NAP4 identified several factors associated with major airway complications.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5469",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Canine Medicine - Recent Topics and Advanced Research",title:"Canine Medicine",subtitle:"Recent Topics and Advanced Research",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"There is a possibility that during a pet's lifetime, medication may be recommended to treat medical conditions or problems. \nThis book Canine Medicine - Recent Topics and Advanced Research provides the knowledge in diagnosis and treatment of some important diseases and problems that the canines face.\nI believe that this book offers broader perspective to the readers in the recent advances in canine medicine, starting from recent topics to application in clinical diagnosis and therapeutics for practitioners and veterinarians.\nThe main purpose of the book is to point out the interest of some important topics of canine medicine and the progress in this field and to clear its importance in veterinary medicine.",isbn:"978-953-51-2832-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2831-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7329-8",doi:"10.5772/63036",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"canine-medicine-recent-topics-and-advanced-research",numberOfPages:214,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a7e798d88413dd09f8a4af2b2e325b82",bookSignature:"Hussein Abdelhay Elsayed Kaoud",publishedDate:"December 21st 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5469.jpg",numberOfDownloads:22341,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 20th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 13th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",middleName:null,surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265070/images/system/265070.png",biography:"Dr. Hussein Kaoud was the Chairman of the Department of Preventive Medicine at Cairo University. He has given lectures in Molecular Epidemiology and Biotechnology at different universities and has been a member of many International Publishing Houses, Reviewer, and Editor for indexed journals. Currently, he works as Full Professor of Preventive Medicine at Cairo University, Egypt. His research interest is focused on Molecular Biology and Advanced Technology of Basic Life Sciences after he had his Ph.D. and D.Sc. He has published more than 300 publications. Dr. Hussein Kaoud has several international books, one international award (USA), 10 Cairo university International Publication awards and the Appreciation Award in Advanced Technological Sciences, from Cairo University. He supervised, examined and discussed many medical dissertations.",institutionString:"Cairo University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"299",title:"Cynology",slug:"cynology"}],chapters:[{id:"52760",title:"Canine Parvovirus Type 2",doi:"10.5772/65801",slug:"canine-parvovirus-type-2",totalDownloads:2990,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Canine parvovirus (CPV) enteritis is characterized by intestinal hemorrhage with severe bloody diarrhea. The causative agent, CPV‐2, was first identified in the late 1970s. CPV is a nonenveloped, linear, single‐stranded DNA virus with a genome of approximately 5 kb, and it belongs to the genus Parvovirus, together with feline panleukopenia virus, mink enteritis virus, raccoon parvovirus, and porcine parvovirus. An antigenic variant, CPV‐2a, identified within a few years after the emergence of CPV‐2, and another variant, CPV‐2b, began appearing in the canine population in 1984. In 2000, a novel antigenic variant, CPV‐2c, was first detected in Italy. This chapter focuses on the history, viral evolution, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis, vaccination, and prevention of CPV‐2.",signatures:"Chao-Nan Lin and Shu-Yun Chiang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52760",authors:[{id:"190874",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Chao-Nan",surname:"Lin",slug:"chao-nan-lin",fullName:"Chao-Nan Lin"},{id:"194988",title:"Dr.",name:"Shu-Yun",surname:"Chiang",slug:"shu-yun-chiang",fullName:"Shu-Yun Chiang"}],corrections:null},{id:"52967",title:"Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis in Brazil",doi:"10.5772/65956",slug:"canine-visceral-leishmaniasis-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1904,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a disease caused by a protozoon belonging to the genus Leishmania, and it is transmitted through the bite of sand flies. Endemic regions have widened, and canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) occurs mainly in the Mediterranean region and South America. There is no consensus on the risk factors associated with CVL, as results differ between the studied regions and countries. This chapter describes the main aspects of epidemiology, immunology, clinical signs, diagnosis treatment, and control of canine visceral leishmaniasis with emphasis on Brazil.",signatures:"Marcia Almeida de Melo, Raizza Barros Sousa Silva, Laysa Freire\nFranco e Silva, Beatriz Maria de Almeida Braz, Jaqueline Maria dos\nSantos, Saul José Semião Santos and Paulo Paes de Andrade",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52967",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52967",authors:[{id:"191086",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcia",surname:"Melo",slug:"marcia-melo",fullName:"Marcia Melo"},{id:"195528",title:"MSc.",name:"Raizza",surname:"Barros Sousa Silva",slug:"raizza-barros-sousa-silva",fullName:"Raizza Barros Sousa Silva"},{id:"195529",title:"BSc.",name:"Laysa",surname:"Freire Franco E Silva",slug:"laysa-freire-franco-e-silva",fullName:"Laysa Freire Franco E Silva"},{id:"195530",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",surname:"Maria De Almeida Braz",slug:"beatriz-maria-de-almeida-braz",fullName:"Beatriz Maria De Almeida Braz"},{id:"195531",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jaqueline",surname:"Dos Santos Sousa",slug:"jaqueline-dos-santos-sousa",fullName:"Jaqueline Dos Santos Sousa"},{id:"195532",title:"Dr.",name:"Saul",surname:"José Semião Santos",slug:"saul-jose-semiao-santos",fullName:"Saul José Semião Santos"},{id:"195576",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Paes De Andrade",slug:"paulo-paes-de-andrade",fullName:"Paulo Paes De Andrade"}],corrections:null},{id:"52484",title:"Infectious Causes of Abortion, Stillbirth and Neonatal Death in Bitches",doi:"10.5772/65330",slug:"infectious-causes-of-abortion-stillbirth-and-neonatal-death-in-bitches",totalDownloads:2776,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Problems in gestational development in dogs can be determined by infectious and non‐infectious causes. Among the non‐infectious causes, trauma during pregnancy, genetic characteristics of the animal, deficit nutrition, thyroid dysfunction, maternal problems and hormonal disorders are found. The majority of the cases are in relation to infectious diseases, one should consider viral, bacterial, fungal and protozoal, which can interfere directly or indirectly in the foetal development. The progression of foetal development may be affected by the direct action of the microorganisms to overcome the placenta, but they are also able to affect pregnancy and release placental toxins by inflammatory processes and, may still cause maternal pathologies, which entail problems such as hyperthermia, hypoxia and endotoxemia, which can result in abortion. Several diseases can trigger pregnancy loss in dogs. This action can be direct by microorganisms, as well as indirectly triggering other problems that lead to abortion. This chapter discusses the infectious aetiologies of reproductive failures (abortion, stillbirth and neonatal death) in bitches.",signatures:"João Marcelo Azevedo de Paula Antunes, Débora Alves de Carvalho\nFreire, Ilanna Vanessa Pristo de Medeiros Oliveira, Gabriela Hémylin\nFerreira Moura, Larissa de Castro Demoner and Heider Irinaldo\nPereira Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52484",authors:[{id:"191197",title:"Ph.D.",name:"João",surname:"Antunes",slug:"joao-antunes",fullName:"João Antunes"},{id:"191203",title:"MSc.",name:"Débora Alves",surname:"De Carvalho Freire",slug:"debora-alves-de-carvalho-freire",fullName:"Débora Alves De Carvalho Freire"},{id:"191204",title:"MSc.",name:"Ilanna Vanessa",surname:"Pristo De Medeiros Oliveira",slug:"ilanna-vanessa-pristo-de-medeiros-oliveira",fullName:"Ilanna Vanessa Pristo De Medeiros Oliveira"},{id:"191205",title:"BSc.",name:"Gabriela Hémylin",surname:"Ferreira Moura",slug:"gabriela-hemylin-ferreira-moura",fullName:"Gabriela Hémylin Ferreira Moura"},{id:"191207",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",surname:"De Castro Demoner",slug:"larissa-de-castro-demoner",fullName:"Larissa De Castro Demoner"},{id:"194801",title:"MSc.",name:"Heider Irinaldo Pereira",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"heider-irinaldo-pereira-ferreira",fullName:"Heider Irinaldo Pereira Ferreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"52758",title:"Mast Cell Tumors",doi:"10.5772/65797",slug:"mast-cell-tumors",totalDownloads:1713,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mast cell tumor is one of the major cutaneous tumors in dogs. Though the etiology of MCTs is not completely understood, it becomes clear that approximately 10–20% MCTs express mutant KIT receptors with ligand‐independent phosphorylation. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors targeting KIT exert antitumor effects on malignant proliferation of mast cells with or without gene mutations. However, the efficacy of KIT inhibitors on dogs with MCTs has been limited. In this chapter, we would like to outline the general understandings of mast cells such as the process of its differentiation and proliferation, and what has been revealed regarding the mechanism of tumorigenesis and therapeutic approaches. In particular, KIT mutation‐related evidences and therapeutic approaches in the future are discussed.",signatures:"Yosuke Amagai and Akane Tanaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52758",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52758",authors:[{id:"63083",title:"Prof.",name:"Akane",surname:"Tanaka",slug:"akane-tanaka",fullName:"Akane Tanaka"},{id:"371190",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosuke",surname:"Amagai",slug:"yosuke-amagai",fullName:"Yosuke Amagai"}],corrections:null},{id:"52705",title:"Chronic Mitral Valve Insufficiency in Dogs: Recent Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/65689",slug:"chronic-mitral-valve-insufficiency-in-dogs-recent-advances-in-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:3787,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chronic mitral valvular insufficiency (CMVI) is the most common acquired heart disease in dogs and is characterized by degenerative valvular changes causing progressive thickening of mitral leaflets and incomplete closure of mitral valve. As the disease progresses, it causes congestive heart failure (CHF) and pulmonary edema if the LA dilation cannot accommodate the volume overload by mitral regurgitation. Therefore, it is the most common cause of cardiac mortality in dogs. This chapter discusses general features of CMVI in dogs focusing on recent advances in diagnosis and treatment.",signatures:"Sang-II Suh, Dong-Hyun Han, Seung-Gon Lee, Yong-Wei Hung, Ran\nChoi and Changbaig Hyun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52705",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52705",authors:[{id:"13534",title:"Prof.",name:"Changbaig",surname:"Hyun",slug:"changbaig-hyun",fullName:"Changbaig Hyun"},{id:"371146",title:"Dr.",name:"Sang-II",surname:"Suh",slug:"sang-ii-suh",fullName:"Sang-II Suh"},{id:"371147",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong-Hyun",surname:"Han",slug:"dong-hyun-han",fullName:"Dong-Hyun Han"},{id:"371148",title:"Dr.",name:"Seung-Gon",surname:"Lee",slug:"seung-gon-lee",fullName:"Seung-Gon Lee"},{id:"371149",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong-Wei",surname:"Hung",slug:"yong-wei-hung",fullName:"Yong-Wei Hung"},{id:"371150",title:"Dr.",name:"Ran",surname:"Choi",slug:"ran-choi",fullName:"Ran Choi"}],corrections:null},{id:"51722",title:"Abnormalities in the Sexual Cycle of Bitches",doi:"10.5772/64648",slug:"abnormalities-in-the-sexual-cycle-of-bitches",totalDownloads:2974,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Sexual-cycle abnormalities are an important cause of infertility in bitches, with disorders such as anestrus, split estrus, and persistent estrus having varied etiologies. Sexual-cycle abnormalities in bitches may be addressed as follicular- or luteal-phase disorders. However, pet owners should have a good working knowledge of the sexual cycles of their animals in order to better understand these disorders.",signatures:"Ali Risvanli, Halis Ocal and Cahit Kalkan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51722",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51722",authors:[{id:"189503",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Risvanli",slug:"ali-risvanli",fullName:"Ali Risvanli"},{id:"189518",title:"Prof.",name:"Halis",surname:"Ocal",slug:"halis-ocal",fullName:"Halis Ocal"},{id:"189519",title:"Prof.",name:"Cahit",surname:"Kalkan",slug:"cahit-kalkan",fullName:"Cahit Kalkan"}],corrections:null},{id:"52422",title:"Pursuing Alternative Strategies for Healthier Medical Contraception in Dogs",doi:"10.5772/65331",slug:"pursuing-alternative-strategies-for-healthier-medical-contraception-in-dogs",totalDownloads:2340,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although extensively used in the control of the reproductive cycles in either the domestic or feral dogs as well as in wild carnivores, medical progestin-based contraception still raises concerns to the veterinary practitioner and owners on its safety and efficiency. These concerns endorsed, in last decades, the research in the development of new alternatives for effective, reversible, and safe contraceptive methods for carnivores, mainly pursuing a larger-scale control of canine reproduction and the development of products with few side effects. Nowadays, the medical contraceptives often intend to master, in a reversible way, the reproductive cycle in genetically valuable dogs, which presumes that they would be active for short periods of time and ought to safeguard the animal fertility. However, hormonal contraceptives are also used worldwide to control the reproductive activity in either domestic or feral cats, for long-term treatments, because of a pretended short-term economic interest. Progestogens are the most frequently used hormonal contraceptive in carnivores. They are rather easy to obtain across the globe and relatively cheap; they have diverse drug presentations, allowing their use independently of the veterinary assistance, and are effective in preventing pregnancy. Still a significant number of undesirable health side effects are attributed to progestins when employed with some chronicity, when applied in older animals or even when misused. In the past two decades, several new approaches to managing dog reproduction were proposed to avoid progestins. However, their efficiency and cost are still to be proven as a viable alternative around the world. This chapter aims to review the medical methods available as alternative to the progestins in canine contraception, addressing particularly the future perspectives, opportunities, and limitations linked to currently available substitutes, based on our practice. This information can be of utmost interest to students, clinicians or colonies' technicians.",signatures:"Rita Payan-Carreira, Paulo Borges and Alain Fontbonne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52422",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52422",authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira"},{id:"165295",title:"Prof.",name:"Alain",surname:"Fontbonne",slug:"alain-fontbonne",fullName:"Alain Fontbonne"},{id:"195041",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Borges",slug:"paulo-borges",fullName:"Paulo Borges"}],corrections:null},{id:"52766",title:"Patellar Luxation in Small Animals",doi:"10.5772/65764",slug:"patellar-luxation-in-small-animals",totalDownloads:2098,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study describes lesions that occur in the stifle joints of dogs with patellar luxation. These lesions are associated with the animal’s age, body weight and degree of luxation. It also reports on the rate of re-dislocation. The patellar lesions found include articular cartilage erosion, subchondral bone exposure, a flattened or concave patellar surface and enthesophytes. Extrapatellar lesions included synovitis, osteophytes, blunting of the trochlear groove, an absent trochlea, erosion of the condylar margins, capsule thickening, a long digital extensor tendon injury, “joint mice,” flap formation, cranial cruciate ligament rupture and meniscal prolapse. Such lesions were frequently found in animals with grade II or III luxation that were aged 24 months or older; they were more severe in dogs weighing more than 15 kg. Patellar luxation causes changes that favour articular degeneration and should be treated surgically. Conservative treatment relieves pain but does not address tissue alterations.",signatures:"Cleuza M.F. Rezende, Renato César Sachetto Tôrres, Anelise\nCarvalho Nepomuceno, Juliana Soares Lara and Jessica Alejandra\nCastro Varón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52766",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52766",authors:[{id:"68732",title:"Dr.",name:"Cleuza Maria",surname:"de Faria Rezende",slug:"cleuza-maria-de-faria-rezende",fullName:"Cleuza Maria de Faria Rezende"},{id:"371195",title:"Dr.",name:"Renato César Sachetto",surname:"Tôrres",slug:"renato-cesar-sachetto-torres",fullName:"Renato César Sachetto Tôrres"},{id:"371196",title:"Dr.",name:"Anelise Carvalho",surname:"Nepomuceno",slug:"anelise-carvalho-nepomuceno",fullName:"Anelise Carvalho Nepomuceno"},{id:"371197",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana Soares",surname:"Lara",slug:"juliana-soares-lara",fullName:"Juliana Soares Lara"},{id:"371198",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica Alejandra Castro",surname:"Varón",slug:"jessica-alejandra-castro-varon",fullName:"Jessica Alejandra Castro Varón"}],corrections:null},{id:"53033",title:"Diffusion Tensor Tractography in Cerebral White Matter",doi:"10.5772/66249",slug:"diffusion-tensor-tractography-in-cerebral-white-matter",totalDownloads:1760,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows researchers and clinicians to observe the anatomy and injuries of the cerebral white matter (CWM) in dogs. However, dynamic images based on the diffusion tensor (DT) technique are required to assess fiber tract integrity of the CWM. Diffusion tensor tractography (DTT) produces a three-dimensional representation in which data are displayed on a colored map obtained from the anisotropy of water molecules in the CWM tracts. Fractional anisotropy (FA) is a value that measures changes in water diffusion, which can occur if the CWM tracts are displaced, disrupted, or infiltrated. The goal of this study was to determine the feasibility of DTT for in vivo examination of the normal appearance of CWM in dogs through visual and quantitative analysis of the most representative CWM tracts.",signatures:"Mitzi Sarahi Anaya García and Jael Sarahi Hernández Anaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53033",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53033",authors:[{id:"190766",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitzi Sarahi",surname:"Anaya Garcia",slug:"mitzi-sarahi-anaya-garcia",fullName:"Mitzi Sarahi Anaya Garcia"},{id:"194994",title:"Dr.",name:"Jael Sarahi",surname:"Hernandez Anaya",slug:"jael-sarahi-hernandez-anaya",fullName:"Jael Sarahi Hernandez Anaya"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6475",title:"Tissue Regeneration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d5ed06a80f0205146aa90d158facefd1",slug:"tissue-regeneration",bookSignature:"Hussein Abdel hay El-Sayed Kaoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6475.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8288",title:"Bacterial Cattle Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f45b8b4974eb0d7de8719ef6b9146200",slug:"bacterial-cattle-diseases",bookSignature:"Hussein Abdel hay El-Sayed Kaoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8288.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"74368",title:"Principles of Anesthesia and Airway Management in Head and Neck Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95029",slug:"principles-of-anesthesia-and-airway-management-in-head-and-neck-surgery",body:'Head and neck (H&N) surgery encompasses an expanded spectrum of procedures varying greatly in complexity, duration, and complications. They range from simple surgeries such as dental procedure, adenotonsillectomy to precise and image-guided laryngologic, neurotologic, and skull-base surgery, complex obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) surgery, sophisticated transoral robotic surgery (TORS), transoral laser microsurgery (TLM), and major head and neck oncological surgery with extensive free-flap reconstruction.
Head and neck surgery presents unprecedented challenges for the anesthesiologists including shared airways, concurrent comorbidities, anesthesia techniques, and postoperative complications. A Shared Airway is the term commonly used in Head and Neck surgery which is characterized by “any procedure where the anesthesiologist needs to maintain a patient’s airway patency, oxygenation, and ventilation in a similar airway anatomical space in which the surgeon operates.” Both the anesthetists and surgeons must have a clear knowledge and understanding of their respective roles in managing the ‘shared airway’. The role of the anesthetist must be to provide safe general anesthesia for the patient, an uninterrupted airway during the perioperative period, and a clear field for the surgeon by applying various hypotensive anesthesia techniques. This chapter focuses on key aspects of anesthesia and airway management strategies for common Head and Neck surgical presentations, with relevance to the current evidence base and clinical guidelines. It is aimed to be a comprehensive review for residents and fellows training in the fields of anesthesia and head and neck surgery.
It is estimated that the occurrence of difficult airway and complications are more frequent in H&N patients than in the general surgical population. In the Fourth National Audit Project (NAP4) from the Royal College of Anesthetists and the Difficult Airway Society in the United Kingdom (UK), data regarding major airway complications were collected prospectively in approximately three million anesthetized patients throughout the UK [1]. The incidence of airway-related complications was nearly 40% in H&N surgeries [2] and almost 75% of the cases required emergency surgical airway (ESA) for “cannot intubate/cannot oxygenate” (CICO) situations. Likewise, the incidence of the emergency surgical airway (ESA) was even higher in another retrospective study of 452,461 patients in the Danish Anesthesia Database [3]. In this study, the overall incidence of ESA in ear, nose, and throat surgery was reported as 1.6 events per thousand, which was 27 times higher than in the general surgical population (0.06 per thousand). The H&N oncological patients are at even higher risk of difficult airway management, predominantly males, with an incidence of over 12% experienced difficult direct laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation [4]. In NAP4, of the 21 cases of difficult airway observed on anesthesia induction, 13 cases occurred in patients with upper airway tumors [1]. Additionally, numerous studies have indicated that difficult tracheal intubation, defined as three or more attempts on direct laryngoscopy, may be observed in up to 7–9% of H&N cases [5, 6, 7], which is up to four folds higher than the general surgical population [8, 9, 10, 11]. In the NAP4 study, several factors have been associated with airway related complications (see Table 1). Furthermore, anesthesiologists experience greater challenges during extubation and post-anesthesia recovery period [1, 12].
Factors associated with airway management related complication | Inadequate airway assessment |
Inadequate planning for airway management and for failure of intubation | |
Multiple intubation attempts | |
Inappropriate use of a supraglottic airway (SGA) device | |
Obesity | |
Failure to correctly interpret capnography and recognize esophageal intubation early | |
Anesthesia for head and neck surgery | |
Intubation in the emergency department or intensive care unit |
NAP4 identified several factors associated with major airway complications.
The preoperative Anesthesia assessment is imperative in reducing risk during shared airway procedure and must include a detailed general medical and surgical history, previous anesthetic exposure, and general physical examination as well as a focused airway assessment. It is paramount to have a multidisciplinary approach to an anticipated difficult airway in H&N surgery which requires a high degree of cooperation and communication with the surgeon, allowing for early identification of high-risk patients, and reciprocal anticipation of the potential problems and adequate preparation to face the challenges. Expertise in H&N anesthesia and complex airway management should be encouraged as it improves the outcome and reduces airway complications. The goal of preoperative assessment is to recognize patients with potentially difficult airways, stratify the risks, manage the co-morbidities, and optimize the patient’s condition before major H&N surgery (see Table 2).
Anesthesia considerations in Head and Neck Surgery | Multidisciplinary approach and close-in line communication |
Presence of expertise in H&N anesthesia and complex airway management | |
Anticipation of challenges during intubation and extubation | |
Shared Airway with the surgeon and related challenges | |
Different approach to airway management specific to surgery | |
Different Anesthesia technique and positioning challenges | |
Post Anesthesia recovery and Airway support |
Anesthesia considerations in head and neck surgery.
Preanesthesia assessment invariably includes airway evaluation to identify and predict difficulty in airway management. The incidence of difficult airway is higher for patients who undergo H&N surgeries than for general surgical procedures. Therefore, the primary priority in airway assessment is to determine whether airway is compromised. A detailed history should be obtained before the surgery which incorporates reviewing previous anesthesia records with a particular focus on airway management, identifying risk factors of possible difficult mask ventilation and tracheal intubation. History of previous difficult tracheal intubation is one of the most important predictors of the anticipated difficult airway [9, 11]. It is worth mentioning that a history of prior easy intubation does not guarantee subsequent uneventful airway management in H&N procedures, due to the progression of the underlying pathological processes and their significant effect on the airway anatomy [13]. Anatomic anomaly relating to the face, mouth, nose, pharynx, or larynx must be thoroughly investigated. Hoarseness, drooling, dysphagia, orthopnea, stridor, cough, and recent onset of snoring may indicate airway compromise. Patients with vocal cord paralysis may be at increased risk for perioperative pulmonary aspiration. Prior H&N radiotherapy induces tissue fibrosis as well as long-standing epiglottic and glottic edema, leading to a non-compliant airway with limited mouth opening and restricted neck movement [9], which may make both mask ventilation and laryngoscopy potentially difficult [14]. Routine bedside airway assessment tools can be performed such as the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) bedside airway assessment tool which includes Mallampati classification, thyromental distance, inter-incisor distance, neck mobility, and body mass index (BMI), etc. [15]. However, it is poorly predictive of difficult airway in Head and Neck surgery because it fails to assess the inside pathology and severity of the upper airway such as base of the tongue, glottic and vallecular lesions, etc. [8, 16]. Numerous risk factors associated with difficult airway management have been identified (see Table 3) [17].
Head and Neck surgery may entail a wide range of patient populations from young and healthy to elderly, geriatric patients with significant cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, and renal diseases who are also at high risk for postoperative delirium and cognitive dysfunction. The perioperative risk related to major H&N surgery rises with advanced age and an increased number of comorbidities. As part of the multidisciplinary team, the anesthesiologist plays a crucial role in deciding the treatment plans, optimizing the patient’s condition pre-operatively, and weighing the risk to benefit ratio of the surgery. Patients with cardiovascular diseases such as uncontrolled hypertension, cerebrovascular, and coronary artery disease, chronic renal insufficiency, must be evaluated for cardiac risk prior to noncardiac surgery and if required must be referred to cardiologists. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) can be a useful aid to decision making, particularly where more extensive or complex surgery is being performed. Also, poorly controlled heart failure (New York Heart Association Grade 3–4) is associated with poor prognosis. Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal proBNP are useful biomarkers for perioperative screening of heart failure patients. Moreover, the hypotensive anesthesia technique should be avoided and intraoperative hyper or hypotension should be aggressively managed. Pulmonary comorbidities are common in H&N patients. Preoperative optimization of Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) via treatment of acute infection and appropriate use of bronchodilators and steroids is crucial to prevent post-operative pulmonary complications. Furthermore, COPD patients may not tolerate intraoperative ventilation techniques such as spontaneous ventilation, one-lung ventilation, apneic intermittent, or jet ventilation. Likewise, patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) are predisposed to difficult or challenging airways and are more sensitive to sedatives and opioids which should be used cautiously. H&N procedures involving the lower cranial nerves (Cranial nerves X, XI, and XII) may increase the risk of airway obstruction or aspiration in the post-operative period. H&N cancer patients are of particular concern as smoking and alcohol are the common cause of cancer, which also predispose them to post-operative malnutrition.
Head and Neck surgery patients must have baseline investigations which include complete blood count, biochemical profile with urea and electrolytes, coagulation profile, liver function test, blood sugar, and electrocardiography. Other investigations such as chest x-ray, pulmonary function tests, and arterial blood gases may be requested based on the risk factors and symptoms at presentation.
Imaging studies with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and flexible nasal endoscopy aid to determine the extent of the pathology and its impact on the airway and the surrounding soft tissues. The preoperative endoscopic airway examination (PEAE) in particular is useful for examining the upper airway to assess the significance of the swelling and distortion, the location, size, the spread of the lesions, the degree of obstruction, and vocal cords’ mobility. Moreover, preoperative awake nasal endoscopy can be carried out by the anesthesiologist before induction which gives a real-time image of the upper airway and the larynx and is useful in formulating airway management strategies including awake intubation and surgical airway [18].
Premedication to reduce anxiety and secretions may be helpful in patients going for H&N surgery with minor airway lesions but should be avoided in patients with H&N masses compromising the airway. Antisialagogues may be administered in the preoperative phase to minimize oral and tracheobronchial secretions. The patient should be monitored closely when premedicated, preferably in the holding area of the OR. During the preoperative visit, anesthesiologist should attempt to reduce the patient’s fears and anxiety.
The main intraoperative goal is the appropriate choice of airway technique and airway device tailored to the patient and surgical technique. Other goals are the provision of expert airway management, a continuous plane of anesthesia, clear and immobility of the surgical field, smooth and fast recovery from anesthesia. and surgery with the implementation of enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocol for fast-track discharge of patients [19].
Standard American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) monitors [20] such as Blood pressure, Electrocardiography, Pulse oximetry for O2 saturation, capnography, and temperature monitoring are usually applied during H&N surgery. Invasive blood pressure monitoring and advanced hemodynamic monitoring is usually considered in patients with significant cardiovascular disease or long procedures, and when excessive blood loss is expected. One study suggested that the use of goal-directed fluid therapy based on cardiac output monitoring helps guide fluid therapy and avoid fluid overload in free flap transfer [21]. Processed electroencephalogram (EEG) monitoring helps assess the depth of anesthesia and guide anesthetic drug dosing to provide a stable plane of anesthesia during surgery. Moreover, Neuromonitoring such as electromyography (EMG) monitoring of facial nerve in some head and neck surgery may guide to modify the anesthesia technique accordingly.
The majority of head and neck surgeries are done in a supine position with a 15–20-degree head-up tilt to improve venous drainage. Anesthesiologists must pay meticulous attention to the patient’s positioning especially since the head of the operating table is usually turned 90–180 degrees away from the anesthesia machine, limiting immediate access to the airway. Thus, long ventilator tubing and vascular access lines are required and the endotracheal tube should be secured effectively to avoid accidental extubation and disconnection. The eyes should be protected with an occlusive dressing to keep the lid closed and to prevent skin preparation solution from entering the eyes. Goggles or eye pads may be used; all pressure points must be padded, and intermittent pneumatic calf compression is applied.
Large-bore venous access is essential for major resections when significant blood loss is anticipated. Also, the need for invasive or advanced cardiac output monitoring is determined by the patient’s comorbidities as well as the nature and extent of the surgery. They are useful in assessing fluid response and guiding fluid therapy. Hypotensive anesthesia and hemodilution techniques may minimize blood loss, but must be practiced with care to maintain adequate blood flow to free flaps. Moreover, urine output should be monitored in prolonged surgeries.
General anesthesia is the technique of choice as it provides airway protection, ensures adequate oxygenation, ventilation, immobility, and avoids distracting the surgeon. In some selected H&N surgeries, monitored anesthesia care can be provided to maintain spontaneous ventilation and a responsive patient with intact airway reflexes. The choice of induction technique for general anesthesia (intravenous versus inhalational agents) is based on patient factors, surgical needs, and potential for compromised ventilation. Preoperative assessment and consultation with the surgeon will determine the technique of endotracheal intubation (awake or asleep), selection of an intravenous versus inhalation induction technique, and whether to use a neuromuscular blocking agent (usually avoided if nerve monitoring to be used intraoperatively). The NAP4 report highlighted that inhalation induction may result in total airway obstruction in patients with H&N pathology, where patients do not exhale the anesthetic gases and rapid hypoxia ensues. The theoretical advantage of gas induction is that it is a slow induction that preserves spontaneous ventilation. Additionally, maintenance of anesthesia can be obtained either with total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) or inhalation anesthetics or a combination of inhalation anesthetic with intravenous infusion of a short-acting anesthetic. Because many H&N surgeries are associated with high incidences of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV), propofol-based anesthesia may be a preferable technique of choice to prevent PONV [19, 22]. Many centers use total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) with target-controlled infusion (TCI) of propofol and opioids (see Table 4). In TCI, pumps are programmed to deliver an induction bolus followed by a maintenance infusion based on patient’s demographics. TIVA is also useful to facilitate a clear surgical field by titrating the anesthetics to desired blood pressure [systolic blood pressure below 100 mmHg and mean arterial pressure of 60 to 70 mmHg [23]]. However, controlled hypotension should be avoided in patients with uncontrolled blood pressure, cerebrovascular or coronary artery disease, as well as chronic renal and hepatic insufficiency.
Risk factors for predicted difficult airway management | Mallampati grade 3 or 4 |
Decreased thyromental distance | |
Male gender and Age > 57 years | |
Absence of teeth | |
Presence of beard | |
Obstructive sleep apnea or History of snoring | |
Dencreased Mandibular protrusion | |
Thick or short neck | |
Neck radiation changes or a neck mass | |
Obesity (BMI > 30) |
Risk factors associated with difficult airway management [17].
Advantages of TIVA in Head and Neck surgery | Rapid titration of anesthesia to the desired clinical effect |
Allows immobility and facilitates nerve monitoring | |
Allows rapid and smooth emergence after surgery | |
Reduction in Postoperative Nausea and vomiting | |
Induction of moderate hypotension may reduce blood loss and provide clear surgical field | |
Technique of choice in laryngologic surgery during jet ventilation or intermittent apnea ventilation |
Advantages of Total intravenous anesthesia in head and neck surgery.
Devising safe and optimal airway management depends on close in line communication between the anesthesiologist and surgeon, airway evaluation, reviewing imaging studies, type of surgery, location of the lesion, patient’s symptoms, and tolerance of the procedure and knowing the risk associated.
The technique for airway management should be formulated with the surgeon preoperatively which includes reviewing preoperative imaging studies and endoscopy, choice of airway management device, route for tracheal intubation, awake versus sleep endotracheal intubation, use of jet ventilation, and backup strategies, including preparation for a surgical airway. The goal of a pre-planned and optimal airway approach is to achieve adequate ventilation, oxygenation, and airway protection against aspiration. The following general airway management strategies should be considered:
General anesthesia with endotracheal intubation
General anesthesia using a supraglottic device
General anesthesia using an Operative laryngoscopy in conjunction with jet ventilation
Use of intermittent apnea
General anesthesia using the patient’s natural airway or spontaneous ventilation
Local anesthesia in conjunction with intravenous sedation, with the patient breathing spontaneously
It is often prudent to opt for video-laryngoscopy (VL) as a primary tracheal intubation technique because most H&N patients have high incidences of anticipated difficult airway. Multiple attempts with direct laryngoscopy (DL) should be avoided as it will lead to bleeding, soiling, edema, and fragmentation of any friable tissue in the airway that may dramatically worsen the subsequent laryngoscopic view and facemask ventilation [1, 24]. Thus, VL could be considered as a primary intubation technique in H&N patients to maximize the likelihood of first-attempt success [25]. In one meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials that compared VL versus DL in patients with anticipated or simulated difficult airways, VL was associated with improved glottic view, more likely successful intubation, and a higher chance of first-attempt intubations [26]. The provider should nonetheless approach all anticipated difficulties with caution. In one study, there was an overlap in predictive factors such as previous radiotherapy, malignancy, and previous surgery that led to difficulty in both DL and VL [27].
In conclusion, multiple attempts should be avoided as it leads to airway trauma and obstruction and alternative laryngoscopic or intubation techniques should be considered with caution (Figures 1 and 2).
A classification of video laryngoscopic devices. CTrach image courtesy of LMA North America. Pentax AWS image courtesy of Ambu USA. Airtraq image courtesy of Prodol Meditec S.A. Bonfils and C-MACA ˆ VC 2012 Photo Courtesy of KARL STORZ Endoscopy-America, Inc. GlideScope image courtesy of Verathon, USA. The McGrath series 5 image courtesy of Aircraft Medical, UK. VC 2012 Healy et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. Reproduced under the terms of its Creative Commons Attribution License (2.0).
4th generation Video Laryngoscope.jpg” by KARL STORZ Endoscope is licensed with CC BY-SA 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit
There is a common perception that awake fiberoptic intubation (AFOI) is the safest approach to difficult airway management [28]. Certainly, advantages of maintenance of airway patency, gas exchange, and protection against aspiration during the intubation process are offered by awake intubation. AFOI is helpful in patients with supraglottic obstruction, e.g. epiglottic or tongue base obstruction, but it is not the preferred technique in patients with a critically narrowed laryngeal inlet where there are copious secretions, difficulty in maintenance of spontaneous ventilation, and small laryngeal aperture. Adequate topicalization is key to the patient’s comfort and successful airway management. Asleep fiberoptic intubation has certain benefits such as patient comfort, avoidance of anxiety, and smooth transformation to other airway devices if necessary. However, asleep fiber optic intubation may lead to a difficult airway due to airway collapse and hypoxia from depressed respiratory function. The possibility of a successful exit strategy must be evaluated when considering asleep fiber optic intubation. In NAP4, both awake and asleep flexible fiberoptic intubation have relatively high failure rates in patients with H&N pathology, with a frequency up to 60 percent [1, 29]. The most common causes for failure of flexible scope intubation include the inability to identify the glottis, difficulty passing the scope, bleeding, and airway obstruction. In conclusion, awake fiberoptic intubation should be considered first in patients with head and neck pathology with an understanding of the pre-existing limitations to flexible scope intubation.
Rescue endotracheal intubation using operative laryngoscopy such as anterior commissure scope or rigid bronchoscope (Figure 3) has been effective and shown to be successful in difficult airway scenarios or when direct laryngoscopy fails [31, 32, 33]. Hillel and colleagues have shown that the use of surgical laryngoscopes helped secure over 35% of difficult airways and reduced the number of emergent cricothyroidotomies to nearly half [34]. After an operative laryngoscope or rigid bronchoscope is placed, manual ventilation can be provided safely through the lumen of the scope and subsequently, endotracheal intubation can be performed with the aid of an airway exchange catheter or a gum elastic bougie [35]. Thus, operative laryngoscopy and rigid bronchoscopy can rescue failed tracheal intubation and cannot intubate/cannot oxygenate (CICO) situations.
ENT endoscope examples. (a) Dedo scope with external channel for light source; (b) Venturi jet for insertion into rigid scope; and (c) anterior commissure scope with narrower lumen. Reprinted from [
Optical intubation stylets (such as Bonfils, Clarus video System, Sensascope, Levitan optical stylets, etc.) may be helpful and offer an advantage over flexible scopes. These rigid optical stylets can help bypass mobile supraglottic and glottic masses, and once the glottis is entered, the endotracheal tube will follow the trajectory of the stylet in the patient’s trachea. However, studies reported a wide range of success rates with the use of optical stylet [36, 37]. Success rates are higher with experienced users with the mean time to intubation at 23 seconds [38].
Laryngeal mask airway (LMA) devices (Figure 4) offer many advantages in H&N surgery. They may be used:
as primary ventilator devices and to provide smooth emergence from anesthesia in many elective H&N surgeries, such as ear, nasal and intranasal surgery, and facial cosmetic surgery.
as conduits for endotracheal intubation (intubating LMA).
as rescue devices in patients who are difficult to intubate or mask ventilate.
Supraglottic airway devices (single use). (a) Classic LMA (Ambu AuraStraight disposable laryngeal mask). (b) Flexible LMA (Ambu AuraFlex disposable laryngeal mask). (c) Second Generation LMA (Ambu AuraGain disposable laryngeal mask). (d) i-gel supraglottic airway. (e) Intubating LMA (LMA Fastrach). Reprinted from [
If LMAs are deemed necessary, the anesthetist should opt for the second generation whose seal design have been shown with less leakage and reduced risk of aspiration.
However, there are limitations to the supraglottic airway devices in H&N pathology. They may be difficult to place in patients with history of neck irradiation; limited mouth opening; and glottic, hypopharyngeal, or subglottic lesions.
The combination of VL and flexible scope or optical stylet is gaining popularity in complex airway management [40, 41, 42]. Video laryngoscopy provides an enlarged view of the glottis and facilitates manipulation of the flexible scope or optical stylet in patients with distorted anatomy or airway tumors. The combined technique allows continuous visualization and reduced trauma to friable tumors or masses.
Surgical airway is considered when endotracheal intubation fails or when traditional endotracheal intubation is not a feasible option due to the nature and unique requirements of the surgery. Awake tracheostomy under local anesthesia should be strongly considered as a primary plan in patients with significant airway obstruction. It may also be planned as the primary intubation strategy in patients who are expected to have significant airway compromise postoperatively possibly due to extensive reconstructive surgery. An alternative is awake cricothyroidotomy (CTM) which can be safely performed for any patients with difficult airways [43]. In case of emergency airway management, surgical cricothyroidotomy is strongly preferred over the percutaneous cricothyroidotomy as the chance of failure of emergency transcutaneous CTM is nearly 60% in H&N patients according to NAP4 report.
The type and size of tubes depending on the type of surgeries, location, invasiveness of the surgery, and the patient’s factors (Figure 5). The size and type of ETT should be determined with the surgeon. Endotracheal tubes must be appropriately sized and adequately secured to prevent accidental extubation or displacement during surgery.
A reinforced, flexible ETT is an excellent choice for shared airway procedures. They are commonly utilized for intraoral surgery.
Nasal endotracheal intubation (e.g. Nasal RAE tube) is commonly preferred for procedures such as transoral robotic surgery, orthognathic and maxillomandibular surgery, base of tongue surgery, and some dental procedures as it provides better visualization of the oral cavity.
A small-sized micro laryngeal tube (5-mm internal diameter tube but are longer than standard tube) is commonly used for micro laryngeal surgery to facilitate surgical access.
A specialized laser-resistant endotracheal tube is used for airway laser surgery.
Nerve integrity monitor endotracheal tube may be used for specific H&N procedures closely approximating the laryngeal nerves.
Tracheal Tubes. (a) Armored flexible (Mallinckrodt Lo-Contour Reinforced TT). (b) Micro laryngeal (Mallinckrodt Microlaryngeal TT Cuffed). (c) Standard (Mallinckrodt Hi-Contour Cuffed TT). (d) Standard Profile Cuff (Portex Profile Soft Seal Cuff). (e) Preformed Polar North Facing Nasal (Portex Ivory PVC, North Facing, Nasal, Profile Soft Seal Cuff, Polar Preformed). (f) Preformed RAE South Facing Oral (Mallinckrodt Oral RAE TT Cuffed). (g) Laser (Mallinckrodt Laser TT Dual Cuffed). Reprinted from [
Maintenance of oxygenation and ventilation is the cornerstone of shared airway management in H&N surgery as these patients are at high risk of failed tracheal intubation and a “cannot intubate, cannot ventilate” situation. Traditional methods of increasing the apneic window during induction involve spontaneous facemask ventilation with 100 percent oxygen. Transnasal high-flow rapid insufflation ventilator exchange or THRIVE delivered through a nasal high-flow oxygen delivery system has been shown to increase the apnea time in a patient with difficult airway to an average of 14 minutes (Figure 6) [44]. THRIVE provides apneic oxygenation, continuous positive airway pressure to avoid atelectasis, as well as flow-dependent dead space and carbon dioxide flushing, and its role in difficult airway management is presently being studied. Alternatively, a pre-operative transtracheal jet ventilation (TTJV) cannula or an Arndt cricothyroidotomy catheter can be used for tracheal oxygen insufflation [45] to facilitate ventilation. For patients at risk of rapid desaturation or anticipated difficult airway, the provider may use the head-up position, then noninvasive ventilation (NIV) for preoxygenation followed by apneic oxygenation after induction of anesthesia.
The OptiFlow high-flow humidified oxygen delivery system. The oxygen humidification unit (a) receives oxygen from a standard oxygen regulator and delivers humidified oxygen to a custom-built transnasal oxygen cannula (b and c) like a standard nasal oxygen cannula (d). Reprinted from [
Various ventilatory techniques are applied to meet the demands of H&N surgery such as the type of surgery and the access required to the operative site. Following are the ventilator mode techniques used during laryngologic surgery
Type by technique | Type by location |
---|---|
• Conventional jet ventilation or LFJV (manual via high pressure manual jet) | • Supraglottic (via rigid ENT laryngoscope) |
• High Frequency jet ventilation via machine with low tidal volumes and high frequencies | • Subglottic (via special catheter) |
• Trantracheal (via cannula) |
Classification of jet ventilation.
A multimodal approach in the form of acetaminophen, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, gabapentin, opioids, and local as well as regional anesthesia can be given perioperatively. Post-operative patient-controlled analgesia can be considered with step down to oral opioids as required.
Patients who undergo H&N surgery are at high risk of postoperative nausea and vomiting and should be managed aggressively as it can result in increased morbidity. A multimodal approach to prophylaxis is essential, encompassing TIVA with intraoperative dexamethasone (8 mg Intravenous), 5-HT3 antagonist (e.g. ondansetron 4 to 8 mg intravenous), and utilization of multimodal analgesia to minimize opioid requirement.
Classes of antiemetics are
5-HT3 receptor antagonists (e.g. ondansetron)
Nk-1 receptor antagonists (e.g. aprepitant)
Corticosteroids (e.g. dexamethasone)
Butyrophenones (e.g. haloperidol)
Antihistamines (e.g. meclizine)
Anticholinergics (e.g. scopolamine)
Phenothiazines (e.g., metoclopramide)
The goals of safe emergence from anesthesia include smooth, rapid emergence and extubation, avoidance of straining, bucking, and coughing, and a complete, pain-free awakening. Extubation plan should be formulated thoroughly with the surgeons in the preoperative period. One may consider the extubation guidelines as outlined by the Difficult Airway Society of the United Kingdom or American Society of Anesthesiologists Practice Guidelines for the management of the difficult airway [46, 47]. In cases of anticipated post-operative airway complications, extubation may be delayed and patient should be transported to the intensive care unit. Extubation considerations should include the following options:
Fully awaken the patient and extubate immediately postoperatively
If anticipating airway compromise, admit to the intensive care unit for a delayed tracheal extubation
Conduct tracheostomy.
Enhanced recovery after surgery protocol should be applied to facilitate fast-track discharge as most of the H&N surgeries are done on an ambulatory basis [19]. Those patients who require post-operative airway management should be cared for in intensive care unit. Varadarajan and colleagues [48] proposed that any of the following could be indications for postoperative ICU admission:
Patients requiring post-op assisted ventilation
Patients requiring diagnostic or therapeutic bronchoscopy
Patients requiring invasive hemodynamic or cardiac monitoring such as in the setting of hemodynamic instability
Patients with multiorgan failure requiring critical care management.
Transoral robotic surgery is a minimally invasive surgical technique most widely used for radical tonsillectomy, oropharyngeal cancer resection, localization of occult primary head and neck tumors, supraglottic partial laryngectomy, and treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea [49]. TORS allows exceptional surgical treatment of head and neck pathology while minimizing morbidity and improving functional outcomes as compared with open surgical approaches. Anesthetic challenges include shared airway with a robot and limited access to the patient intraoperatively. Airway management includes nasal RAE or wire-reinforced endotracheal intubation and the use of TIVA with a combination of TCI propofol and remifentanil as the choice of anesthetic. Possible complications include pressure point injury and deep vein thrombosis due to prolonged surgery, risk of airway fire, aspiration, and post-operative bleeding. As TORS expands, local guidelines must be produced that support high standards of perioperative care [49, 50].
Laser surgery is employed to treat laryngeal pathoses such as papilloma, laryngomalacia, vocal cord cysts, vocal cord polyps and granulomas, and post-operative scar tissues. Laser micro laryngoscopy enables precise management of a wide range of upper airway conditions. The type of airway management required for laser surgery is determined by whether access is needed to the hypopharynx, supraglottis, larynx, or subglottis. Ventilatory techniques that may be used include continuous endotracheal intubation with specialized laser tubes, spontaneous ventilation with insufflation techniques, intermittent apneic technique, or jet ventilation (supraglottic or subglottic) and with TIVA. TIVA using propofol and remifentanil titrated to maintain spontaneous ventilation is an alternative technique. Laser-resistant endotracheal tubes are used as airway fire poses a major risk. For a fire to occur, the triad of fuel (e.g., ETT, drapes, sponges), oxygen, and ignition source is needed. The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) published an operating room fire algorithm that guides managing airway fires [51]:
Declare a fire and alert the team
Halt the procedure and the laser beam
Irrigate the surgical field with saline
Immediately cease airway gases/ventilation and remove ETT
Remove sponge and other flammable materials from the airway
Resume bag-mask ventilation and prepare for reintubation once the airway fire is extinguished
Examine the airway for evidence of debris, thermal injury, or foreign bodies and consider bronchoscopy
Functional endoscopic sinus surgery is an effective, low-risk procedure for chronic rhinosinusitis, nasal polyposis, epistaxis control, tumor excision, foreign body removal, treatment of sinus mucoceles, and more. Anesthetic considerations include local versus general anesthesia, supraglottic airway devices versus endotracheal intubation, inhaled anesthesia versus TIVA, and the preferences of the surgical team while taking the patient’s comorbidities into account. The main goals are to provide a bloodless surgical field, patient immobility, stable hemodynamic conditions, and smooth emergence. Different techniques are utilized to induce “controlled hypotension” which reduces bleeding and improves the surgical visual field. However, this procedure has potential major complications which include orbital hematoma resulting in blindness or reduced vision, cerebrospinal fluid leaks, renal or arterial injury, severe hemorrhage, and death.
Because oral cancers are associated with smoking and alcohol excess, cardiopulmonary compromise and malnutrition are more common comorbidities. Moreover, airway difficulty can arise due to distortion of the airway by the tumor or as a consequence of radiotherapy. Surgery is typically performed using general anesthesia with tracheal intubation (preferably nasal ETT) and invasive hemodynamic monitors depending on the extent of the surgery and the patient’s comorbidities. Hypotensive anesthesia is encouraged to reduce blood loss. Long-acting paralytics should be avoided when electromyography is employed, TIVA is often a preferred anesthetic choice. The application of ERAS to major head and neck cancer surgery has led to other guidelines for perioperative management.
Tissue transfer in the form of a pedicled or microvascular free flap is commonly employed to reconstruct defects following H&N cancer resection [52]. The graft may consist of soft tissues, bone, or both. Anesthetic management aims to maintain a full, hyperdynamic circulation with increased cardiac output, liberal fluid resuscitation, peripheral vasodilation, and normothermia to maximize flap perfusion. Hematocrit should be maintained at 30–35% to improve oxygen transfer and red cell velocity within the microcirculation. Vasoconstrictors are usually discouraged as they can contribute to graft ischemia. Intraoperative and postoperative flap monitoring is achieved clinically (by bedside examination of the flap color, temperature, turgor, edema, and capillary refill), and by using technical means such as Doppler ultrasound or near-infrared spectroscopy.
Craniofacial surgery addresses congenital or acquired deformities through cleft lip and palate repair, temporomandibular joint surgery, and orthognathic procedures. Obstructive sleep apnea and congenital airway deformormities is common in these patients. In general, nasal intubation is frequently preferred in orthognathic surgery. Submental intubation may be required if the nasal route is difficult or if the surgeon requires access to the upper portion of the face. In submental intubation, an incision is first made through the submental skin into the floor of the mouth. After routine oral intubation, the proximal end of the endotracheal tube is passed through the floor of the mouth out to the submental skin. The process is reversed at the end of the surgery and the patient is extubated orally. Bleeding is a potential risk that can be controlled by positioning the patient head up, ensuring free venous drainage, utilizing local anesthesia containing adrenaline, and utilizing controlled hypotension. Antibiotic prophylaxis, multi-modal analgesia, PONV prophylaxis, and steroids to reduce swelling are also important components of perioperative management.
Preemptive imaging of the airway is a valuable aide to traditional clinical airway evaluation for strategizing airway management. The NAP4 highlighted that 40% of the patients with head and neck pathology developed airway related complications. These failures were attributed to shortcomings in airway evaluation, planning, and adaptations of airway and anesthetic techniques according to the patient’s pathology. Virtual endoscopy (VE) has been utilized by radiologists for many years to assess, identify, and stage the various lesions. VE utilizes multidimensional CT images to construct 3D endoscopic images at various sites from the nasopharynx to a tracheobronchial tree [53]. VE enables computer-generated 3-dimensional portrayal of the airway cavity (Figures 7–9). Virtual endoscopy is a valuable and safe tool as it provides a complete, non-invasive, and anatomically accurate portrayal of the patient’s airway, starting from nasopharynx or oro-pharynx to the tracheobronchial tree. The virtual airway can be reconstructed from the patient’s pre-existing diagnostic CT images using the OsiriX software [54, 55, 56]. VE can contribute significantly to preemptive strategies against the NAP4 highlighted shortcomings and help improve overall patient outcome.
Supraglottic virtual endoscopy reconstruction showing the epiglottis [
Virtual endoscopy reconstruction showing the glottic opening [
Subglottic virtual endoscopy reconstruction showing the trachea [
The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a pandemic exposing many unprecedented challenges to health care systems. In head and neck procedures, health care staff are at a higher risk of contracting the virus as most examinations and procedures within the respiratory tract. Understanding how to mitigate the risks is critical. The British Otolaryngology Society and the American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy recommended mandatory personal protective equipment (PPE) use, procedures performed in negative-pressure rooms, and thorough decontamination of endoscopes, equipment, and rooms. All non-urgent surgery should be deferred to prevent consumption of emergency equipment and avoid outpatients spread. Airway management strategies should include designating experienced providers, closing circuits, intubating in negative pressure rooms, applying rapid sequence induction techniques, and minimizing bag-mask ventilation. All standard airway equipments should be available including bag-masks with High-Efficiency Particular Air (HEPA) filters, video laryngoscopes with disposable blades, ventilators, and tubes with inline adapter, HEPA filter, and clamp for ETT for application during tube disconnection to avoid aerosolization [57]. On the other hand, awake intubation should be avoided as coughing and bucking may promote aerosolization. THRIVE, jet ventilation, or open-circuit positive pressure ventilation are discouraged. Laser surgery or endonasal and otologic drilling should be avoided as viral particles can spread through plumes [58].
Head and neck surgery involves a wide range of procedures from the simple to the complex. Thus, it poses greater challenges to the anesthesiologist; he/she must optimize the patient’s comorbidities preoperatively, share the airway, implement different anesthesia and airway techniques specific to each surgery, and manage postoperative airway complications. Head and neck surgery patients often present with difficult airways due to the pathologies which impede the airway anatomy. Therefore, preoperative planning necessitates thorough history and physical examination with particular attention to the airway evaluation. High-risk patients should be identified preoperatively and medically optimized before surgery. A multidisciplinary approach and expertise in H&N anesthesia and advanced airway management should be encouraged as it decreases airway complications and improves surgical outcomes. The preoperative endoscopic airway examination is a useful aide in providing a real-time image of the upper airway and allows adequate preparation. General anesthesia with total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) is the anesthesia of choice as it offers quick titration of anesthesia, allows immobility, prevents postoperative nausea and vomiting, reduces blood loss by inducing controlled hypotension, and facilitates smooth and rapid emergence. Airway management planning also requires close communication and cooperation with the surgical team. Endotracheal intubation is a general considered in H&N surgery because it offers optimal airway control with adequate oxygenation, ventilation, and protection against aspiration. Video laryngoscopy is recommended in H&N surgery. Different ventilator techniques including jet ventilation should be considered in H&N surgery. Furthermore, multimodal analgesia, PONV prophylaxis, use of steroids to reduce airway edema, and antibiotic prophylaxis are essential components of intraoperative management. Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) guidelines in H&N surgery should be applied. The decision to admit a patient in the critical care unit postoperatively is based on the patient’s comorbidities, intraoperative events, complexities of the surgery, and requirements for airway support. Recent advances in airway management techniques (such as virtual endoscopy) and surgical techniques have been shown to improve the outcome.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Climate change including extreme weather and other associated events are representing challenges to agriculture of developing countries and global food security [1]. Crop production is very sensitive towards climate change. This is influenced by long-term trends in precipitation and average temperature, inter-annual climate variability, shocks in certain developmental stages and extreme weather events. Some plants are more tolerant towards certain types of stresses than others, and at each developmental stage, different types of stresses affect different plant species in different ways [2].
By 2050, it is expected that another 2.4 billion people be added to the population of developing countries of the world. Agriculture in developing countries is a key source of employment, but at present more than 20% of the population falls on an average, in the category of food-insecurity [3]. About 75% of the world’s poor population is residing in the rural areas, and again agriculture is their ultimate source of earning [4]. Enhancing agricultural productivity and incomes in the small-scale production sector is very important to mitigate poverty and achieve food security, as a key component and driver of economic transformation and development, and within the wider perspective of urbanization and advances in the non-farm sector. It is estimated that globally by 2050, agriculture sector must have to expand by 60% to meet the increasing demand due to continuously increasing human population, and it can only be possible by increasing crop productivity under climate change [5].
Change in temperature can occur in different forms like fluctuation in overall average temperature, changes in the day and night temperatures, or changes in time, duration and intensity of extreme cold or hot weather. Generally, plants have been more vulnerable to the elevated temperature during the reproduction as well as grain filling or ripening stages. Response of plants to increasing temperature is species specific and facilitated by photosynthetic activity for the accumulation of plant biomass which control the plant growth, as well as managed by all changes in plant morphology and physiology that occur during all day. All kind of temperature stresses have their different impacts on harvesting time as well as on productivity of the crops. The impact of stress depends upon the sensitivity of every particular species to its developmental stage to the fluctuation in temperature. A different kind of response mechanism is needed to adapt for these effects. Increase in temperature during the growing season of plants caused a high respiration rate which means a low amount of energy left for support and growth of plant. Even an increase of 1 °C in average temperature can cause the reduction of 5-10% in major food crops [6].
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach in which technological, strategic and investment conditions are developed to reach sustainable agricultural development for food security under climate change. The extent to which climate change is affecting agricultural systems necessitates ensuring comprehensive consolidation of these effects into national agricultural planning, investments and programs (Figure 1). CSA is transforming and reorienting sustainable agricultural systems to support food security under the new realities of climate change [8].
Climate smart agriculture [
CSA is striving to increase agricultural productivity in terms of climate smart crops, food security, and farmers’ adaptive capacity and lowering greenhouse gas emissions as well [9]. The main objectives of CSA are given below:
Sustainable increase of Food Security by agricultural productivity
Building resilience and adapting to climate change
Developing opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Agriculture is most important income source of around 75% of the world’s poor living in rural areas. To improve the livelihood of this population, growth in the agricultural sector is highly effective that will increase food security in countries with a high percentage of the population dependent on agriculture [10]. Increasing productivity as well as reducing costs is important means of attaining agricultural growth which is possible through increased resource-use efficiency. “Yield gaps “is the difference between the yields that farmers obtain from their farms and the maximum yield potentials of that cultivar and such yield gaps are quite substantial for small farmers in developing countries [11]. Similar is the case with livestock productivity. Reducing these gaps by enhancing the productivity and efficiency of soil, fertilizer, water, livestock feed and other agricultural inputs, much higher returns can be obtained from this sector which in turn will reduce poverty and increase food availability. These same measures can often result in lower greenhouse gas emissions compared with past trends.
In the recent 5th assessment report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it has been revealed that the impacts of climatic changes have been observed in different regions of the world. Results showed that drastic impacts of climate changes were more often as compare to the positive ones and underdeveloped countries have shown more vulnerability for the further negative effects of changing climate on agriculture [12]. In medium to long term, when average as well seasonal maximum temperature continuously increase, it led to a high average of rainfall, but these impacts are not distributed evenly as globally wet regions and seasons have higher rainfall as compare to the dry regions and seasons [13]. An increased frequency and intensity of extreme events like drought, high temperature, high rainfall and subsequent floods, have already been observed. Exposure of these increased climatic risks have already been observed in the different parts of the world, these risks put significant threat to potential for increased food security as well as reducing the poverty among the agriculture dependent populations having low-income. Formulation and implementation of effective adaptation strategies required to reduce and even to avoid these drastic impacts of climate change. According to the site-specific impacts of climate change, accompanied with a wide range of agro ecologic variations and farming, fishery system, and livestock, an effective adaption strategy will vary even with in country. For starting the development of an effective site-specific adaptation strategy, multiple potential measures have been identified already. These effect measures include enhancement of reliance of agro-ecosystems, through enhancing the ecosystem services by using landscape approaches as well as principles of agro ecology. Decreasing the risk exposure by building an input supply system, using the diversification of incomes or production, and by extension services for timely and efficient use of inputs, use of stress resistant or tolerant varieties, livestock breeds, use of forestry species and fishes, are some of the examples of that can be used to increase resilience.
Agriculture as well as has land use changes become a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, almost a quarter of overall anthropogenic GHG emissions has been produced from agriculture sector. Agriculture mainly contributes in GHS emissions through crop and livestock sectors, also it is the major factor of increasing deforestation as well as degradation of peat land. Under the business-as-usual growth of agriculture, non-CO2 emissions of agriculture sector are expected to increase. But there are multiple ways to reduce the emission of these gases from agricultural sector. Sustainable intensification is one of the main strategies of agricultural mitigation can reduce the emission intensity (e.g. the CO2 eq/unit product) of these gases. But this process includes the application of new techniques that can increase the efficacy of inputs used so that agricultural outputs increased more as compare to the emission increase [14]. Another significant pathway to reduce the emission is high carbon sequestration rate from agriculture sector. Plants as well as soils have ability to remove the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store into their biomass, this phenomenon is called carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration can be performed through increased tree cover in livestock and in crop systems (e.g. Agroforestry) and by reducing the soil disturbance (e.g. reduced tillage). Still this kind of emission reduction might not be permanent as stored CO2 can be released if trees are cut or soil plowed. In spite of following challenges, high carbon sequestration has a significant potential of mitigation, particularly when the agricultural practices which generates the sequestration have also been important role in adaptation of food security. CSA pathways based on impact of climate change on agriculture are given in Figure 2.
CSA agriculture pathways [
Climate change effects on crop production have shown to have a strong and consistent global trend, which may have implications for food supply. Because of short-term supply fluctuations, the reliability of whole food systems could be jeopardized because of climate change. At regional scales, however, the potential effect is less obvious, but climate instability and transition are likely to intensify food insecurity in areas that are already vulnerable to hunger and malnutrition. Similarly, it is expected that food access and use will be influenced indirectly by collateral effects on household and individual incomes, and that food consumption will be hampered by a lack of access to drinking water and health problems. The evidence suggests that significant investment in adaptation and mitigation measures is needed to create a "climate-smart food system" that is more resilient to the effects of climate change on food security [16]. Food chain from pre-production to consumption has been elaborated in Figure 3.
Food chain from pre-production to consumption.
Due to climatic changes overall crop production system has affected, ultimately causing a challenge to global food security. But the more severe impact of these changes has been observed in underdeveloped countries. Over the next decade it is predicted that billions of people, particularly from underdeveloped countries may encountered with water as well as food scarcity, accompanied with a high risk to the life and health due to climate changes. Developing countries are more prone to the changing climatic conditions as these countries lack in social, financial as well as technological resources, which required facing the climate change [17].
Environmental conditions always cast an impact on either the succession or failure of crops, while the management of stresses caused due to these changes has been part of multidisciplinary studies. Global crop production system has shown continuous susceptibility to the risks of changing climatic conditions. Now farmers have been facing severe challenges than the normally experienced, due to changing climatic conditions. Global climatic conditions became extreme like, warmer temperatures, increased coastal waters, heavy precipitation, and geographical shifts in drought as well as storm patterns [18].
It is estimated that climatic changes may cause a considerable decrease in maize production in southern Africa. It may also cause up to 10% decrease in staple crops of south Asia, including rice while more than 10% decrease in millet and maize production [19]. With a slight increase of 1-3°C in the mean local temperature of some moderate- to high latitude areas, productivity may also be increased, depending on the crop. In contrasting, in areas of lower latitudes productivity of crop decreased with the even slightest change in relative temperature range [20].
Unpredictable seasonal as well annual, fluctuations have been observed in crop production system due to the abrupt outbreaks of disease and pest and other extreme events. This require an efficient adaptable management response towards these changing scenarios [21].
Agriculture crop production is facing a number of impacts due to climate change in the components of weather/climate such as temperature, precipitation, cyclones, sea level etc. (Table 1).
Event | Potential impact |
---|---|
Day and night temperature increased over most of the land areas as cold periods become shorter and warmer (virtually certain) | High yields in low temperature areas; while in high temperature areas yield reduces; increased outbreaks of different new insect pests as well as pathogens causing notable effect on crop production. |
High frequency of precipitation over most areas (very likely) | Crop damages; soil erosion; waterlogged soils making land unable for cultivation |
Increased drought affected areas (likely) | Soil erosion and degradation; reduced yields due to crop failure or damage; arable soil loss |
Increased tropical cyclone frequency (likely) | Crop damage |
Extremely increased level of sea water (excludes tsunami) (likely) | Saline irrigation water, fresh and estuaries water systems; arable land loss. |
Impacts of climate change on crop production [22].
Climate change, which includes high temperatures and drought, is projected to have a detrimental effect on plant agronomic conditions as well as soil nutrients, diseases, and pests. As a result, climate-resilient varieties with broad spectrum and long-term tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses are required. The new genetic engineering method for crop enhancement is precise genome editing [23]. Climate change has put a pressure on researcher, farmers and scientists working in the field of agriculture to adopt new technologies to cope with the prevailing issues (Figure 4). For targeted genome editing in plants, several techniques have been developed, including zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), TAL effector proteins (TALENs), RNA directed nucleases (RGENs), and CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)/Cas9 (CRISPR associated protein 9. Both of these approaches depend on the creation of double stranded breaks at particular loci and the activation of the DNA repair system [24].
Impact of climate change on agriculture.
Crops with higher yields and greater resistance to abiotic stress are needed to meet the demands of a growing global population and the effect of climate change on agriculture. Traditional crop improvement through genetic recombination or random mutagenesis, on the other hand, is a time-consuming process that cannot keep up with rising crop demand. Genome editing techniques including clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein (CRISPR/Cas) allow for selective alteration of almost any crop genome sequence to generate novel variation and speed up breeding efforts. We anticipate a gradual transition away from conventional breeding and toward selective genome editing cycles in crop improvement. Crop enhancement by genome editing is not limited by existing variation or the need to pick alleles through several breeding generations. However, the lack of full reference genomes, a lack of awareness of possible modification goals, and the legal status of edited crops restrict current crop genome editing applications. We believe that overcoming the technological and social barriers to genome editing’s implementation will allow this technology to produce a new generation of high-yielding, climate-ready crops [25]. At our lab, we are using different online platforms such as CHOPCHOP, CRISPR-P, MultiTargetor etc, and reagents provided by Addgene, Vectorbuilder, GeneCopoeia, Nootropics Frontline etc. for genome editing in crops.
Gene silencing is a method of down regulating (or ‘turning off’) specific genes via the over expression of RNA sequences (RNAi), which prevents a gene’s functional expression. Even though it has been available for many years, it is increasingly being used as a method for shutting off specific genes. Future food protection applications may involve shutting off pathogen attack receptors or stress response elements, which could be extremely useful in the face of climate change. Gene editing is a technique for making precise, targeted changes in genomes at a scale of one or a few nucleotides. Using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and the CAS9 nuclease, transcriptional activator-like effectors’ nucleases (TALEN), two alternative systems currently provide state-of-the-art protocols for achieving these small-scale genomic adjustments. Precise genomic modification using CRISPR has been likened to a ‘find and replace’ function [26]. To precision edit genomes, TALENS employs a nuclease system based on the fusion of transcription activator-like effectors with target DNA binding domains and an endonuclease cleavage domain. Variable DNA binding domain sequences, like CRISPR/CAS9, enable different genomic targets to be addressed. In rice and wheat, the TALENS system has been effective in conferring powdery mildew resistance [27].
To monitor plant responses or stimulate pathogen resistance, RNA spraying technology topically applies complex synthetic RNA to surfaces, such as plant leaves. RNA spraying technology is known to be under investigation by a number of agricultural biotechnology firms. Since there is no alteration to the plant genome, RNA spraying eliminates the need for genetic modification in such applications. Instead, plant cells take up the sprayed synthetic RNA, temporarily silencing specific genes before the effect wears off, which can take anywhere from a few days to three months [28].
The sustainable use of plant genetic resources can help in adapting and mitigating the effects of climate change.
The sustainable utilization of plant genetic assets includes evaluation of genetic traits; identification of desirable traits; plant breeding, including epigenomics; variations in crop production; advancement and commercialization of hybrids; sustainable seed production and supply chain system; and establishment of new business sectors for the distribution of local varieties and related products. These exercises can play a key role to address the effects of climate change on sustainable crop production.
The sustainable utilization of plant genetic assets includes evaluation of genetic traits; identification of desirable traits; plant breeding, including epigenomics; variations in crop production; advancement and commercialization of hybrids; sustainable seed production and supply chain system; and establishment of new business sectors for the distribution of local varieties and related products. These exercises can play a key role to address the effects of climate change on sustainable crop production.
In their local production environments, farmer varieties and landraces are well adapted to current conditions and proved to be a successful source for adaptive genes in crop improvement [29]. However, they may lose this adaptation in the changing climatic conditions [30]. It may not be a practical solution to introduce more suitable crop varieties from elsewhere [31]. For this purpose, the only viable solution may be the breeding of new varieties. More genetic vulnerability renders crop potentially more susceptible to the impact of climate change. By incorporating novel traits into cultivars, this genetic vulnerability may be reduced. These novel traits are often found in wild relatives of the crops [32]. Pre-breeding is a source of introduction novel alleles from wild cultivars into crop varieties [33]. In this technique, intermediate materials are generated that are used as parents in plant breeding. Diversity and geographical locations of crop wild relatives and landraces can remotely be determined by using predictive characterization tools based on eco-geographic and climate data [34]. This method is known as the Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategy. In the changing climatic conditions, it would be a challenge for breeders and geneticists to increase the yields of major food crops or even maintain them that will definitely depend on their ability to improve local varieties by introducing adaptive traits through breeding [35]. It is also of much importance for the farmer community to actively participate in the varietal development process to increase the adoption rates of new varieties [36]. Use of a wide range of methodologies is required to develop crop varieties that are tolerant toward climate change induced stresses [37]. These methodologies include induced mutations, biotechnological applications, including cell and tissue biology, marker assisted selection and genetic engineering; and novel plant breeding techniques, including genome editing procedures. With the help of such techniques, Scuba Rice, a flood-tolerant variety of rice was developed for the flood prone areas, such as those found in Bangladesh, India and the Philippines. This is an excellent example of the successful breeding of a crop variety that supports climate-smart agriculture. In these areas where such extreme challenges are faced by crops, adoption of climate-ready varieties is expected to increase because of climate change. There are many neglected and underutilized edible plant species that are resilient and adapted to marginal areas [38]. For example, Moringa (Moringa oleifera), Yam bean (Pachyrhizuserosus) and Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) etc. It would be strategically important to replace staple crops such as maize, with drought-resistant crops, such as cassava and millets in drought-prone regions of the world. However, this climate-smart agricultural adaptation strategy would only be possible if farmers are willing to adopt these new crops. Farmers can only get benefit from this strategy if the seed and planting materials of such crops are available in right quantity and quality and at an acceptable cost. The effectively availability of such resources is much important for these diverse crops and crop varieties to contribute to climate change adaptation and sustain rural livelihoods [39]. Variety approval and release procedures, seed production, quality control, and its marketing are important components of seed delivery systems. These systems usually fall under national and international policies and regulations, that involve diverse actors, such as government authorities, community-level cooperatives, private firms, input dealers, and contracted growers.
As compared to climate change mitigation, the contribution of plant genetic resources to climate adaptation process is more result oriented. However, to mitigate climate change, a number of strategies can improve the sequestration of greenhouse gases. More cultivation of C4 plants may be one of these strategies to maintain or increase carbon content in plants, such as maize, sugarcane, millets and sorghum [40]. It is found through various studies that increased carbon sequestration capacity through improved photosynthesis, is a heritable and it can be improved through conventional breeding [41].
Through breeding, improved varieties have been developed that are more productive and sequester more carbon. Legumes crops including pulses such as lentil, garden pea, chickpea, pigeon pea, groundnut etc., have diverse nitrogen-fixing capacity. Improved nitrogen fixation is also correlated with increased carbon sequestration, that’s why cultivation of pulses and other legumes would provide additional support for the mitigation of climate change [42].
Crop production system has continuously been evolving from beginning of domestication of different crop species, almost 10,000 years ago. Crop production has improved and still improving through different means including, varietal selection, improved irrigation and crop planting methods, efficient use of cropping patterns and fertilizers, using the wild plants and wild relatives. In recent times crop production has relatively enhanced significantly which ultimately provides more food for a continuously increasing global population.
Green revolution has been a best and well documented example of improvement in crop production which revolutionized the crop production system almost in all developing countries during 1960s. Planting high-yielding varieties of crop and also using chemical and improved irrigation methods were the main components of green revolution. In the result of this, production of cereal food crops was increased over 2.2 billion tonnes from 800 million tonnes during the period from 1961 to 2000. It is estimated that almost one population of one billion was saved from famine due to this green revolution, but it costs a high price in the long run. Intensive cropping for several decades has caused a loss of fertility of agricultural soils, ground water depletion; induce resistance in pests, decreased biodiversity as well as air, soil and water pollution. But now this paradigm should be shifted to a new, as intensive cropping systems has not been sustainable and this is what Save and Grow – i.e. sustainable crop production intensification – is about [43].
It means a productive agricultural system not only conserve but also enhances the natural resources using an ecosystem approach which exploits the natural biological processes and inputs. This system not only reduces the negative impact on our environment but also enhances the flow of ecosystem services as well as natural capital. SCPI has also been contributing in the increasing of flexibility of system which is a critical factor, particularly under the aspect of climate change. SCPI can be achieved using better farming practices which are based on the improved efficiencies and well managed biological processes. It has been based on the agricultural production systems as well as management practices which include:
maintaining the soil health to increase soil-related ecosystem services as well as crop nutrition.
cultivate a diverse range of species and varieties with associations, rotations, and sequences.
use of quality planting materials and seeds of high-yielding, and well adapted, varieties.
integrated management of pest, diseases, and weeds; and
efficient use of water.
SCPI has climate smart approaches and practices of crop production. Sustainable crop production systems have presupposed to address the vulnerabilities as well as risks caused by the climate changes. CSA has same purpose of achieving food security as the sustainable agriculture, using its own perspective of climate change. From crop production to preparation of land, crop planting and harvesting are basic parts of a farming system which ultimately form a broader agro-ecosystem and landscape. An actual crop is only one part of this agro-ecosystem. But crops may also be the integral part of other production systems like, agroforestry, rice-fish system and integrated crop livestock system. Other parts of agro-ecosystems include soil, biodiversity as well as ecosystem services.
Climate changes have been affecting the spread as well as the formation of different types of disease pests, and weeds. This phenomenon has a large consequence of change in the distribution as well as health of the naturally occurring plants, natural predators, hosts and adaptive variations in agricultural management. With an increase of globalization of trade as well as germplasm exchange, following changes present the pest control with new challenges. Integrated pest management (IPM), an ecosystem approach used for crop production as well as crop protection. This technique has based on the considerations of all possible pest control techniques. IPM considers the use of all possible and appropriate means, to prevent the development of pest population ultimately maintaining the levels of pesticide to economically justifiable limit. Thus, decreasing the risks to human health as well as to the environment through minimize agricultural ecosystem disturbance. Making comprehensive decisions at the field level have been essential for effective IPM [44].
Conservative agriculture is technique which involves the covering of maintained land, reduced soil disturbance, and diversifying crop production. Even though conservation agriculture approach was developed to minimize soil erosion as well as to restore the degraded soils, but it also provides strategic initial base point for adaption against climate changes. Conservative agriculture focusses on the reproducing most stable soil ecosystem which can be attain in any agricultural ecosystem to minimize the dependence of producer on the external inputs to full fill the plant nutritional requirements and pest control (Figure 5). BY covering the soil, loss of soil moisture can be minimized; soil temperature can be stabilized, low erosion by water and wind, restoration of the soil carbon through plant debris breakdown and also provide the food material for beneficial soil organism. Using crop rotation and diversification technique disease and pest population will be minimized and soil nutritional value increase. Populations of different soil dwelling animals like earthworms, millipedes, and mites can be flourishing by avoiding mechanical tillage. These micro faunae will take over tillage and improve soil structure by building soil porosity. Conservation agriculture includes the surface organic matter. Soil aggregate improved through the excrement of these soil organisms, while worms create vertical channels which help in the removal of excess water. Soil micro fauna introduce their organic matter which helps in improvement of soil organic quality, structure and capacity to store water ultimately helping to survive under longer drought periods. Conservation agriculture system has ability to mitigate the climate change as untreated soil can work as carbon sink by storing and sequestering carbon. Untreated soil may also reduce the quantity of agriculture required to produce crops, ultimately reducing the fuel consumption [45].
Sustainable soil management.
Both public as well as private benefits can be obtained through SLM innovations, making them a potential tool of finding the ‘win-win’ solutions for poverty, environmental issues and food scarcity. Farmers as a private beneficiary of SLM will get an increased productivity, lower costs, better production stability through growing as well as conserving natural capital (like water resources, soil organic matter, and different types of biodiversity). Through SLM practices soil fertility improved by using large quantity of biomass, reducing the soil disruption, conservation of water and soil, an increased activity as well as diversity of soil fauna, and supporting the elemental cycling mechanism. All this led to improved plant nutritional quality, high water retention ability, and improvement in soil structure contributing to increased yields as well as high resilience, ultimately resulting in improved food as well as livelihood [46].
Loss of water can be countered and an improved water management can be achieved by the means of water and soil conservation; either by reduce irrigation which helped to maximize the yield per volume of water used; or through using more efficient irrigation technologies that can minimize the unproductive water loss through evaporation. Buy to attain a high irrigation efficiency and addition energy costs also required, because expansion of irrigation should have to be accompanied by the precise energy technologies (e.g. solar pumps). Strategy development and decision making for the water management and control should be accompanied with the water balance analysis, as for understanding of the impact of changes in water usage in agriculture on the water cycle, a precise assessment of water balance is required for both filed as well as catchment levels. But in upstream areas, introduction of rainwater harvesting technique on a large scale could adversely affects the downstream water users by affecting the groundwater recharge and flux.
Changing climate, sustainable crop production and mitigation in agriculture are linked with each other. The management of ago-ecosystems for production of food, fodder and fuel as well as for management for adaption and mitigation to the changing climate have same fundamental principles and can also work together to attain the same goal: by ensuring the availability of enough, nutritious food for present as well as for future. A resilient ecosystem required for adaption and mitigation to changing climate as well as for crop production, this can be attain using practices and approaches basically based on the ecosystem services and sustainable management of biodiversity (Figure 6).
Agro-ecosystem-based cropping system approach.
Climate smart crop production system is same as the sustainable crop production system as both concerned with climate change. Different opportunities for adaption to climate change and mitigation through contribution to the maintenance and delivery of different public goods like clean water, flood protection, carbon sequestration, ground water recharge and landscape amenity has been provided by sustainable agriculture system. Sustainable agriculture system has been less vulnerable to the stresses and shocks. Productive and sustainable agriculture systems make of the best crop varieties, livestock breeds as well as their biodiversity, agroecological and agronomic management [47].
The drastic impact of climatic changes on crop productivity has already been felt by agriculture sector. For example, in India, production of rice has been decreased 23% during the period of 2001-2002 due to water scarcity [48]. In Indonesia, about 1 344 million tonnes production of rice has been lost due to flooding [49]. While in Mississippi state of the USA, an estimated loss of up to US$ 8 billion were recorded due to flooding before the harvest season in 2008 [50].
For the security of future food production, crop production system needs to be adopted and mitigated the climate changes. To contrast the impacts of climate change, a better understanding of biological processes (below and above ground) which are involved in farm management practices, is needed. For this purpose, ecosystem management should integrate the different measures for building the resilience and mitigating risk in agriculture. All these elements have become critical under the changing climatic conditions. Biodiversity is essential to maintain the key functions of ecosystem (its structure and process) and to provide vital ecosystem services. It’s a significant regulator of agro-ecosystem functions, not only due to its impact on production, but also for filling a variety of needs of the farmers as well as society at large. Biodiversity not only can increase the resilience of agro-ecosystems, but also act as means of risk reducing and adapting to the climate change. Agro-ecosystem managers, including the farmer, can enhance, build upon and manage the essential ecosystem services which have been provided by the biodiversity their efforts for a sustainable agricultural production system.
Sustainable farming practices have support both above and below ground cropping systems as well as management of ecosystem services. The nature of associated diversity (plant, microbial animals) can be influenced by the diversity and composition of planned biodiversity (e.g. selected crops) ultimately affecting delivery of ecosystem services. An ecosystem approach means that, to integrate the planned biodiversity that has been maintained through associated diversity e.g. more soil coverage and perennial cultivation, high on-farm plant diversity throughout the agro-ecosystem (e.g. resistance against noxious species).
Crop production plays a vital role under climate change by providing opportunities in adapting and mitigating the effects of climate change. Both the principles of sustainable crop production and the approaches for climate change adaptation and mitigation are in line. Climate-smart agriculture actually moves the agriculture from an unstable system towards a more efficient, resilient and sustainable system with the help of naturally auto-control mechanisms. Practices and approaches of climate smart crop production can be utilized by farmers, but the implementation of climate change adaptation and mitigation options not only rely on purely technical basis, but they also depend on social support from the population involved. It is very important to facilitate the farmers by giving the opportunities that are sustained by research institutions and policy. Well-built agricultural policies and research institutions at country level are crucial to counteract the effects of climate change in agricultural production systems and generating the income of the rural population, especially in developing countries. Strong government commitment is a dire need of the moment to formulate or adapt agricultural policies to overcome or minimize the impacts of climate change on crop production. Climate-smart systems are not only important in responding to changing climates especially to the increased unpredictability but can also contribute to mitigate any further change in the climate, thus making these systems more efficient, sustainable and productive. A production system can only be a climate smart, if it is productive and sustainable at the same time.
Modern technological tools such as gene editing, gene silencing and DNA sequencing have revolutionized crop improvement programs in terms of production. Information can be revealed that how plant responses towards stress by using genomics tools and this information can be translated to climate resilient crop. With the help of genomics, molecular markers that are linked to important agronomic traits can be identified; thus, helping to improve crop varieties in terms of quality production, stress tolerance and disease resistance. All these technologies will help to make the world more food secured.
An integrated approach is required to face the challenges of food security under climate change from global to local level as well as from research to policies and investment level. The whole agricultural sector can be shifted onto climate smart agriculture pathways with right policies, practices and investments. It will increase the food security by decreasing the impacts of climate change to global food security on long term.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81713",title:"Transition Metals-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks, Synthesis, and Environmental Applications",slug:"transition-metals-based-metal-organic-frameworks-synthesis-and-environmental-applications",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104294",abstract:"This work illustrates examples of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) derived from transition metals and their environmental applications in areas of catalysis, sorption, and hydrogen evolution. Explanation of some of the techniques employed for their synthesis has been discussed. On the other hand, the advantages of the use of hybrid materials such as the metal-organic frameworks are exposed in this book as well a detailed description of the different linkers and metals used for the synthesis of this kind of porous materials going through the methodologies and techniques utilized by different authors to obtain good-quality crystalline applicable materials. Adjustments of linker geometry, length, ratio, and the functional group can tune the size, shape, and internal surface property of an MOF for a targeted application. The uses of MOFs are exploring new different areas of chemistry such as catalysis, adsorption, carrier systems, hydrogen evolution, photocatalysis, and more. Different examples of MOFs from Scandium to Zinc are well described in this book, and finally, a brief description of some common environmental applications such as metals and azo dyes sorption, hydrogen evolution, and catalyst in the transesterification process of vegetable oils to produce biodiesel is explored and commented.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Lidia E. Chiñas-Rojas, Guadalupe Vivar-Vera, Yafeth F. Cruz-Martínez, Seth Limón Colohua, José María Rivera and Eric Houbron"},{id:"81810",title:"Water Shortages: Cause of Water Safety in Sub-Saharan Africa",slug:"water-shortages-cause-of-water-safety-in-sub-saharan-africa",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103927",abstract:"This chapter highlights a high rate of water crisis across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) despite its huge hydro. For example, currently, less than 2% of SSA\\'s renewable groundwater is used to irrigate just about 1% of its cultivable land. Factors contributing to water stress include rainfall deficit and drought, increased water requirements, population growth, urbanization poverty. Coupled with the uneven distribution of water resources and mismanagement of water facilities, the gap between the demand for water and available supply in SSA has deepened. This has led almost half of the SSA population to drink water from unprotected sources. Moreover, many millions travel far distances and spend several hours daily to collect water. Children and women are mainly involved in water collection. The growing scarcity of water in Africa has a negative impact on economic growth. Besides, water shortages are at the heart of many social crises, and have become directly or indirectly the first cause of death in Africa linked to waterborne diseases. The prevailing water-related diseases include malaria, typhoid fever, cholera, poliomyelitis, etc. To attain the African agenda 2063, national governments in SSA need a multidisciplinary approach integrating supervising informal settlements of the population in urban and peri-urban areas; improving water storage capacity; and increasing irrigation potential for agriculture and having a good understanding of the epidemiology of waterborne diseases.",book:{id:"11131",title:"Drought - Impacts and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11131.jpg"},signatures:"Chelea Matchawe, Patrice Bonny, Germaine Yandang, Huguette Cecile Yangoua Mafo and Bonglaisin J. Nsawir"},{id:"81819",title:"Value-Added Products from Natural Gas Using Fermentation Processes: Fermentation of Natural Gas as Valorization Route, Part 1",slug:"value-added-products-from-natural-gas-using-fermentation-processes-fermentation-of-natural-gas-as-va",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103813",abstract:"Methanotrophic bacteria can use methane as their only energy and carbon source, and they can be deployed to manufacture a broad range of value-added materials, from single cell protein (SCP) for feed and food applications over biopolymers such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) to value-added building blocks and chemicals. SCP can replace fish meal and soy for fish (aquacultures), chicken and other feed applications, and also become a replacement of meat after suitable treatment, as a sustainable alternative protein. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) like PHB are a possible alternative to fossil-based thermoplastics. With ongoing and increasing pressure towards decarbonization in many industries, one can assume that natural gas consumption for combustion will decline. Methanotrophic upgrading of natural gas to valuable products is poised to become a very attractive option for owners of natural gas resources, regardless of whether they are connected to the gas grids. If all required protein, (bio)plastics and chemicals were made from natural gas, only 7, 12, 16–32%, and in total only 35–51%, respectively, of the annual production volume would be required. Also, that volume of methane could be sourced from renewable resources. Scalability will be the decisive factor in the circular and biobased economy transition, and it is methanotrophic fermentation that can close that gap.",book:{id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas - New Perspectives and Future Developments",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg"},signatures:"Maximilian Lackner, David Drew, Valentina Bychkova and Ildar Mustakhimov"},{id:"81797",title:"Study of Change Surface Aerator to Submerged Nonporous Aerator in Biological Pond in an Industrial Wastewater Treatment in Daura Refinery",slug:"study-of-change-surface-aerator-to-submerged-nonporous-aerator-in-biological-pond-in-an-industrial-w",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104860",abstract:"Daura refinery, with a capacity of 140,000 barrel per stream day as a refining capacity, wastewater discharged from refining and treatment processing units, polluted water as foul water, drainages, oil spills, blowdown of boilers and cooling towers, and many other polluted water sources, aims to remove pollutants and reject clean water to the river; wastewater treatment system takes place in this treatment process. Wastewater treatment system suffers from many problems and specifically biological stage; at this stage, activated sludge with bacteria, should be supplied with oxygen, aeration system done by surface aerators with four surface fans; these fans suffer from high vibration, loss support, and in consequence, lack in oxygen supply to aerobic bacteria less than 4 ppm. The nonporous aerator is suggested as an oxygen source for the biological pool. The pilot plant builds the aim to study the ability to apply the new aeration system at the biological pool, pilot plant build with 1 cubic meter capacity tank and continuous overflow of wastewater of 10 liters.min−1, air injected with the pressure of (0.5–0.75) bar(g), and airflow of (7.6–9.7) liter.min−1 respectively. Oxygen concentration was recorded as (3.4–6.0) ppm; in terms of consumption power, changing the aeration system reduces it to less than 20%.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Omar M. Waheeb, Mohanad Mahmood Salman and Rand Qusay Kadhim"},{id:"81815",title:"The Cytological Mechanism of Apospory in Paspalum notatum Analyzed by Differential Interference-Contrast Microscopy",slug:"the-cytological-mechanism-of-apospory-in-paspalum-notatum-analyzed-by-differential-interference-cont",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104575",abstract:"Bahia grass (Paspalum notatum Flugge) is an important tropical forage grass and sets seed by apospory. I) To clarify the mechanisms of aposporous embryo sac initial cell (AIC) appearance and apomictic embryo sac formation, and II) to make it clear the mechanism of multiple embryo seed set a development in polyembryonic ovules, several apomictic and sexual varieties of bahia grass were studied cytologically and quantitatively by Nomarski differential interference-contrast microscopy. The results were I) there was no difference between sexual and apomicts to megasporogenesis; and then, the megaspore degenerated in apomicts; at the same time, AIC originated from nucellar tissue appeared and its numbers increased as the ovary grew before anthesis; II) at anthesis, the sac derived from AIC located in the micropylar end (first sac) were 92.5 to 100%, and those in the chalazal ends (other sacs) were 40.4 to 86.0% among the apomicts; the first sac divided dominantly and were 56 to 87% comparable to 0 to 1% of the other sacs at 4 days after anthesis; however, 4 to 17% of the other sacs also showed embryo formations but endosperm. In final, the first sac occupied the whole space of the ovule, in which the embryos in the other sacs coexisted.",book:{id:"11146",title:"Electron Microscopy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11146.jpg"},signatures:"Lanzhuang Chen and Liming Guan"},{id:"80460",title:"A Criticality Study of Fast Critical Experimental Benchmarks Using MCNP Code to Qualifying Different Evaluations",slug:"a-criticality-study-of-fast-critical-experimental-benchmarks-using-mcnp-code-to-qualifying-different",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102449",abstract:"In this chapter we present our MCNP modeling, concerning fast critical experimental benchmarks, about qualifying our libraries of cross-sections deduced from the evaluations ENDF/B-VII, JEFF-3.1, JENDL-3.3, JENDL-4 processed by the code NJOY. The benchmarks analyzed are characterized by simple geometries which help to have a precise calculation. In our neutron calculation, we used the MCNP code (version 5), the reference code for the neutron transport calculation with the Monte Carlo method. It is also very efficient for criticality calculation. The cross-section data for all the isotopes that make up the material of the studied benchmarks are processed in ACE format at 300 K temperature using the NJOY 99.9 modular system. A detailed comparison of the criticality results of our simulation was carried out to highlight the influence of these evaluations on the keff calculations.",book:{id:"11501",title:"Qualitative and Computational Aspects of Dynamical Systems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11501.jpg"},signatures:"Sanae El Ouahdani, Hamid Boukhal, El Mahjoub Chakir, Ahmed Gaga, Houda Elyaakoubi, Mustapha Makhloul, Abdelaziz Ahmed, Abdessamad Didi and Mohamed Bencheikh"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:755},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/270605",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"270605"},fullPath:"/profiles/270605",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()