies report the preparation of polymer nanocomposites by means of ultrasound-assisted extrusion, resulting in the break nanoparticle agglomerates as nanoclays, as well as improvements in the dispersion of nanoparticles in a polyamide 6 [28]. Another study reported an improvement in both rheological and mechanical properties after the ultrasonic treatment, where it is also shown that this change in properties is attributed to the decrease in the size of the clay agglomerates in HDPE [29].
\nProduction of articles and patents on ultrasound-assisted extrusion for the preparation of polymeric nanocomposites (last 10 years).
Other authors argue that the application of ultrasound to extrusion has to be carried out in stages to favor the dispersion of the nanoparticles, as in the case of carbon nanotubes (CNT), where it has been found that the dispersion of CNT can be favored when using two stages of processing. The first is the preparation of a masterbach (concentrate method), which is then diluted in the polymer to increase the dispersion of CNT. It is generally accepted that the dispersion is improved due to the high voltage of cutting that acts on the agglomerates during the second stage [30]. The combination of the masterbach technique with assisted ultrasound has been an important improvement for the dispersion of nanoparticles in polymeric matrices, mainly tested in polymer-CNT systems [31]; in turn, it has also been shown that ultrasound can favor the hybridization of polymer chains on the nanoparticles [32].
\nBefore delving into the subject, it is necessary to mention that sound is a mechanical wave that needs a medium for its propagation. This medium can be liquid, solid, or gas. The propagation of the sound according to the medium can be transverse and longitudinal, and this will depend on the direction in which the energy travels. The frequency of audible sound for humans is between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. That inaudible sound with values of frequencies above 20 kHz is known as ultrasound. The ultrasound of low power or high frequency corresponds to the sound of low amplitude (higher frequency) and is related to the physical effect of the medium on the wave and is in a range of 2–10 MHz; these frequencies are widely used in the medical area for obtaining images and chemical analysis. On the other hand, ultrasound of high power (low frequency), between 20 and 100 kHz, is used for cleaning, plastic welding, as well as for the area of sonochemistry, which with the development of high-performance equipment power, can reach frequencies up to 2 MHz [33].
\nChemical and physical effects of ultrasound in liquid systems are typically explained in terms of acoustic cavitation. The definition of cavitation is complicated. In some cases, acoustic cavitation is defined as an isothermal transition of the liquid-vapor phase limit in a fluid due to a decrease in pressure, as a response to the change below of the vapor pressure of the liquid, or when the temperature has risen above the boiling point [34]. In both cases, acoustic cavitation is presented as a response to the decrease in pressure due to the propagation of an acoustic wave. In other words, during the expansion and compression characteristic of ultrasound waves, there is a formation, growth, and the implosive collapse of bubbles. But how is this bubble formed? The nucleus theory states that any liquid contains intrinsically tiny spaces (cavitation nuclei) full of gases, which undergo a change of pressure to quickly grow to cavities and then to bubbles. However, this principle has evolved, and it is accepted that a nucleus is needed that originates cavitation. The formation of this core can occur in two ways: for pure homogeneous liquid that does not contain impurities or gas, cavities will form due to the effect that the acoustic pressure will have on the liquid called homogeneous nucleation. In real systems or practical experiments, it is thought that a heterogeneous nucleation occurs, in which the neighboring liquid molecules are broken because the liquid contains “weak sites,” in the limits of the liquid and a solid or in the liquid-solid-gas interfaces, where cavitation can start more easily [35]. These cavitation cores generate bubbles that expand during the phase of rarefaction and collapse during the compression phase; stable and transient bubbles are formed [36]. Stable bubbles can remain oscillating during many cycles of acoustic pressure. On the other hand, transients generally exist for less than one cycle; during this cycle, they expand at least twice their original size and then collapse violently. It is said that the pressure and temperature inside the bubble increase to more than 1000 atm and 5000 K [37] during cavitation (Figure 7). The collapse of the bubble is a violent process which generates localized shock waves, which results in an effect on the liquid or solid.
\nAcoustic cavitation phenomenon in Newtonian fluid.
The incorporation of ultrasound in melt processing methods requires, in its simplest form of a processing system or equipment, a sonotrode, and an ultrasonic wave generator. At present, double or single screw extruders with different arrangements in their mixing zones are used, at speeds ranging from 50 to 100 rpm, in order to improve the efficiency in the dispersion of nanoparticles, while temperature profiles vary according to the polymer-nanoparticle system. As for the treatment with ultrasound, a specially designed camera to contain a sonotrode is attached to the extruder, which in general according to the literature is usually made of titanium. This chamber has a controlled temperature and a nozzle to extract the molten nanocomposite. The sonotrode is connected to an ultrasonic generator, which operates at frequency intervals that can range from 10 to 100 kHz and with powers that can reach 1000 W. The data obtained are usually collected by means of an oscilloscope. Figure 8 shows a system developed by Ávila-Orta et al. [38].
\nTypical configuration of an extruder coupled with an ultrasound device.
Ultrasound has been applied to molten polymers as a very efficient way to reduce the resistance of the shaping channels by decreasing the viscosity of the polymers. The results showed that the application of ultrasound disturbs the convergent flow of molten polymer in the entrance zone and changes the flow patterns, which leads to lower elastic stresses, increasing the movement of the molecular chains, so that the elastic recovery is faster. Guo et al. [39] demonstrated significant changes in the properties of polymeric materials by applying ultrasound during the extrusion process and applying ultrasonic oscillations in the direction parallel to the polymer melt flow (Figure 9). Scientists at the University of Akron have applied longitudinal vibrations in the direction perpendicular to the direction of flow using two sonotrodes symmetrically in the nozzle during the extrusion double screw of polymer nanocomposites containing carbon nanotubes and polypropylene clays (Isayev et al. [30]; Figure 10). In addition to dispersing nanocomposites, the application of ultrasound to the polymer has resulted in an increase in crystallinity, the reduction of structural defects, and the improvement of mechanical properties.
\nSchematic diagram of the ultrasonic irradiation extrusion system used by Guo et al. [
Schematic diagram of the ultrasonic irradiation extrusion system used by scientists at the University of Akron, Isayev et al. [
Ultrasound in the extrusion process has been used to improve the compatibility and dispersion of additives. The effects of ultrasound on polymers can be both physical and chemical. Some physical changes induced by ultrasound in polymer systems are the dispersion of loads and other base components. Several systems have been developed, where good results of nanoparticle dispersion are obtained. Different ways of feeding and positions of the ultrasound along the zones of the extruder have been tested, aiming to find out the behavior of the nanoparticles in the matrix depending on the type of configuration. Some configurations of ultrasound-assisted extrusion of equipment that have been patented are shown in Figure 11. It is important to mention that within the aspects that modify the dispersion of the nanoparticles is the intensity of the applied ultrasound, where it has been demonstrated that the power of the ultrasound is a function of the reduction in the size of the agglomerates of nanoparticles, which favors the dispersion. It has also been found that a good exfoliation and dispersion are improved at low extrusion rates in order to increase the time of the ultrasonic treatment [44]. However, high exposure times to ultrasonic vibrations produce a degradation of the polymeric material, that is, there is a breakdown of the polymer chains, as demonstrated by means of rheological studies.
\nSome configurations of the process of extrusion assisted by ultrasound in molten polymers. (a) [
In the last two decades, the effect of ultrasound in the preparation of nanocomposites has been studied. In 2003, Isayev and Hong employed for the first time the ultrasonic vibration to prepare nanocomposites. This study reported that the application of ultrasound improves the dispersion and reduced size of silica agglomerate (0.3 μm). The viscosity of the ultrasonically treated mixtures was found to be higher than that of the silane-treated mixtures.
\nTable 1 summarizes information from publications involving the use of the ultrasonic treatment technology for the preparation of polymer nanocomposites. The information shows the polymer matrix studied, the nanoparticles, the focus of the study, and improved properties. It is evident that the most studied structures using ultrasound are clays and those based on carbon such as graphene and nanotubes.
\nPolymer nanocomposite | \nFocus of the study | \nProperty improvement(s) | \nReference | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
Carbon nanoparticles | \nMWCNT | \nEffect of ultrasound on thermal, electrical, mechanical and rheological properties. | \nImprovement electrical and thermal conductivity, Young’s modulus. Storage modulus and complex viscosity generally increased. | \n[30, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54] | \n
CNF | \nEffects of the variation of the ultrasonic amplitude and concentration on CNFs (morphology), rheology, electrical resistivity, abrasion and mechanical properties. | \nImproved dispersion, elongation at break, Young’s modulus and tensile strength. The abrasion resistance was improved at certain amplitudes at low CNT loadings only. | \n[55, 56] | \n|
GNP | \nEffects of the ultrasound vibration on exfoliation, and dispersion of GNP’s in the polymer matrix. | \nIncreased the exfoliation and dispersion of GNPs on the polymer. Thermal and conductivity properties were increased. | \n[47] | \n|
Ceramic nanoparticles | \nCloisite 20A | \nEffects of ultrasound on clay dispersion, morphology, mechanical and rheological properties. | \nImproved clay dispersion compared with non-treated ones, intercalated-exfoliated structures was found. Young’s modulus enhanced and increase viscosity in most studies. | \n[57, 58, 59, 60] | \n
Sepiolite | \nEffect of ultrasound on dispersion and mechanical properties of polymer matrix | \nImproves nanoclay dispersion, which results in an enhancement of the reinforcement of the fillers and decreases the viscosity of the composites during the process. | \n[61] | \n|
Nanosilica | \nEffects of ultrasound on the morphology, as well as the rheological and mechanical properties of the composites | \nImprove strength and elongation of the composites at break, ultrasound-induced homogeneous dispersion of nanoparticles in the polymeric matrix | \n[62] | \n|
Other nanoparticles | \nFlash aluminum flake pigments (FAFP) | \nEffects of the ultrasound intensity, experimental temperature, filler content, and particle size on the composite viscosity | \nComposite viscosity decreased as the ultrasound intensity and the filler content decreased. | \n[63] | \n
Summary of the experimental results of some reviewed publications involving the application of extrusion assisted by ultrasound for preparation of polymer nanocomposites, last 10 years.
Regarding the use of ultrasound in the preparation of nanocomposites with clay, improvements in degree of clay dispersion have been found. Kim and co-workers made use of the ultrasonic-assisted continuous extrusion process to the preparation of polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS) nanocomposites with 3% loading of organophilic montmorillonite clay. They found that the waves of ultrasound improve the compatibility between PP and PS and breakup of the clay agglomerates and as a result exfoliated the clay layers in the PP/PS matrix [64]. Similar observations were made for PP/clay nanocomposites. Two methods for the fabrication of polypropylene/clay nanocomposites are compared. In the first approach, a two-stage process was implemented. First, the nanocomposites were prepared using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder followed by a single-screw extruder, in which the ultrasound was implemented. In the second method, a single-stage process was used. In addition, two regimens of feeding were used in the process. In both processes, it was observed that the ultrasound generates a degradation of the polymer matrix and intercalation/exfoliation of clay; however, the single-stage process led to a minor polymer degradation [65]. Li et al. [28] prepared polyamide 6/montmorillonite nanocomposites by using a conventional and an ultrasonic extrusion technology. The results showed that the elongation at break and impact strength of the ultrasonicated nanocomposites increase due to the improved dispersion of montmorillonite and decreased size of spherulites [28]. Other works have focused on the preparation of clay nanocomposites with different polymer matrix as a HDPE and LLDPE. For example, Niknezhad and Isayev [59] applied ultrasound continuous method for the production of films polymer/clay nanocomposites. In this process, compounding, ultrasonic treatment, and film casting were combined in a single-step process. It has been found that the effect of the dispersion of the clay depends on the amplitude of ultrasound used, affecting the crystallinity and the mechanical properties of the material, as well as the permeability to gases [59]. On the other hand, the application of ultrasound irradiation and maleic anhydride (MA) addition, during the preparation of PP/Clay nanocomposites in a twin screw extruder, showed to have a very significant effect on the simultaneous grafting of MA onto the PP chains and in the exfoliation/dispersion of the clay. The tensile modulus increased with ultrasound intensity, and an opposite effect occurs with elongation, which decreases with the applied ultrasound [58].
\nAs for carbon-based nanocomposites, polyetherimide (PEI) systems with 20% carbon nanofibers (CNF) have been studied. It was established that ultrasound with high power is effective in obtaining relatively more homogeneous dispersion with improved electrical and thermal conductivity in the CNF/PEI nanocomposites in comparison with extruded untreated ones. An increase in Young’s modulus was observed while retaining tensile strength up to 15% of CNF [54]. In another study, it was mentioned that the effect of ultrasound on the rheological, electrical, morphological, and mechanical properties of the Polyetherimide (PEI) matrix with multiple-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) has been carried out from 1 to 10% by weight. In ultrasound-treated nanocomposites, an increase in viscosity and storage module was observed. As for the mechanical properties, the authors conclude that there is a relationship between the content of MWCNT and the application of ultrasound because the Young module and the resistance showed an increase by using 5 and 10% load. The authors also notice that working amplitudes are important factor to improve the dispersion. Rheological and electrical percolations were found between 1 and 2% in load weight of MWCNT. The observed effect is attributed to the fact that the ultrasound breaks the agglomerates of MWCNT improving its dispersion, which affects to a greater degree the rheology of the material than to the electrical conductivity [30]. Blanco et al. [53] mention that ultrasonic vibration has a significant effect on the conductivity of PA/MWCNT systems; in these nanocomposites, the percolation rate is reduced from 7 to 3 wt% when ultrasound is applied. This is attributed to a better dispersion of nanotubes in the matrix, resulting in an increase of three orders of magnitude in the electrical resistivity for the system PA6/MWCNT at 7 wt%. These authors concluded that the application of ultrasound improves the processability of the material and that it is possible to reduce the percentage of nanotubes in the preparation of nanocomposites with conductive properties without affecting thermal properties [53]. Ávila-Orta et al. [51] used polypropylenes with different flow rates (MFI) and 10% multiwall carbon nanotubes for the preparation of nanocomposites. Four different fabrication methods based on melt extrusion were used. In the first method, melt extrusion fabrication without ultrasound assistance was used. In the second and third methods, an ultrasound probe attached to a hot chamber located at the exit of the die was used to subject the sample to fixed frequency and variable frequency, respectively. In the fourth method, the carbon nanotubes were treated in a fluidized air-bed with an ultrasound probe before being used in the fabrication of nanocomposites. It was found that the MFI decreases regardless of the method used in processing, the same is not the case with the other properties. For example, as to the size of agglomerates, the smallest value was found using PP of MFI = 2.5 using variable ultrasound frequency in processing; in this sample, it was found a lower surface/agglomerate ratio and a higher value of electrical charge (1040 V) [51]. A similar study showed that the electrical properties in nanocomposites of PP/MWCNT with different values of MFI of the polymer matrix depend on the methods used in the ultrasound-assisted extrusion because the ultrasound waves decrease the agglomerates of nanotubes producing conductive materials and static dissipators with a negative dielectric constant [66].
\nIn summary, the application of ultrasound in the preparation of nanocomposites by extrusion generates an increase in some properties of great importance. However, the mechanisms by which ultrasound helps in the dispersion of nanoparticles is not known with precision, which is a significant aspect and would help to improve and create innovative methodologies aimed at the implementation of more specific nanocomposites.
\nThe effect of ultrasound on fluids and Newtonian systems has been explained in terms of acoustic cavitation. This process, as mentioned above, involves at least three stages: nucleation, bubble growth, and the implosive collapse of the same, propitiating stable and transient acoustic cavitation events that are the cause of the effect of ultrasound. However, these physical or chemical effects will not be presented if ultrasound-led energy is less than the cavitation threshold [67]. In non-Newtonian fluids, the bubble in polymer solution implodes less violently compared to a Newtonian fluid such as water (Figure 12), which makes the impact of the liquid jet on the limit very small or even null. In particular, the dynamics of the collapse of bubbles near a solid boundary appears to be a critical problem in the dispersion of nanostructures in liquid systems, since the impact of the liquid jet on the surface of the agglomerates is considered mechanism dominant for the reduction of agglomerate size during acoustic cavitation [68].
\nComparison between the dynamics of the induced ultrasound of a Newtonian fluid and a non-Newtonian.
If a solid is within the sample, the cavitation is given in a different way, due to the liquid–solid interface. An accepted explanation is that the cavitation that takes place near the solid surface will generate microjets of fluid of high velocity, directed toward the solid surface. The impact of microjets of fluid on the solid surface causes localized erosion. In addition to this effect, we have the formation of shock waves, inducing effects such as breaking aggregates of particles [69].
\nResearchers have tried to explain the phenomenon of the dispersion of nanoparticles in polymeric matrices when using ultrasound in molten state. In this context, Zhong et al. argue that the propagation of the ultrasonic wave in a material generates waves of oscillatory pressure and induces the expansion and contraction of bubbles in the polymeric matrix that leads to a possible rupture of the agglomerates of nanoparticles, which would give place to a better dispersion. A small amount of bubbles usually dissolves or is trapped in the polymer that melts during extrusion [70]. In polymeric compounds, the particles are easily present in the form of porous agglomerates that introduce more gaps in the system. The existence of bubbles in the nanocomposites decreases the speed of the ultrasound and therefore the energy consumption. Based on experimental observation, a possible cavitation mechanism is suggested, depicted in Figure 13. The cavitation of bubbles in compounds can occur by internal and external cavitation mechanisms. The cavitation of the outer bubble could remove the particles from the primary agglomerates (Figure 13a), while the cavitation of the inner bubble would break the agglomerates from the inside (Figure 13b). One or both of these mechanisms would lead to better dispersion seen after ultrasonic treatment [71].
\nPhenomenon of internal acoustic cavitation (a) and external (b) in polymeric nanocomposites according to Zhong et al. [
Espinoza-González proposed [72] a mechanism based on mechanochemistry to explain the physical and chemical effects of ultrasound in polymer matrices, as well as for the dispersion mechanism of nanostructures. This mechanochemical mechanism is mainly based on the deformation or stress experienced by the chemical bonds during the vibration movement. The generated vibration movement causes the appearance of different fatigue points along the polymer chain called nodes, in which the greatest deformation occurs between the links of the chain, reducing the energy of link dissociation leading to the activation of multiple reaction mechanisms, degradation, or chain extension.
\nUltrasound-assisted extrusion process turns out to be a very promising technology and that in the last 10 years has shown great advances in its application to the elaboration of polymeric nanocomposites. However, the mechanism to achieve the deagglomeration of nanoparticles and their dispersion in the polymer remains unknown. The phenomenon of acoustic cavitation is mainly proposed for the explanation of bubble dynamics, but it is possible to find in the literature and as mentioned above that the strict notion of cavitation is an isothermal transition of the liquid–vapor phase limit in a fluid of a single component, due to a decrease in pressure [34, 35, 73]. In other words, the cohesion between the fluid particles is overcomed by an externally applied stress, which causes the homogeneous nucleation of the vapor. Based on this argument and answering the initial question of the text on the phenomenon by which the dispersion of nanoparticles in polymeric systems results, the phenomenon of acoustic cavitation is questionable, since it is not enough to be able to explain the dispersion of nanoparticles during the ultrasound-assisted extrusion process to produce nanocomposites, since there is no phase change and also due to the viscoelastic characteristics of the polymer matrices that imply higher cutting efforts, which would hinder the formation of bubbles. However, it has been proven that in polymeric solutions, there is poor bubble formation due to cavitation effects [74]. On the other hand, there is also the idea that ultrasound causes vibrational effects on the polymer related to relaxation times at the chain level [75], which could help explain that the effects of friction in the polymer are the main causes of the dispersion of nanoparticles in the formation of nanocomposites.
\nA number of researches are still necessary to understand the effects of the different parameters (power, amplitude, and working frequencies) of the ultrasound waves in the preparation of nanocomposites, as well as the mechanism of action. To understand the nature of a system as robust as ultrasound-assisted extrusion, it is necessary to simplify the system, so that the dispersion phenomenon can be analyzed from the simplest possible perspective. For example, studies can be carried out in batch systems of polymer melts and nanoparticles.
\nIn the last decade, the use of the ultrasonic assisted extrusion process has been used in the preparation of polymeric nanocomposites. This process has shown improvements in the dispersion of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix, which has led academics to make improvements in the design to achieve a greater effect on the properties of the final compound. Although the technique of ultrasound is known, it has not been possible to clearly explain the mechanisms of its action in polymer-nanoparticle systems, where despite the efforts made to achieve an adequate understanding of how the dispersion of nanoparticles occurs, it is still insufficient for the polymer nanocomposite theory to explain this phenomenon, and this limits the application of ultrasound in the manufacture of nanocomposites with specific properties. However, the large number of satisfactory results obtained in scientific articles on the novel properties and innovations that are made in patents on equipment and processing of nanocomposites provides a broad perspective of the evolution of this technology and its potential applications.
\nThe authors acknowledge the financial support of CIQA through grant 6438 (2018), and of CONACyT through grants 294030 (LANIAUTO) and 296395 is greatly appreciated.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
The cancer is one of the most dreaded and threatening diseases in the world, causing more than 6 million deaths a year [1]. Colon cancer is recognized as the third most common cancer worldwide with high morbidity and mortality, and the fourth common cause of death [2]. Various cytotoxic drugs are used for the treatment of colorectal cancer like 5-Fluorouracil, Oxaliplatin and Cisplatin drugs are their hydrophobic nature and their susceptibility to develop drug resistance [3, 4].
In these current work great efforts for the discovery and development of nanoformulation based on natural products on
There have been particular efforts to evaluate the therapeutic role of these active constituents present in plants rather than using whole extracts. The fundamental method of reasoning behind these systems contributes greatly to enhance the targeting delivery and bioavailability of phenolic and flavonoid remarkable formulation development can be made by preparation of nanotechnology products. The eco-friendly synthesis of gallic acid and quercetin loaded chitosan nanoparticles (CS nanoparticles) through green route from plant extracts have renowned a wide range of application in the field of modern science, due to increased drug efficacy and less toxicity in the nanosized mediated drug delivery model. At the same time, the use of gallic acid and quercetin in pharmaceutical formulations is limited due to its poor water solubility, poor bioavailability and instability in physiological medium [16, 17].
Lack of site specificity is one of the major reasons for the drug in reaching the target site in therapeutic concentrations in colorectal cancer [18]. Chitosan (CS), as the only naturally occurring positive charge polysaccharide, has remarkable properties including high bioavailability, super biodegradability, high biocompatibility, non-toxicity etc., On the other hand it causes sustained release of the drug from the particle in the tumor environment [19]. The main rationale behind using these types of polymers is their ability to prevent drug degradation in the gastric environment in the stomach and their ability to release the drug after entering the distal ileum [20]. Poloxamer 407 is a hydrophilic nontoxic copolymer used for its stabilizing properties and incorporation of hydrophobic drugs capability to increase the solubility of biomolecules [21]. Here combined biomolecules synergistic activity of nanotechnology approach has been developed to improve the bioavailability as to entrap these natural biomolecules into biodegradable polymeric CS nanoparticles [22].
The system of glyceryl monooleate (GMO)/chitosan is a surface-modified nanoparticulate system consisting of GMO as a lipid portion and chitosan as a coating polymer to target colonic area with poloxamer 407 as a stabilizer. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to formulate CS nanoparticles of where quercetin isolated from peels of pomegranate fruit and gallic acid isolated from amla fruit as a model hydrophobic biomolecules followed by lyophilization using probe sonicator and High Pressure Homogenization (HPH) method. CS nanoparticles prepared and optimized using Quality by design approach by using central composite factorial design. Optimized formulation further characterized for different parameters as particle size, zeta potential, FT-IR and. Release kinetic studies performed using method for conventional nanoparticle release behavior assessment.
In this study, we systematically analyzed the
The IC50 of polyherbal extract, chitosan nanoparticles and standard cisplatin after 48 h treatment it was found to be 60.32 and 36.17 and 8.915 ug/ml respectively. The obtained result inferred that the synthesized CS nanoparticles demonstrated shows more effective antiproliferative potential on HCT-116cell lines with IC50 value of 36.17 ug/ml than polyherbal extract 60.32 ug/ml were discussed briefly in this manuscript.
Poloxamer 407 from BASF, Chitosan 90% dda obtained from CIFT Cochin, GMO from Mohini organics, standard gallic acid and quercetin purchased from Loba Chemie., 10% fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen Life Technologies USA). RPMI 1640 and McCoy’s 5A medium (Fisher Scientific, Waltham, USA). All the solvents and chemicals used were procured from Himedia Laboratories, Research Lab. Mumbai.
The sample of different parts of plant of amla and pomegranate was collected from Kolhapur district and was authenticated by Dr. Madhukar Bachulkar, Principal, Arts and Science College Peth Vadagaon Kolhapur. The voucher herbarium (PSP-1 and 2) has been deposited in the department of Pharmacognosy Bharati Vidyapeeth College of Pharmacy, Kolhapur. Amla fruit and peels of pomegranate fruit were collected in season (Feb-March), were dried under shade for 10–15 days in air.
In order to extract Flavonoid and phenolics from plants with a high degree of accuracy, various solvents of differing polarities were tried as chloroform, ethanol and ethyl acetate. The dried powder of amla fruit and peels of pomegranate powder extracted with 800 ml in various solvents for 6 hours separately. All extracts were filtered and evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure at 60 °C by a rotary evaporator and to determine percentage yield for all three different solvents [24].
Phytochemical analysis was carried out to detect the presence of primary and secondary metabolites were used to identify the biomolecules present in the plant extract [25]. The phytochemical tests carried out for amla and peels of pomegranate extract include alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, triterpenoids, steroid, flavonoids and carbohydrate [26].
Phenolic compounds are important plant constituents with redox properties responsible for antioxidant activity. Folin–Ciocalteu’s method (FC) is a colorimetric method based on transfer of electrons between reagents and polyphenols. Different solvent extract chloroform, ethanol and ethyl acetate of amla fruit used for determination of phenolic content. The reaction mixture was prepared by mixing 1 ml of methanolic solution of all extracts, 2.5 ml of 10% Folin–Ciocalteu’s reagent dissolved in water and 2.5 ml 7.5% NaHCO3. Blank was concomitantly prepared, containing 0.5 ml methanol, 2.5 ml 10% Folin–Ciocalteu’s reagent dissolved in water and 2.5 ml of 7.5% of NaHCO3. The samples were thereafter incubated in a thermostat at 45o C for 45 min. The same procedure was repeated for the standard solution of gallic acid (Standard) in methanol (10to100μg/ml) and for blank then calibration line was construed and absorbance measured at λmax 765 nm [27]. The samples were prepared in triplicate for each analysis and the mean value of absorbance was obtained.
Flavonoids are group of polyphenolic compound used for different activities and their potency depends on the number and position of free hydroxy groups. As a basis quantitative determination, flavonoid contents in pomegranate peel extract were determined using aluminum chloride colorimetric method with sufficient modification. In this process, flavonoid content was determined using quercetin standard (5 to 320 μg/mL) to make the calibration curve. Different solvent extracts chloroform, ethanol and ethyl acetate of pomegranate peel used for determination of flavonoid content. All procedure followed for preparation of different extracts of sample solution, blank and for standard and their corresponding absorbances were measured at 415 nm with a UV-1800 spectrophotometer [28].
Flash chromatography instrument consisting of (Analytical technologies limited, Shanghai china) consisting of TBP2H02pump along with TBD2000 UV detector and automatic fraction collector was used for analysis. System equipped with Chromo station software was used for data monitoring during the analysis. The separation was carried out on OROCHEM OROFLO-4SiHPS column made up of silica particles [29, 30].
The gas chromatography used for estimation of residual class 3 ethyl acetate solvent in both crude extracts was performed using a Gas Chromatography system 7890 B with Agilent DB 624 column with helium gas at 1 ml/min flow mode reference solution tetrahydrofuran. GC temperature was set at 50 °C (hold for couple of min) to 250 °C at 20 °C/min. (hold up to 5 min) [31, 32].
The flash chromatographic fractions of amla fraction no FA004 and pomegranate fraction no FP004 were filtered, dried and kept at 4 ° C for characterization of FT-IR and 1H-NMR techniques and quantitavely estimated by HPLC technique [33, 34].
FTIR has proven to be a valuable tool for the characterization and identification of functional groups present in compound from plants extract. Infrared spectra was collected using IR (α-ATR Bruker Germany spectrometer) operated form 4000–600 cm−1 at resolution of 4 cm−1. Data analyzed using Opus software.
Only fraction A16 and Fraction P4 was additionally elucidated by 1HNMR by using solvent D6 + CDCL3 MIX. The analysis was done at the BRUKER instrument of 400 MHz [35].
HPLC PU-2080 Plus (Systronics) with UV-2075 plus intelligent detector and HPLC C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) was set at 270 nm for estimation of gallic acid and 259 nm for estimation of quercetin [36, 37]. HPLC PU-2080 Plus (Systronics) with UV-2075 plus intelligent detector and HPLC C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) was set at 270 nm for estimation of gallic acid and 259 nm for estimation of quercetin. The mobile phase Acetonitrile and 2% Acetic Acid with ratio 40:60 used for elution of both compounds. Flow of mobile phase and injection loop was set at 1.0 ml/min and 20 μL respectively. Quantitative determination of gallic acid and quercetin content in fraction concentrations (FA004 by flash chromatography of amla extract) in the range 0.01 to 0.5 mg/ml and (Fraction FP004 by flash chromatography of pomegranate extract) in the concentration range of 0.01 to 0.5 μg/ml used.
The two isolated compounds were analyzed for their solubility in different solvents as in DMSO, ethanol, methanol and acetone.
Melting points of two isolated biomolecule compounds was done in thermonic apparatus to determine its identity and purity. The observed melting point of isolated compound was compared with the standard melting point of respective gallic acid and quercetin.
2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) is a stable organic free radical used to estimate the antioxidant activity of various compounds. The scavenging action on DPPH radical from amla fruit and isolated fraction (FA004 by flash chromatography) and peels of pomegranate extract and isolated fraction (FP004 by flash chromatography of peels of pomegranate extract) determined by following method [38, 39]. As of different concentrations was mixed with an aliquot of DPPH (1 ml, 0.004% w/v) and analyzed at 517 nm. Then the scavenging capacity was calculated using equation number (1).
An o/w nanoemulsion of gallic acid and quercetin was prepared by using a GMO/chitosan framework as reported by with slight modifications. Briefly, isolated gallic acid (100 mg) and quercetin (100 mg) were dissolved in molten GMO (2 g), then add 12.5 ml of 0.1% poloxamer 407 sonicated at 18 W for 3 min in probe sonicator. To this emulsion, dropwise 12.5 ml of 2.4% chitosan solution was added again using probe sonicator at 16 W for 4 min [40, 41]. Finally this phase was subjected to twelve cycles of HPH at 15,000 psi to give the nanoemulsion. Then, lyophilized with 2% mannitol as a cryoprotectant for 48 hr. Central composite design [42] was applied to examine the combined effect two variables, each at 2 levels and the possible 9 combinations of CS nanoparticles.
Average particle size and zeta potential of the CS nanoparticles were determined by Particle Size Analyzer (Zetasizer Ver System; Malvern Instruments Ltd., Malvern, UK). To analyze particle size, nanosuspension was diluted with filtered (0.22 lm) ultra pure water [43, 44, 45].
FTIR has proven to be a valuable tool for identification of functional groups present in compound from plants. Attenuated total reflection/Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic (ATR/FTIR) spectra was collected at room temperature by coupling ATR accessory to an FTIR spectrometer (Perkin Elmer, Spectrum 100).
CS nanoparticles were tested in various simulated fluids at different pH to evaluate the release of nanoparticles at particular pH and also to determine the drug release [46]. Four milligrams of CS nanoparticles were dispersed in a freshly prepared phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; pH = 2.0, 4.5, 6.8, 7.4) as a release medium in a dialysis membrane sac (mw cut-off 12 kDa; Sigma Aldrich) to simulate ileo-colon conditions for 24 hr [47]. The enclosed dialysis sac was immersed in a beaker containing 50 mL of the release medium. The beaker was placed in a shaking incubator at 37 °C under mild agitation (90–100 rpm) PBS; pH = 2.0 for first four hour, pH = 4.5 for next five to nine hour, pH = 6.8 for next ten to thirteen hour and finally pH = 7.4 for fourteen to twenty-four hour. The supernatant 5 ml withdrawn at specified time intervals and assayed for drug release in UV spectrophotometrically gallic acid at 270 nm and quercetin at 259 nm.
A human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (HCT116) were cultured with RPMI 1640 and McCoy’s 5A medium (Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), respectively [48]. All cell culture mediums contained 10% fetal bovine serum. Cells were incubated in a CO2 incubator at 37 °C with 5% CO2. After reaching confluency, cells were isolated from the dish with Trypsin–EDTA. The cell suspension was centrifuged at 1000 r/min for 5 min and then re-suspended in growth medium for further experiments.
Cell viability was studied using an MTT assay. Cells were grown in a medium containing 10% FBS, seeded in 96-well plates at a density of 2x105 cells/well, and incubated at 37 °C in CO2 incubator with 5% CO2 for 24 h [49]. Then, polyherbal extract, CS nanoparticles and standard cisplatin were added (final concentrations of 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 ug/ml) to the mono-layers of cells, which were subsequently incubated for at 24 and 48 h, media were aspirated and MTT solution at a concentration of 5 mg/ml in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) buffer was added 20 ml/well. After further incubation (3 h), the media was removed and replaced with 100 ml of DMSO. Plates were washed with 1% acetic acid, air-dried, and then 10 mM Tris base pH 7.4 (150 μl) was added to the wells to solubilize the dye. The plates were shaken vigorously for 5 min and color absorbance was measured at 540 nm using an ELISA microplate reader. (ELISA reader Denver Jasco Model 7800 UV/VIS Spectrophotometer Jasco Tokyo, Japan) Untreated cells were used as positive controls with 100% viability and cells without assay reagents were used as a blank.
Soxhlet extraction method carried out for extraction of amla fruit and peels of pomegranate fruit by using three solvents as chloroform, ethanol and ethyl acetate separately. Ethyl acetate solvent gives highest yield 42.51% (Amla fruit) and 42.89% (Pomegranate peels) hence used for extraction of phenolics and flavonoids [50].
Qualitative tests of Phytochemical screening of amla fruit and pomegranate peel extract gives positive test for presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins and carbohydrate.
Calibration curve of standard gallic acid showed linear equation at y = 0.014x + 0.395, R2 = 0.996 The content of phenolics in different solvents was as 25.73 ± 0.21, 42.09 ± 0.19 and 63.76 ± 0.29 mg GAE/g for chloroform, ethanol and ethyl acetate respectively. As compare to other solvent ethyl acetate gave more yields hence this is suitable solvent for extraction of phenolics.
The concentration of flavonoid standard quercetin on the calibration line was based on the calculated absorbance at y = 0.017 × +0.412, R2 = 0.990 (Figure 1) then, the content of flavonoids in pomegranate peels of different solvent extract was expressed in terms as mg QE/g. The content of flavonoid in different solvents was as 32.88 ± 0.26, 42.11 ± 0.29 and 70.8 ± 0.1732 mg QE/g for chloroform, ethanol and ethyl acetate respectively. As compare to other solvents ethyl acetate gave more yields.
IR spectra of isolate of [A] Amla fruit [B] pomegranate peel extract.
The mobile phase used as ethyl acetate: methanol 100:0 to 0:100 with flow rates were kept at 4 ml/min with wavelength for amla fruit at 270 nm and pomegranate peel extract at 263.5 nm. Column was loaded with 8.0 gm slurry (3 g extract +5 g silica gel) in 25 gm of silica gel (200–400 mesh size).
1 gm of amla extract and peels of pomegranate powder extract separately mixed with 3 gm of silica gel and triturated properly in mortar and pestle. Then, properly mixed extract samples were loaded in sample holder. The separation was completed in 15 minutes only. The Five fractions were isolated by linear gradient with peak tube volume was 14 ml and run time was 15 min. Different fractions no. FA001 to FA005 from amla extract and FP001 to FP005 from peels of pomegranate extract were isolated and dried on buchi roto evaporator (R-210 water bath B-491) for dryness.
Among all five fractions of amla extract fraction number the UV spectra of fraction no FA004 phytoconstituent which gives absorbance at 270.5 nm and this absorbance confirmed with standard gallic acid solution spectra at 272 nm. (Figure 2A) The percentage yield of fraction FA004 was found to be 33.4 mg/gm. The five fractions of peels of pomegranate extract fraction no FB004 gives maximum absorbance at 263.5 nm and also this absorbance confirmed by standard quercetin sample absorbance at 345 nm (Figure 2B) scanning with UV Spectrophotometry summarized in Tables 1 and 2 . The percentage yield of fraction FP004 was found to be 42.6 mg/gm. Further these two isolated fractions no FA004 and FP004 characterized for IR, H1NMR, HPLC and HPTLC techniques for better results.
Flash chromatogram of [A] Amla fruit [B] pomegranate peel extract.
FA001 | 600.0 | 430.5 | 379.0 | 0.039 | 1.257 |
FA002 | 379.0 | 350.5 | 340.5 | 0.144 | 2.708 |
FA003 | 340.5 | 339.5 | 304.0 | 0.154 | 3.471 |
FA004 | 304.0 | 270.5 | 262.0 | 0.426 | 11.114 |
FA005 | 262.0 | 239.0 | 210.0 | 1.971 | 70.223 |
Flash chromatography of amla extract.
FP001 | 600.0 | 429.5 | 379.0 | 0.064 | 2.745 |
FP002 | 379.0 | 350.0 | 340.5 | 0.266 | 5.440 |
FP003 | 340.5 | 335.0 | 302.5 | 0.272 | 5.920 |
FP004 | 302.0 | 263.5 | 252.0 | 0.369 | 12.189 |
FP005 | 252.0 | 230.5 | 210.0 | 1.893 | 53.258 |
Flash chromatography of peels of pomegranate extract.
The study represented a simple gas chromatographic method for estimation of ethyl acetate contents in both amla and pomegranate extract. The GC analysis of the crude ethyl acetate extracts of amla gives retention time at 4.526 min (Figure 3A) and for pomegranate fruit at 4.528 min. (Figure 3B) Ethyl acetate concentration in amla fruit was found to be 1305.376 ppm and in pomegranate fruit was found to be 1538.440 ppm. Excellent results were obtained within the worldwide accepted validation reference values and particularly taking into account the low concentration levels investigated [51].
Gas chromatogram of [A] Amla fruit [B] pomegranate peel extract.
The isolated compounds (Fraction No. FA004 from amla extract and FP004 from peels of pomegranate extract by flash chromatography) was characterized by using FT-IR, 1H-NMR and quantitatively estimated by using HPLC technique [52].
FT-IR spectra of isolate of amla fruit extract resulted in presence of functional groups hydroxyl (-OH) stretch, C-H stretch of alkenes, C=O stretch for acid and aromatic benzonoid ring (Figure 1A) and FT-IR spectra of isolate of Pomegranate peel extract resulted in presence of functional groups hydroxyl (-OH) stretch at 3366 cm−1, C-H stretch of alkenes at 2945 cm−1, C=O stretch for lactone and aromatic benzonoid ring 1020 cm−1 (Figure 3).
The analysis was done at the BRUKER instrument of 400 MHz d 9.136 (1H, H-7, s), 7.08 (1H, H-2, H-6, s) and 5.011 (1H, H-3, H-4, H-5, s). 1H NMR of isolate of amla fruit showed the aromatic proton, acidic proton and hydroxyl proton and presence of 7 carbons in structure (Figure 4A) given molecular formula as C7H6O5 [53] 1H-NMR signals of isolate of Pomegranate peel extract shows signals at 12 (S 1H OH Pyran), 6.2 (S 2H Aromatic OH), 6.9 (S1H Aromatic OH), 7.1 (S1H Aromatic OH), 7–8 (S Aromatic proton) 1H NMR showed the aromatic proton and hydroxyl proton and presence of 15 carbons (Figure 4B) in structure given molecular formula as C15H10O7.
NMR spectra of isolated compound and structure of compounds [A] Amla fruit (Gallic acid) [B] pomegranate peel extract (quercetin).
A comparison between the spectra of fruits of amla extract (Fraction no A004 by flash chromatography) peak at 3.165 min confirmed with that of standard gallic acid peak at 3.207 min respectively (Figure 5A and B). A good linearity was found from 5–15 μg/mL gallic acid, and the linear regression equation was y = 8008x-397.0 (rc = 0.999) where y is the peak height. The gallic acid from amla fruit extract was fractionated by HPLC of which 27.15 ± 0.001 μg/mg GAE equivalent by HPLC method were characterized.
Chromatogram of [A] standard Gallic acid [B] isolated fraction of amla extract.
Same comparison between the spectra of peels of pomegranate (Fraction no B004 by flash chromatography) peak at 5.242 min with that of standard quercetin confirmed that the retention time of the analyte was 5.248 min respectively (Figure 6A and B). Linearity for the developed method was found over the concentration range 3–18 μg/ml with a linear regression equation was y = 16.01x + 25628 where y is the peak height correlation coefficient of 0.999.
Chromatogram of [A] standard quercetin [B] isolated fraction of pomegranate peel extract.
The DPPH is a stable free radical, which has been widely accepted as a tool for estimating free radical-scavenging activities of antioxidants. The scavenging activity on 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical of both the fruits extract and isolated fractions was determined by following method. The extracts of different concentrations were mixed with an aliquot of DPPH (1 ml, 0.004% w/v) [54]. The mixtures were vigorously shaken and left to stand for 30 min in the dark at room temperature. For this method the absorbance were recorded at 517 nm. The percentages of remaining DPPH in the presence of the amla and pomegranate peel extract (Figures 7 and 8) and its fractions at different concentrations are shown in Table 3.
DPPH radial scavenging activity (A) Amla extract (B) isolated fraction of FA004 by flash chromatography.
DPPH radial scavenging activity (A) peels of pomegranate extract (B) isolated fraction no FP004 by flash chromatography.
Ascorbic acid (Standard) | 0.996 | 8.98 μg/ml |
Amla extract | 0.884 | 25.74 μg/ml |
Isolated Fraction [FA004] | 0.904 | 14.44 μg/ml |
Pomegranate peel extract | 0.863 | 29.89 μg/ml |
Isolated Fraction [FP004] | 0.910 | 11.21 μg/ml |
Antioxidant activity of amla and pomegranate extract by DPPH.
The isolated compound was analyzed for their solubility in different solvents. White colored powder of amla extract (FA004 Flash chromatography) which is soluble in ether, ethanol, methanol, glycerol and acetone. Yellow colored crystalline powder of pomegranate extract (FP004 Flash chromatography) practically insoluble in water and soluble in DMSO, ethanol, methanol and acetone.
Melting point of compound was done in thermonic apparatus to determine its identity and purity. The observed melting point of isolated compound of amla extract (FA004 Flash chromatography) was 255–257 ° C compared with the standard melting point (260 °C) of respective isolated gallic acid. The observed melting point of isolated compound of pomegranate extract (FP004 Flash chromatography) was 313–316 °C compared with the standard melting point (316 °C) of respective isolated quercetin.
In this study the goals for optimization were to minimizing particle size and maximum Zeta potential. Desirability ramp showing optimum conditions to formulate CS nanoparticles as chitosan 2.4%, and Poloxamer (407) 0.1% to achieve particle size 218.33 nm and zeta potential11.50 mV with desirability 1.000.
A mean diameter of particle size of CS nanoparticles was found to be 214.2 ± 1.28 nm with +14.7 mV zeta potential [14, 55, 56]. Chitosan on the other hand has a positive charge in acidic solutions due to the presence of protonated amino groups which was appropriate adhere negatively charged intestinal mucus layer. This explains that outer coating of nanoparticles was CS only.
The characteristic groups of chitosan at (Figure 9A) 3285.15 cm−1 for O-H stretching 2875.66 cm−1 for C-H stretching and 1415.23 cm−1 for amide C-N stretching. The bands at 1150.54 cm−1 for asymmetric stretching of the bond C-O-C and 1062.04 and 1023.35 cm−1 for vibrations involving the C-O bonds of primary alcohols [57]. The carbon chain of poloxamer 407 (Figure 9B) at 2881.11 cm−1 aliphatic C-H stretching, plane O-H bend at 1365.12 cm−1 and 1242.02 cm−1, C-O stretch at 1096.99 cm−1, CH=CR2 at 840.46 cm−1. The C=O functionality of GMO (Figure 9C) was seen with a strong peak at 1738 cm−1. In the spectrum of gallic acid (Figure 9D) there is a broad band at 3194.61 cm−1 related to OH stretching and hydrogen bonds between phenolic hydroxyl groups. The COOH stretch/bend is observed at 1255.93 cm−1 Aromatic ring stretching is observed at 1454.44 cm−1 [58]. C- O stretching is at 1021.45 cm−1 In the spectrum of quercetin (Figure 9E) there is a broad band at 3194.61 cm−1 related to OH stretching and hydrogen bonds between phenolic hydroxyl groups. O-H stretch at 3190.38 cm−1, =C-H stretch at 2935.23 cm−1, aromatic C=C stretch at 1454.09 cm−1 and aromatic C-O stretch at 1145.06 cm−1. The COOH stretch/bend is observed at 1255.93 cm−1 The spectra of the gallic acid and quercetin loaded CS nanoparticles showed that O-H stretch of gallic acid and quercetin was disappeared (Figure 9F). Here all data of FTIR results conclude that encapsulation of gallic acid and quercetin into CS nanoparticles with intermolecular hydrogen bonding occurred in the nanoformulation which correlated with the less crystalline compared to both pure biomolecules.
IR spectra of CS nanoparticles (a) chitosan (B) Poloxamer 407 (C) GMO (D) quercetin (E) Gallic acid (E) CS nanoparticles.
As a result CS nanoparticles have indicated improved drug releases 77.56% for gallic acid 79.06% for quercetin at 24 hr. respectively. So the CS nanoparticles can be considered as a potential barrier, which can release the biomolecules at colonic pH [59]. By engineering chitosan approach gallic acid and quercetin biomolecules achieved sustained and controlled release and also benefitted by its targeting property to colonic region. To describe the mechanism of gallic acid and quercetin release from the CS nanoparticles, [60] the data was plotted into a few kinetic models and best fitted information into the Korsmeyer–Peppas power law model.
After 24 hours of incubation, cell viability was determined by the MTT assay. The nanoparticles induced cell cytotoxicity in a concentration dependent manner, as illustrated. Cytotoxicity of polyherbal extracts, CS nanoparticles and cisplatin (Standard) was dose on HCT 116 cell lines and activity is dependent up to the concentration of 6.25–100 ug/mL. The IC50 of polyherbal extract, chitosan nanoparticles and standard after 48 h treatment it was found to be 60.32 and 36.17 and 8.915 ug/ml respectively summarized in Table 4.
Untreated | 6.25 | 12.5 | 25 | 50 | 100 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.157 | 0.680 | 0.582 | 0.19 | 0.0885 | 0.06 | |
IC50 = 10.55 ug/ml | ||||||
1.157 | 1.677 | 1.301 | 0.794 | 0.478 | 0.182 | |
IC50 = 60.32 ug/ml | ||||||
1.157 | 0.906 | 0.892 | 0.79 | 0.141 | 0.028 | |
IC50 = 36.173 ug/ml |
MTT data analysis of HCT-116 cell lines.
The antiproliferative potential of all samples shown as cytotoxicity of standard cisplatin (Figure 10A) CS nanoparticles (Figure 10B) polyherbal extract (Figure 10C) was done on HCT 116 cell lines and activity is dependent up to the concentration of 6.25–100 ug/mL. MTT assay determined the cytotoxic effect of all samples by decreasing the cell viability of HCT116 colon cancer cells with different serial dilutions. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) was evaluated to determine the effectiveness of CS nanoparticles in inhibiting biological or biochemical functions. CS nanoparticles shows a higher cytotoxic effect on HCT116 cells with low concentrations (IC50 = 36.173 μg/ml) than polyherbal extract (IC50 = 60.32 μg/ml) that might be due to the active biomolecules capped to the nanoparticles.
Concentrations used for MTT assay (A) standard (cisplatin) (B) Polyherbal extract (C) CS nanoparticles.
HCT 116 cell lines considered to have more prominent take-up for CS nanoparticles and more stable even at low concentrations and longer interval than polyherbal extract. Microscopy imaging of cellular uptakes shows as standard cisplatin (Figure 11A) CS nanoparticles (Figure 11B) polyherbal extract (Figure 11C) and untreated HCT116 cell lines (Figure 11D) HCT 116 cell lines subjectively were deemed to have had greater uptake for CS nanoparticles and more stable even at low concentrations than polyherbal extract expected to be longer interval than polyherbal extract.
Microscopy imaging of cellular uptakes (A) standard (B) CS nanoparticles (C) Polyherbal extract (D) untreated HCT116 cell lines.
In conclusion, the presence of phenolic compound (gallic acid) and flavonoid (quercetin) could be one of the contributing factors for mechanism of
",metaTitle:"Open Access Statement",metaDescription:"Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0)",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-statement/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
License
\\n\\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) and journal articles are distributed under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence.
\\n\\n\\n\\nFormats
\\n\\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCosts
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\\n\\n\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'License
\n\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) and journal articles are distributed under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence.
\n\n\n\nFormats
\n\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\n\n\n\nCosts
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\n\n\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5944},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17700}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133952},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"12"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10845",title:"Marine Ecosystems - Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Human Impacts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"727e7eb3d4ba529ec5eb4f150e078523",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ana M.M. Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11450",title:"Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic on the World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a58c7b02d07903004be70f744f2e1835",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed and Prof. Wafaa M. Abd El-Rahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11450.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8df7150b01ae754024c65d1a62f190d9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Pavel Samec",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"317087",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Samec",slug:"pavel-samec",fullName:"Pavel Samec"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11650",title:"Aquifers - New Insights",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"27c1a2a053cb1d83de903c5b969bc3a2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Abhay Soni and Dr. Prabhat Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11650.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11664",title:"Recent Advances in Sensing Technologies for Environmental Control and Monitoring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cf1ee76443e393bc7597723c3ee3e26f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Toonika Rinken and Dr. Kairi Kivirand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11664.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11665",title:"Recent Advances in Wildlife Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"73da0df494a1a56ab9c4faf2ee811899",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11665.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11666",title:"Soil Contamination - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c8890038b86fb6e5af16ea3c22669ae9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Adnan Mustafa and Dr. Muhammad Naveed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11666.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"299110",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",surname:"Mustafa",slug:"adnan-mustafa",fullName:"Adnan Mustafa"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11668",title:"Mercury Pollution",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0bd111f57835089cad4a9741326dbab7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ahmed Abdelhafez and Dr. Mohamed Abbas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11668.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"196849",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Abdelhafez",slug:"ahmed-abdelhafez",fullName:"Ahmed Abdelhafez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12130",title:"Sustainable Built Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ed1dbae71b967e06efb049208f0c1068",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12130.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12131",title:"Climate Change and Fires",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea0858f07a3e87aaf9e5eaa75b4b44bd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12131.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12180",title:"Wetlands",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8957c5c2baaed32223f911a6d4aa5a03",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12180.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12221",title:"Air Pollution",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"439a018ee0c4960560cb798601f2a372",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12221.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:120},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:15},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4420},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"124",title:"Vehicle Engineering",slug:"vehicle-engineering",parent:{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"},numberOfBooks:27,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:699,numberOfWosCitations:1077,numberOfCrossrefCitations:795,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1522,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"124",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10969",title:"New Perspectives on Electric Vehicles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac30eed50ea83d4284f11d72791aa15a",slug:"new-perspectives-on-electric-vehicles",bookSignature:"Marian Găiceanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10810",title:"Modern Ship Engineering, Design and Operations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"579a9da63aca2172c0f0584328ae91c1",slug:"modern-ship-engineering-design-and-operations",bookSignature:"Carlos Reusser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10810.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"209816",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"Alberto",surname:"Reusser",slug:"carlos-reusser",fullName:"Carlos Reusser"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10007",title:"Propulsion",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"042ab0c0a8270b1bacf6a8e385601863",slug:"propulsion-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Kazuo Matsuuchi and Hiroaki Hasegawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42387",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",middleName:null,surname:"Matsuuchi",slug:"kazuo-matsuuchi",fullName:"Kazuo Matsuuchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8840",title:"Intelligent and Efficient Transport Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modelling, Control and Simulation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74ab35ec9e85ba37428df986d3a280ff",slug:"intelligent-and-efficient-transport-systems-design-modelling-control-and-simulation",bookSignature:"Truong Quang Dinh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8840.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181747",title:"Dr.",name:"Truong Quang",middleName:null,surname:"Dinh",slug:"truong-quang-dinh",fullName:"Truong Quang Dinh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7377",title:"Diesel and Gasoline Engines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dab9fe312a28dd603ac4b21628070d59",slug:"diesel-and-gasoline-engines",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7377.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7408",title:"Transportation Systems Analysis and Assessment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a950b01c0e05eda01c6d2364c7af3aa",slug:"transportation-systems-analysis-and-assessment",bookSignature:"Stefano De Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Boban Djordjevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7408.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7198",title:"Propulsion Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fd56f1620b0b201a3de0cd3f7e04d15c",slug:"propulsion-systems",bookSignature:"Alessandro Serpi and Mario Porru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217145",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Serpi",slug:"alessandro-serpi",fullName:"Alessandro Serpi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6767",title:"New Trends in Electrical Vehicle Powertrains",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"92949d7c2133b98bbddb02a9037c1dc7",slug:"new-trends-in-electrical-vehicle-powertrains",bookSignature:"Luis Romeral Martínez and Miguel Delgado Prieto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6767.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86501",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Romeral Martinez",slug:"luis-romeral-martinez",fullName:"Luis Romeral Martinez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6065",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77a5fae5e9451d4e52e9f7cd8f39bdcb",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",bookSignature:"Ali Hessami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. Hessami"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5910",title:"Hybrid Electric Vehicles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"92354b49c166c70707d576852b82a9f1",slug:"hybrid-electric-vehicles",bookSignature:"Teresa Donateo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5910.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139190",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Donateo",slug:"teresa-donateo",fullName:"Teresa Donateo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5423",title:"Urban Transport Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222b5d90a7014dbff7e33f3dcde6bc1d",slug:"urban-transport-systems",bookSignature:"Hamid Yaghoubi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5423.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103965",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Yaghoubi",slug:"hamid-yaghoubi",fullName:"Hamid Yaghoubi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5299",title:"Modeling and Simulation for Electric Vehicle Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42a1e112f18751417613cf1524500467",slug:"modeling-and-simulation-for-electric-vehicle-applications",bookSignature:"Mohamed Amine Fakhfakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5299.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35742",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed Amine",middleName:null,surname:"Fakhfakh",slug:"mohamed-amine-fakhfakh",fullName:"Mohamed Amine Fakhfakh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:27,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"13349",doi:"10.5772/14086",title:"High Mn TWIP Steels for Automotive Applications",slug:"high-mn-twip-steels-for-automotive-applications",totalDownloads:12737,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:150,abstract:null,book:{id:"19",slug:"new-trends-and-developments-in-automotive-system-engineering",title:"New Trends and Developments in Automotive System Engineering",fullTitle:"New Trends and Developments in Automotive System Engineering"},signatures:"B. C. De Cooman, Kwang-geun Chin and Jinkyung Kim",authors:[{id:"16743",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno Charles",middleName:null,surname:"De Cooman",slug:"bruno-charles-de-cooman",fullName:"Bruno Charles De Cooman"}]},{id:"13343",doi:"10.5772/13286",title:"Materials in Automotive Application, State of the Art and Prospects",slug:"materials-in-automotive-application-state-of-the-art-and-prospects",totalDownloads:64776,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:97,abstract:null,book:{id:"1355",slug:"new-trends-and-developments-in-automotive-industry",title:"New Trends and Developments in Automotive Industry",fullTitle:"New Trends and Developments in Automotive Industry"},signatures:"Elaheh Ghassemieh",authors:[{id:"13695",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaheh",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassemieh",slug:"elaheh-ghassemieh",fullName:"Elaheh Ghassemieh"}]},{id:"42787",doi:"10.5772/55492",title:"Smart Vehicles, Technologies and Main Applications in Vehicular Ad hoc Networks",slug:"smart-vehicles-technologies-and-main-applications-in-vehicular-ad-hoc-networks",totalDownloads:6887,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:null,book:{id:"3328",slug:"vehicular-technologies-deployment-and-applications",title:"Vehicular Technologies",fullTitle:"Vehicular Technologies - Deployment and Applications"},signatures:"Anna Maria Vegni, Mauro Biagi and Roberto Cusani",authors:[{id:"19747",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Vegni",slug:"anna-maria-vegni",fullName:"Anna Maria Vegni"},{id:"19749",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Cusani",slug:"roberto-cusani",fullName:"Roberto Cusani"},{id:"159351",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Biagi",slug:"mauro-biagi",fullName:"Mauro Biagi"}]},{id:"19571",doi:"10.5772/20271",title:"Electrical Vehicle Design and Modeling",slug:"electrical-vehicle-design-and-modeling",totalDownloads:14332,totalCrossrefCites:46,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:null,book:{id:"447",slug:"electric-vehicles-modelling-and-simulations",title:"Electric Vehicles",fullTitle:"Electric Vehicles - Modelling and Simulations"},signatures:"Erik Schaltz",authors:[{id:"38188",title:"MSc",name:"Erik",middleName:null,surname:"Schaltz",slug:"erik-schaltz",fullName:"Erik Schaltz"}]},{id:"19583",doi:"10.5772/17048",title:"DC/DC Converters for Electric Vehicles",slug:"dc-dc-converters-for-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:23284,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"447",slug:"electric-vehicles-modelling-and-simulations",title:"Electric Vehicles",fullTitle:"Electric Vehicles - Modelling and Simulations"},signatures:"Monzer Al Sakka, Joeri Van Mierlo and Hamid Gualous",authors:[{id:"27098",title:"Dr.",name:"Monzer",middleName:null,surname:"Al Sakka",slug:"monzer-al-sakka",fullName:"Monzer Al Sakka"},{id:"40637",title:"Prof.",name:"Joeri",middleName:null,surname:"Van Mierlo",slug:"joeri-van-mierlo",fullName:"Joeri Van Mierlo"},{id:"40638",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Gualous",slug:"hamid-gualous",fullName:"Hamid Gualous"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"19583",title:"DC/DC Converters for Electric Vehicles",slug:"dc-dc-converters-for-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:23284,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"447",slug:"electric-vehicles-modelling-and-simulations",title:"Electric Vehicles",fullTitle:"Electric Vehicles - Modelling and Simulations"},signatures:"Monzer Al Sakka, Joeri Van Mierlo and Hamid Gualous",authors:[{id:"27098",title:"Dr.",name:"Monzer",middleName:null,surname:"Al Sakka",slug:"monzer-al-sakka",fullName:"Monzer Al Sakka"},{id:"40637",title:"Prof.",name:"Joeri",middleName:null,surname:"Van Mierlo",slug:"joeri-van-mierlo",fullName:"Joeri Van Mierlo"},{id:"40638",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Gualous",slug:"hamid-gualous",fullName:"Hamid Gualous"}]},{id:"19571",title:"Electrical Vehicle Design and Modeling",slug:"electrical-vehicle-design-and-modeling",totalDownloads:14333,totalCrossrefCites:46,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:null,book:{id:"447",slug:"electric-vehicles-modelling-and-simulations",title:"Electric Vehicles",fullTitle:"Electric Vehicles - Modelling and Simulations"},signatures:"Erik Schaltz",authors:[{id:"38188",title:"MSc",name:"Erik",middleName:null,surname:"Schaltz",slug:"erik-schaltz",fullName:"Erik Schaltz"}]},{id:"64509",title:"Options and Evaluations on Propulsion Systems of LNG Carriers",slug:"options-and-evaluations-on-propulsion-systems-of-lng-carriers",totalDownloads:4245,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The LNG carriers are undergoing a period of rapid and profound change, with much larger size ships and novel propulsion systems emerging for fulfilling the market trends of LNG shipping industry. There are various proposed propulsion solutions for LNG carriers, ranging from the conventional steam turbine and dual fuel diesel electric propulsion, until more innovative ideas such as slow speed dual fuel diesel engine, combined gas turbine electric & steam system, and hybrid propulsion based on steam turbine and gas engine. Since propulsion system significantly influenced the ship’s capital, emission regulation compliance and navigation safety, the selection of a proper propulsion option with technical feasibility and economic viability for LNG carriers is currently a major concern from the shipping industry and thus must be comprehensively assessed. In this context, this chapter investigated the main characteristics of these propulsion options in terms of BOG treatment, fuel consumption, emission standards compliance, and plant reliability. Furthermore, comparisons among different propulsion system were also carried out and related evaluation was presented.",book:{id:"7198",slug:"propulsion-systems",title:"Propulsion Systems",fullTitle:"Propulsion Systems"},signatures:"Tu Huan, Fan Hongjun, Lei Wei and Zhou Guoqiang",authors:[{id:"265951",title:"Mr.",name:"Huan",middleName:null,surname:"Tu",slug:"huan-tu",fullName:"Huan Tu"}]},{id:"19573",title:"Control of Hybrid Electrical Vehicles",slug:"control-of-hybrid-electrical-vehicles",totalDownloads:15653,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"447",slug:"electric-vehicles-modelling-and-simulations",title:"Electric Vehicles",fullTitle:"Electric Vehicles - Modelling and Simulations"},signatures:"Gheorghe Livinţ, Vasile Horga, Marcel Răţoi and Mihai Albu",authors:[{id:"25879",title:"Prof.",name:"Gheorghe",middleName:null,surname:"Livint",slug:"gheorghe-livint",fullName:"Gheorghe Livint"},{id:"40500",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasile",middleName:null,surname:"Horga",slug:"vasile-horga",fullName:"Vasile Horga"},{id:"40501",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Ratoi",slug:"marcel-ratoi",fullName:"Marcel Ratoi"},{id:"40502",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Albu",slug:"mihai-albu",fullName:"Mihai Albu"}]},{id:"41416",title:"Energy Efficiency of Electric Vehicles",slug:"energy-efficiency-of-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:7669,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3196",slug:"new-generation-of-electric-vehicles",title:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",fullTitle:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles"},signatures:"Zoran Stevic and Ilija Radovanovic",authors:[{id:"30692",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:"M.",surname:"Stevic",slug:"zoran-stevic",fullName:"Zoran Stevic"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"124",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81390",title:"From Nobel Prizes to Safety Risk Management: How to Identify Latent Failure Conditions in Risk Management Practices",slug:"from-nobel-prizes-to-safety-risk-management-how-to-identify-latent-failure-conditions-in-risk-manage",totalDownloads:35,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98960",abstract:"The aim of the Chapter is to introduce readers to the Cognitive Biases found in Railway Transport Planning and Management domain. Cognitive biases in planning of railway projects lead to cost overruns, fail to achieve performance and fulfil safety objectives as well is noted in the economics, business management and risk management literature as well. Unbiased decision making is a core goal of systems engineering, encouraging careful consideration of stakeholder needs, design alternatives, and programmatic constraints and risks. However, Systems engineering practices dealing with Railway Transport Planning and Management fields do not pay attention to the human factors and organisational factors at initial stages of planning where driveability of European Railway Traffic Management System (ERTMS) Trains emerges as a concern in real time operations is noted in the Railway Transport Planning and Management domain. Therefore, there is a case for studying the Cognitive Biases in this domain. The System for Investigation of Railways (SIRI) Cybernetic Risk Model (2006), (2017) is a Systems engineering response to the internal research brief by RSSB, a GB Railways Safety Body. The SIRI Cybernetic Risk Model (2017) incorporating the “Heuristics and Biases” approach was published by the UK Transport Select Commission as a Written Evidence in 2016 on the occasion of the Inquiry theme of Railway Safety. The validity of the SIRI Risk Model (Swiss Cheese Model) is further illustrated through the 2019 historical survey of railway accidents and the two recent RAIB investigations of track worker fatal accident and signalling related near miss event in the form of Swiss Cheese Model. The data and information in the RAIB Reports (17/2019) and (11/2020) is supplemented by further research and the author’s own past studies of accident analyses. The results of the study show that the Guide to Railway Investment Process (GRIP) (2019) (now deleted by Network Rail) has no provision for incorporating measures to address to deficiencies raised by the accident reports or safety analysis reports as the RSSB (2014) Taking Safe Decisions Framework does not include all Hueristics and the biases they lead in the information used for taking decisions. Thus, the Duty Holder Investment process fails to meet the requirements of the mandatory regulatory requirements of the Common Safety Method-Risk Assessment (CSM-RA) Process. The results of the Case Studies in the Chapter remain the same despite the proposed changes in the Shapps-Williams Reform Plan (2021) as the safety related matters are not yet addressed by the plan. The author hopes when the lessons that are learnt from the Case Studies are embedded in railway organisations then we may see improvements in the railway planning and management practices by considering the risk factors at the conceptual stage of the projects and meet the requirements of ISO Standard 27500 (2016) for Human Centred Organisation. National Investigations Bodies (NIB) also may be benefitted.",book:{id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg"},signatures:"Sanjeev Kumar Appicharla"},{id:"79558",title:"Analysis of Methods Used to Diagnostics of Railway Lines",slug:"analysis-of-methods-used-to-diagnostics-of-railway-lines",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100835",abstract:"Complex diagnostics of railway lines involves techniques based on discrete and continual data acquisition. While discrete measurements belong to conventional methods, the modern continual ones use automated robotized instruments with continuous recording. Observations have become more time-efficient, but the processing epoch has become longer to evaluate a large number of data. Railway line diagnostics is realized by relative methods lead to determine relative track parameters as the track gauge, elevation, and track gradients and absolute, geodetic techniques determine directional and height ratios of the track, defined in a global coordinate and height system.",book:{id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg"},signatures:"Jana Izvoltova, Libor Izvolt and Janka Sestakova"},{id:"78929",title:"New Approach Measuring the Wheel/Rail Interaction Loads",slug:"new-approach-measuring-the-wheel-rail-interaction-loads",totalDownloads:118,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100031",abstract:"This chapter suggested new methods for monitoring the dynamic processes of rolling stock/rail interaction. This study develops a new technical solution for measuring the wheel/rail interaction forces on a significant part of the sleeper. The theoretical part of this study, using FEM, confirm the ability of piecewise continuous recording of vertical and lateral forces from the wheel/rail interaction by measuring the stresses in two sections of the rail. Also, the optimum location of strain gauges and the effective length of the measuring zone have been determined. The experimental part of this study has been carried out on the stands and the railway track to confirm the effectiveness of the method to determine the vertical and lateral wheel/rail interaction forces, increase the reliable statistical data, improve the measurement accuracy, reducing the time and cost compared with current testing methods. The developed method is recommended to determine the wheel/rail interaction forces and identify defects on the wheels when diagnosing rolling stock on operational and travel regimes.",book:{id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri P. Boronenko, Rustam V. Rahimov and Waail M. Lafta"},{id:"78422",title:"An Integrated Approach of Strategic Planning and Multi-Criteria Analysis to Evaluate Transport Strategies in Railway Network",slug:"an-integrated-approach-of-strategic-planning-and-multi-criteria-analysis-to-evaluate-transport-strat",totalDownloads:136,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99609",abstract:"This chapter presents a methodology for selecting transport strategy for railway passenger transport development. The strategic planning, as Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal, and Environmental (PESTLE) analysis and Strengths - Weaknesses – Opportunities - Threats (SWOT) analysis integrated with Multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) have been applied as a tool to make decision. The proposed methodology consists five stages. The first stage formulates the alternatives of the policies for railway manager. The criteria in each PESTLE group have been defined in the second step. The total number of 24 criteria has been studied. In third stage, the SIMUS method based on linear programming has been applied to rank the alternatives and assess the criteria in PESTLE groups. The fourth stage represents the ranking by application the different multi0criteria approaches as distance based, utility based and outranking methods to make decision. The combination the PESTLE analysis with SWOT analysis for strategic planning is done in the fifth stage. The integration of the PESTLE with technical, economic, technological and environmental (TETE) analysis in presented. The application of methodology has been demonstrated with an example for Bulgarian railway network. Three strategies of railway transport development have been evaluated and compared. It was found that the most important are the political (0.29), social (0.25) and technological (0.25) groups in PESTLE analysis.",book:{id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg"},signatures:"Svetla Stoilova"},{id:"78167",title:"Hydrogen as a Rail Mass Transit Fuel",slug:"hydrogen-as-a-rail-mass-transit-fuel",totalDownloads:113,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99553",abstract:"There is a continually growing need for mass transport and along with customer desire for greater comfort and speed, its consumption of energy will grow faster still. The fiscal cost of energy plus global warming has spurred efficiency improvement and thoughts now concentrate on fuels. In the UK for major lines for trains, this is electricity generated in a benign fashion in large facilities nominally remote from the train and track. Electric trains tend to be lighter, hence more efficient and demand less maintenance than their diesel counterpart. Similar arguments, including pollution emissions apply to city mass transit systems. For medium density and lower density routes, whether fuel cells or the next generation of IC or GT engines are employed, hydrogen is a prime energy candidate and here we examine its feed, production, distribution, and application, including generator location. Hydrogen from steam hydrocarbon reformers have even been installed in ships. Other countries have similar desires to those of the UK, including Saudi Arabia, but their problems are different and outline examples from Australia and Saudi Arabia are included.",book:{id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg"},signatures:"Stephen A. Lloyd, Luke L.B.D. Lloyd and W.J. Atteridge"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:315,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 27th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"82297",title:"The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus in Drylands of Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103905",signatures:"Zenebe Mekonnen",slug:"the-climate-change-agriculture-nexus-in-drylands-of-ethiopia",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",signatures:"André J. Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:44,paginationItems:[{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. Surana, Ritesh B. Pawar, Ritesh A. Khairnar and Sunil K. Mahajan",slug:"protein-prenylation-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Modifications of Biomolecules",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11098.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82096",title:"An Important Component of Tumor Progression: Fatty Acids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105087",signatures:"Jin Wang, Qifei Wang and Guangzhen Wu",slug:"an-important-component-of-tumor-progression-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82029",title:"Synthesis, Characterization and Antimicrobial Properties of Novel Benzimidazole Amide Derivatives Bearing Thiophene Moiety",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104908",signatures:"Vinayak Adimule, Pravin Kendrekar and Sheetal Batakurki",slug:"synthesis-characterization-and-antimicrobial-properties-of-novel-benzimidazole-amide-derivatives-bea",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:37,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:13,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:14,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:14,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",slug:"brain-computer-interface",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Brain-Computer Interface",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10859",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Concepts and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10859.jpg",slug:"data-mining-concepts-and-applications",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ciza Thomas",hash:"63a4e514e537d3962cf53ef1c6b9d5eb",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Data Mining - Concepts and Applications",editors:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10651",title:"Machine Learning",subtitle:"Algorithms, Models and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10651.jpg",slug:"machine-learning-algorithms-models-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaydip Sen",hash:"6208156401c496e0a4ca5ff4265324cc",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Machine Learning - Algorithms, Models and Applications",editors:[{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9869",title:"Self-Driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9869.jpg",slug:"self-driving-vehicles-and-enabling-technologies",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marian Găiceanu",hash:"fd451ca2e4785ef098e04b7d695a18d9",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Self-Driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies",editors:[{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9958",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Latest Advances, New Paradigms and Novel Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9958.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-latest-advances-new-paradigms-and-novel-applications",publishedDate:"September 1st 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Eneko Osaba, Esther Villar, Jesús L. Lobo and Ibai Laña",hash:"39648fbfdaa11385097d62b1f13aad54",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Latest Advances, New Paradigms and Novel Applications",editors:[{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Computational Neuroscience",value:23,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Evolutionary Computation",value:25,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:26,count:3},{group:"subseries",caption:"Applied Intelligence",value:22,count:4}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. Alhazzaa, Thomas Heinbockel and Antonei B. Csoka",slug:"diabetes-and-epigenetics",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81099",title:"SK Channels and Heart Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104115",signatures:"Katherine Zhong, Shawn Kant, Frank Sellke and Jun Feng",slug:"sk-channels-and-heart-disease",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80967",title:"Hot on the Trail of Skin Inflammation: Focus on TRPV1/TRPV3 Channels in Psoriasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103792",signatures:"Lisa S. Martin, Emma Fraillon, Fabien P. Chevalier and Bérengère Fromy",slug:"hot-on-the-trail-of-skin-inflammation-focus-on-trpv1-trpv3-channels-in-psoriasis",totalDownloads:36,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80952",title:"TRPV Family Ion Channels in the Mammary Epithelium: Role in Normal Tissue Homeostasis and along Breast Cancer Progression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103665",signatures:"Sari Susanna Tojkander",slug:"trpv-family-ion-channels-in-the-mammary-epithelium-role-in-normal-tissue-homeostasis-and-along-breas",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80157",title:"Structural Determinants for Ligand Accommodation in Voltage Sensors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102094",signatures:"Abigail García-Morales, Aylin López-Palestino and Daniel Balleza",slug:"structural-determinants-for-ligand-accommodation-in-voltage-sensors",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"79690",title:"Mitochondrial Channels and their Role in Cardioprotection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101127",signatures:"Keerti Mishra and Min Luo",slug:"mitochondrial-channels-and-their-role-in-cardioprotection",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"78415",title:"Epigenetic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99964",signatures:"Mehmet Ünal",slug:"epigenetic",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"77443",title:"Cyanobacterial Phytochromes in Optogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97522",signatures:"Sivasankari Sivaprakasam, Vinoth Mani, Nagalakshmi Balasubramaniyan and David Ravindran Abraham",slug:"cyanobacterial-phytochromes-in-optogenetics",totalDownloads:197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"75979",title:"Spatiotemporal Regulation of Cell–Cell Adhesions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97009",signatures:"Brent M. Bijonowski",slug:"spatiotemporal-regulation-of-cell-cell-adhesions",totalDownloads:180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"76646",title:"Functional Mechanism of Proton Pump-Type Rhodopsins Found in Various Microorganisms as a Potential Effective Tool in Optogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97589",signatures:"Jun Tamogami and Takashi Kikukawa",slug:"functional-mechanism-of-proton-pump-type-rhodopsins-found-in-various-microorganisms-as-a-potential-e",totalDownloads:216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"76510",title:"Evolution of Epigenome as the Blueprint for Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97379",signatures:"Zeenat Farooq, Ambreen Shah, Mohammad Tauseef, Riyaz A. Rather and Mumtaz Anwar",slug:"evolution-of-epigenome-as-the-blueprint-for-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:196,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"74615",title:"Diet-Epigenome Interactions: Epi-Drugs Modulating the Epigenetic Machinery During Cancer Prevention",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95374",signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"diet-epigenome-interactions-epi-drugs-modulating-the-epigenetic-machinery-during-cancer-prevention",totalDownloads:377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:[{name:"Fadime",surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}],book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",slug:"brain-computer-interface",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Brain-Computer Interface",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11664",title:"Recent Advances in Sensing Technologies for Environmental Control and Monitoring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cf1ee76443e393bc7597723c3ee3e26f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Toonika Rinken and Dr. Kairi Kivirand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11664.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"May 4th 2022",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhRjQAK/Profile_Picture_1636637493542",biography:"Toonika Rinken is an associate professor in environmental chemistry and is leading a biosensor development lab at the Institute of Chemistry in the University of Tartu, Estonia. She received her PhD degree in chemistry in 2000 in the same university for the modeling and calibration studies of biosensors and has passed professional self-improvement in Uppsala (Sweden) and Gröningen (the Netherlands). Dr. Rinken's research activities are focused on the studies and development of biosensing systems for automatic monitoring along with testing and application of biosensor based analytical systems.",institutionString:"University of Tartu",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Tartu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Estonia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"11665",title:"Recent Advances in Wildlife Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"73da0df494a1a56ab9c4faf2ee811899",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11665.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75563/images/system/75563.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzana Khan Perveen (FLS; Gold Medalist) obtained her BSc (Hons) and MSc in Entomology from the University of Karachi, Pakistan, and MAS (Monbusho Scholarship) in Agronomy from Nagoya University, Japan, and a Ph.D. in Toxicology from the University of Karachi. She is the founder of the Department of Zoology and former controller of examinations at Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Hazara University, and Kohat University of Science and Technology. She is the author of 150 high-impact research papers, 135 abstracts, 40 authored books, 9 chapters, and 9 edited books. She is also a student supervisor. Her fields of interest are entomology, toxicology, forensic entomology.",institutionString:"Classes et Events in Sciences (C.E.S.)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"12223",title:"Sustainable Management of Natural Resources",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1881a08bbd8f5dc1102c5cb7c635bc35",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mohd Nazip Suratman and Dr. Engku Azlin Rahayu Engku Ariff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12223.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"July 19th 2022",editors:[{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Nazip",middleName:null,surname:"Suratman",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"Mohd Nazip Suratman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144417/images/system/144417.jpg",biography:"Mohd Nazip Suratman is a Professor of Forestry at the Faculty of Applied Sciences, and a Principal Fellow at the Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia, He earned a B. Sc in Forestry from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and an M. S from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA. He was then honored with a prestigious fellowship from the Canadian Commonwealth to pursue a Ph.D. degree at the University of British Columbia (UBC), Canada, where he worked on the application of remote sensing for forest resources management. He has been involved in numerous collaborative international research projects that led to publications in reputable journals. Altogether, he has published a total of 14 books and more than 200 research publications. His research interests cover several aspects of forestry, mainly forest modeling, forest ecology, and biodiversity. He received the UiTM’s Best Researcher and Top Talent Awards in 2015 and 2021, respectively. He served as the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) from 2018 to 2021.",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/270681",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"270681"},fullPath:"/profiles/270681",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()