More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\n
IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7044",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Liver Cancer",title:"Liver Cancer",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book offers remarkable coverage of liver cancer from etiology to prevention and treatment. It provides an updated and new vision of this major cancer that continues to affect hundreds of thousands of people and remains one of the leading causes of cancer deaths around the world. To ensure the high quality of this book, important insights are included and rigorously discussed in a simple and authentic way. The book includes detailed and updated descriptions of the main causes of liver cancer and also the prevention and treatment of this disease. This book is a relevant source of knowledge, very useful for researchers, medical doctors, medical residents, students, healthcare providers, public health decision makers, and all individuals interested in the prevention of this disease.",isbn:"978-1-78984-449-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-448-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-754-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73806",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"liver-cancer",numberOfPages:186,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"6eba0444c02b59c08c06a5f0c54a113c",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar",publishedDate:"November 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7044.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4818,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32546/images/system/32546.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Ahmed Lasfar is a member of the Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Principal Investigator and a faculty member at Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, New Jersey. Dr. Lasfar laboratory focuses on Interferon, Cancer and Immunology. Dr. Lasfar serves as Editor of several international journals and books. He is a Board member and Reviewer of many journals and foundations. He also serves as a Scientific Adviser for pharmaceutical industry. Dr. Lasfar graduated in France from Paris Rene Descartes University on medical and applied science. He completed his doctoral studies in Immunology at Paris Diderot University in a joint program with Pasteur Institute and his postdoctoral training in cancer immunology with Dr. Sidney Pestka at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Jersey.",institutionString:"Rutgers University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1078",title:"Gastrointestinal Oncology",slug:"gastrointestinal-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"64087",title:"Introductory Chapter: Liver Cancer, Risk Factors and Current Therapies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81720",slug:"introductory-chapter-liver-cancer-risk-factors-and-current-therapies",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ahmed Lasfar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64087",authors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar"}],corrections:null},{id:"62719",title:"Pathogenesis of Hepatitis B Virus Associated Chronic Liver Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79746",slug:"pathogenesis-of-hepatitis-b-virus-associated-chronic-liver-disease",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Mark A. Feitelson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62719",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62719",authors:[{id:"252092",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",surname:"Feitelson",slug:"mark-feitelson",fullName:"Mark Feitelson"}],corrections:null},{id:"63081",title:"HCC in Elderly Patients. Curative Intraoperative Strategies and Management in Recurrences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79748",slug:"hcc-in-elderly-patients-curative-intraoperative-strategies-and-management-in-recurrences",totalDownloads:418,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Stefania Brozzetti, Simone Bini, Leonardo Luca Chiarella, Katia\nFazzi, Michele Di Martino and Mario Bezzi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63081",authors:[{id:"252047",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefania",surname:"Brozzetti",slug:"stefania-brozzetti",fullName:"Stefania Brozzetti"},{id:"252284",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",surname:"Bini",slug:"simone-bini",fullName:"Simone Bini"},{id:"252285",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonardo Luca",surname:"Chiarella",slug:"leonardo-luca-chiarella",fullName:"Leonardo Luca Chiarella"},{id:"252289",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",surname:"Fazzi",slug:"katia-fazzi",fullName:"Katia Fazzi"},{id:"252440",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",surname:"Di Martino",slug:"michele-di-martino",fullName:"Michele Di Martino"},{id:"252441",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",surname:"Bezzi",slug:"mario-bezzi",fullName:"Mario Bezzi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63803",title:"Surgical Resection in HCC",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81345",slug:"surgical-resection-in-hcc",totalDownloads:546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kevin Labadie, Kevin M. Sullivan and James O. Park",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63803",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63803",authors:[{id:"253481",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"James",surname:"Park",slug:"james-park",fullName:"James Park"},{id:"258475",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Labadie",slug:"kevin-labadie",fullName:"Kevin Labadie"}],corrections:null},{id:"62944",title:"Novel Techniques in the Surgical Management of Hepatocellular Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79982",slug:"novel-techniques-in-the-surgical-management-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:395,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Vasileia Ntomi, Anna Paspala and Dimitrios Schizas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62944",authors:[{id:"203349",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",surname:"Schizas",slug:"dimitrios-schizas",fullName:"Dimitrios Schizas"},{id:"254619",title:"MSc.",name:"Vasileia",surname:"Ntomi",slug:"vasileia-ntomi",fullName:"Vasileia Ntomi"},{id:"254620",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",surname:"Paspala",slug:"anna-paspala",fullName:"Anna Paspala"}],corrections:null},{id:"63150",title:"Metabolic Risk Factors in Hepatocellular Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80527",slug:"metabolic-risk-factors-in-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:458,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Andra-Iulia Suceveanu, Laura Mazilu, Andreea-Daniela Gheorghe,\nAnca Pantea Stoian, Felix Voinea and Adrian-Paul Suceveanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63150",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63150",authors:[{id:"165823",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Andra-Iulia",surname:"Suceveanu",slug:"andra-iulia-suceveanu",fullName:"Andra-Iulia Suceveanu"},{id:"166632",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian-Paul",surname:"Suceveanu",slug:"adrian-paul-suceveanu",fullName:"Adrian-Paul Suceveanu"},{id:"202493",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Voinea",slug:"felix-voinea",fullName:"Felix Voinea"},{id:"206380",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Mazilu",slug:"laura-mazilu",fullName:"Laura Mazilu"},{id:"222779",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"andreea-gheorghe",fullName:"Andreea Gheorghe"},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian"}],corrections:null},{id:"63142",title:"What Chinese Medicine Can Do for Liver Cancer?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80061",slug:"what-chinese-medicine-can-do-for-liver-cancer-",totalDownloads:606,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Feiyu Chen, Ning Wang and Yibin Feng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63142",authors:[{id:"14428",title:"Prof.",name:"Yibin",surname:"Feng",slug:"yibin-feng",fullName:"Yibin Feng"},{id:"175059",title:"Dr.",name:"Ning",surname:"Wang",slug:"ning-wang",fullName:"Ning Wang"},{id:"262796",title:"MSc.",name:"Feiyu",surname:"Chen",slug:"feiyu-chen",fullName:"Feiyu Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"62856",title:"Interaction of Mitochondrial and Epigenetic Regulation in Hepatocellular Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79923",slug:"interaction-of-mitochondrial-and-epigenetic-regulation-in-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:502,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Victoria Chagoya de Sánchez, Enrique Chávez, Gabriela Velasco-\nLoyden, María Guadalupe Lozano-Rosas and Alejandro Rusbel\nAparicio-Cadena",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62856",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62856",authors:[{id:"100474",title:"Dr.",name:"Victoria Chagoya De",surname:"Sanchez",slug:"victoria-chagoya-de-sanchez",fullName:"Victoria Chagoya De Sanchez"},{id:"264471",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Chávez",slug:"enrique-chavez",fullName:"Enrique Chávez"},{id:"264472",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Velasco-Loyden",slug:"gabriela-velasco-loyden",fullName:"Gabriela Velasco-Loyden"},{id:"264476",title:"MSc.",name:"María Guadalupe",surname:"Lozano-Rosas",slug:"maria-guadalupe-lozano-rosas",fullName:"María Guadalupe Lozano-Rosas"},{id:"264478",title:"Mr.",name:"Alejandro Rusbel",surname:"Aparicio-Cadena",slug:"alejandro-rusbel-aparicio-cadena",fullName:"Alejandro Rusbel Aparicio-Cadena"}],corrections:null},{id:"63171",title:"Biologic and Immunotherapy Developments in Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79872",slug:"biologic-and-immunotherapy-developments-in-advanced-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mohammad Telfah, Mohammed Al-Jumayli and Anwaar Saeed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63171",authors:[{id:"254897",title:"Dr.",name:"Anwaar",surname:"Saeed",slug:"anwaar-saeed",fullName:"Anwaar Saeed"},{id:"263408",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Telfah",slug:"mohammad-telfah",fullName:"Mohammad Telfah"},{id:"263409",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Jumayli",slug:"mohammed-al-jumayli",fullName:"Mohammed Al-Jumayli"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8002",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db17b0fe0a9b6e80ff02b81a93bafa4e",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8002.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"655",title:"Colorectal Cancer Biology",subtitle:"From Genes to Tumor",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9395fca282ee086f4d33451bca1eadbc",slug:"colorectal-cancer-biology-from-genes-to-tumor",bookSignature:"Rajunor Ettarh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/655.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78549",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajunor",surname:"Ettarh",slug:"rajunor-ettarh",fullName:"Rajunor Ettarh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"744",title:"Neuroblastoma",subtitle:"Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"771ff9574ef2d155e663e4af7244d5ce",slug:"neuroblastoma-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Shimada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/744.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77693",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",surname:"Shimada",slug:"hiroyuki-shimada",fullName:"Hiroyuki Shimada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"696",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Basic Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"893673ea2bfb1c196266aa55ae52f1f0",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-basic-research",bookSignature:"Wan-Yee Lau",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73356",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph W.Y.",surname:"Lau",slug:"joseph-w.y.-lau",fullName:"Joseph W.Y. Lau"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"968",title:"Liver Tumors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c355dccfbd1d32c73d4574411deb20b5",slug:"liver-tumors",bookSignature:"Alexander Julianov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/968.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94330",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Julianov, M.D., Ph.D., F.A.C.S.",slug:"alexander-julianov-m.d.-ph.d.-f.a.c.s.",fullName:"Alexander Julianov, M.D., Ph.D., F.A.C.S."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"763",title:"Pancreatic Cancer",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanism and Targets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"580ba59e1d406efa850f806203741251",slug:"pancreatic-cancer-molecular-mechanism-and-targets",bookSignature:"Sanjay K. Srivastava",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/763.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69661",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanjay",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"sanjay-srivastava",fullName:"Sanjay Srivastava"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2074",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e44ea288d672335fae678cae2a26f36",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Wan-Yee Lau",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2074.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73356",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph W.Y.",surname:"Lau",slug:"joseph-w.y.-lau",fullName:"Joseph W.Y. Lau"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"426",title:"Management of Gastric Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"50917471fa400fb3c0d29d04c5855cf6",slug:"management-of-gastric-cancer",bookSignature:"Nabil Ismaili",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/426.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68661",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",surname:"Ismaili",slug:"nabil-ismaili",fullName:"Nabil Ismaili"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"184",title:"Gastric Carcinoma",subtitle:"Molecular Aspects and Current Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9049d6b6738d15c2bfb94d32b8e7780",slug:"gastric-carcinoma-molecular-aspects-and-current-advances",bookSignature:"Dr.Mahmoud Lotfy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/184.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"44863",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Lotfy",slug:"mahmoud-lotfy",fullName:"Mahmoud Lotfy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3401",title:"Advances in the Scientific Evaluation of Bladder Cancer and Molecular Basis for Diagnosis and Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db12d9fb9793bf86edb8b4dfa03e388a",slug:"advances-in-the-scientific-evaluation-of-bladder-cancer-and-molecular-basis-for-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Raj Persad and Weranja Ranasinghe",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3401.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70414",title:"Mr.",name:"Raj",surname:"Persad",slug:"raj-persad",fullName:"Raj Persad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74026",slug:"corrigendum-to-calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",title:"Corrigendum to: Calf-Sex Influence in Bovine Milk Production",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74026.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74026",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74026",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74026",chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"1532",leadTitle:null,title:"Semiconductor Laser Diode",subtitle:"Technology and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book represents a unique collection of the latest developments in the rapidly developing world of semiconductor laser diode technology and applications. An international group of distinguished contributors have covered particular aspects and the book includes optimization of semiconductor laser diode parameters for fascinating applications. \nThis collection of chapters will be of considerable interest to engineers, scientists, technologists and physicists working in research and development in the field of semiconductor laser diode, as well as to young researchers who are at the beginning of their career.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0549-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4996-5",doi:"10.5772/1999",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"semiconductor-laser-diode-technology-and-applications",numberOfPages:390,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67c029e3a582411c5f9ab3a7dc28884f",bookSignature:"Dnyaneshwar Shaligram Patil",publishedDate:"April 25th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1532.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:58399,numberOfWosCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfTotalCitations:51,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 4th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2012",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"106345",title:"Prof.",name:"Dnyaneshwar",middleName:"Shaligram",surname:"Patil",slug:"dnyaneshwar-patil",fullName:"Dnyaneshwar Patil",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/106345/images/2754_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. D. S. Patil has been graduated from Poona University with a rank. He received the M.Sc. degree in Electronics Science with a first class in 1986 from the Poona university department of Electronics-Science. He secured M.C.M. degree with A+ grade from Poona University and the Ph.D. degree in Electronics from the North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon [Maharashtra], India. He qualified state eligibility test in Electronics in 1995. Since 1991, he has been working in the North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon and presently working as a Professor. He secured high school scholarship, national merit scholarship and received Rashtriya gaurav award sponsored by India International Friendship Society. He successfully completed a major Young scientist project from Department of Science and Technology, India. His name has been considered in the Steering committee as a member for the International Conference on Nanoscience and Technology 2008, Colarado, United States of America, International vacuum Congress, China 2010. He worked on the various committees of the universities. He has published about 157 papers in reputed journals and proceedings of the conferences. His research interests include the computer simulation of semiconductor, nano and optoelectronics devices, nano-electronics, Materials development and characterization for the nano-technological and optoelectronics applications, process automation using advanced microcontrollers and embedded systems, organic electronics and computer simulation of nanostructures including quantum dots and superlattice. He has developed with his research student a novel model of probability density spreading in GaN quantum wells. He has developed with research students, computer controlled dip coating system and microcontroller based spin coating system for the deposition of nano-materials. He has guided many students for their innovative research. He visited France and Germany to attend international conferences and present his papers. Moreover, he visited Technical University, Zurich, Switzerland to know the various activities and research carried out in Electronics Technology department. He worked as a reviewer for many reputed international journals. He has delivered many invited talks and popular lectures. He developed the Electronics Practical laboratory and curriculum as a first member of Electronics Department and framed syllabus of M.Phil. (Electronics) and M.Sc.(Electronics). Despite of this, he taught various courses to M.Tech. (VLSI Technology), M.C.A and B.Tech.(Chemical Technology). Recently, his name has been considered in Marscue Who’s who in the world.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"North Maharashtra University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1226",title:"Optoelectronics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optoelectronics"}],chapters:[{id:"35899",title:"Effect of Cavity Length and Operating Parameters on the Optical Performance of Al0.08In0.08Ga0.84N/ Al0.1In0.01Ga0.89N MQW Laser Diodes",slug:"effect-of-cavity-length-and-operating-parameters-on-the-optical-performance-of-al0-08in0-08ga0-84n-a",totalDownloads:3587,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"104427",title:"Dr.",name:"Alaa J.",surname:"Ghazai",slug:"alaa-j.-ghazai",fullName:"Alaa J. Ghazai"}]},{id:"35900",title:"Electrical Transport in Ternary Alloys: AlGaN and InGaN and Their Role in Optoelectronic",slug:"electrical-transport-in-ternary-alloys-algan-and-ingan-and-their-role-in-optoelectronic",totalDownloads:4838,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"100925",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadia",surname:"Bachir",slug:"nadia-bachir",fullName:"Nadia Bachir"},{id:"109209",title:"Prof.",name:"Chabane Sari",surname:"Nasr Eddine",slug:"chabane-sari-nasr-eddine",fullName:"Chabane Sari Nasr Eddine"},{id:"109215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamdoune",surname:"Abdelkader",slug:"hamdoune-abdelkader",fullName:"Hamdoune Abdelkader"}]},{id:"35901",title:"Carrier Transport Phenomena in Metal Contacts to AlInGaN-Based Laser Diodes",slug:"carrier-transport-phenomena-in-metal-contacts-to-alingan-based-laser-diodes",totalDownloads:2121,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"103499",title:"Prof.",name:"Joon Seop",surname:"Kwak",slug:"joon-seop-kwak",fullName:"Joon Seop Kwak"}]},{id:"35902",title:"Characterization Parameters of (InGaN/InGaN) and (InGaN/GaN) Quantum Well Laser Diode",slug:"characterization-parameters-of-ingan-ingan-and-ingan-gan-quantum-well-laser-diode",totalDownloads:3442,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"106453",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabah",surname:"Thahab",slug:"sabah-thahab",fullName:"Sabah Thahab"}]},{id:"35903",title:"Analysis of Coherence-Collapse Regime of Semiconductor Lasers Under External Optical Feedback by Perturbation Method",slug:"analysis-of-coherence-collapse-regime-of-semiconductor-lasers-under-external-optical-feedback-by-per",totalDownloads:2447,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"111141",title:"Dr.",name:"Qin",surname:"Zou",slug:"qin-zou",fullName:"Qin Zou"}]},{id:"35904",title:"DFB Laser Diode Dynamics with Optoelectronic Feedback",slug:"dfb-laser-diode-dynamics-with-optoelectronic-feedback",totalDownloads:3677,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"102474",title:"Dr.",name:"M. H.",surname:"Shahine",slug:"m.-h.-shahine",fullName:"M. H. Shahine"}]},{id:"35905",title:"Ultra-Wideband Multiwavelength Light Source Utilizing Rare Earth Doped Femtosecond Fiber Oscillator",slug:"ultra-wideband-multiwavelength-light-source-utilizing-rare-earth-doped-femtosecond-fiber-oscillator",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"14201",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulaiman Wadi",surname:"Harun",slug:"sulaiman-wadi-harun",fullName:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun"},{id:"102667",title:"MSc.",name:"Nurul Shahrizan",surname:"Shahabuddin",slug:"nurul-shahrizan-shahabuddin",fullName:"Nurul Shahrizan Shahabuddin"},{id:"110438",title:"Dr.",name:"Marinah",surname:"Othman",slug:"marinah-othman",fullName:"Marinah Othman"}]},{id:"35906",title:"Low Frequency Noise Characteristics of Multimode and Singlemode Laser Diodes",slug:"low-frequency-noise-characteristics-of-multimode-and-singlemode-laser-diodes",totalDownloads:2032,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"104384",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Pralgauskaite",slug:"sandra-pralgauskaite",fullName:"Sandra Pralgauskaite"},{id:"104388",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonas",surname:"Matukas",slug:"jonas-matukas",fullName:"Jonas Matukas"},{id:"104390",title:"Prof.",name:"Vilius",surname:"Palenskis",slug:"vilius-palenskis",fullName:"Vilius Palenskis"}]},{id:"35907",title:"Investigation of High-Speed Transient Processes and Parameter Extraction of InGaAsP Laser Diodes",slug:"investigation-of-high-speed-transient-processes-and-parameter-extraction-of-ingaasp-laser-diodes",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"104388",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonas",surname:"Matukas",slug:"jonas-matukas",fullName:"Jonas Matukas"},{id:"104390",title:"Prof.",name:"Vilius",surname:"Palenskis",slug:"vilius-palenskis",fullName:"Vilius Palenskis"},{id:"105381",title:"Prof.",name:"Juozas",surname:"Vysniauskas",slug:"juozas-vysniauskas",fullName:"Juozas Vysniauskas"},{id:"105392",title:"MSc.",name:"Tomas",surname:"Vasiliauskas",slug:"tomas-vasiliauskas",fullName:"Tomas Vasiliauskas"},{id:"105396",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilis",surname:"Sermuksnis",slug:"emilis-sermuksnis",fullName:"Emilis Sermuksnis"}]},{id:"35908",title:"Spectral Narrowing and Brightness Increase in High Power Laser Diode Arrays",slug:"spectral-narrowing-and-brightness-increase-in-high-power-laser-diode-arrays",totalDownloads:3256,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"105997",title:"Dr.",name:"Niklaus",surname:"Wetter",slug:"niklaus-wetter",fullName:"Niklaus Wetter"}]},{id:"35909",title:"Tunable Dual-Wavelength Laser Scheme by Optical-Injection Fabry-Perot Laser Diode",slug:"tunable-dual-wavelength-laser-scheme-by-optical-injection-fabry-perot-laser-diode",totalDownloads:2217,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"106255",title:"Prof.",name:"Chien-Hung",surname:"Yeh",slug:"chien-hung-yeh",fullName:"Chien-Hung Yeh"}]},{id:"35910",title:"The Coherent Coupled Output of a Laser Diode Array Using a Volume Bragg Grating",slug:"the-coherent-coupled-output-of-a-laser-diode-array-using-a-volume-bragg-grating",totalDownloads:2334,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"111287",title:"Dr.",name:"Bo",surname:"Liu",slug:"bo-liu",fullName:"Bo Liu"}]},{id:"35933",title:"Laser Diode Pump Technology for Space Applications",slug:"laser-diode-pump-technology-for-space-applications",totalDownloads:3793,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"109008",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony W.",surname:"Yu",slug:"anthony-w.-yu",fullName:"Anthony W. Yu"},{id:"110631",title:"Ms.",name:"Elisavet",surname:"Troupaki",slug:"elisavet-troupaki",fullName:"Elisavet Troupaki"},{id:"110632",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark A.",surname:"Stephen",slug:"mark-a.-stephen",fullName:"Mark A. Stephen"},{id:"110633",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksey A.",surname:"Vasilyev",slug:"aleksey-a.-vasilyev",fullName:"Aleksey A. Vasilyev"}]},{id:"35934",title:"Monitoring of Welding Using Laser Diodes",slug:"monitoring-of-welding-using-laser-diodes",totalDownloads:2404,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"107571",title:"Dr.",name:"Badr",surname:"Abdullah",slug:"badr-abdullah",fullName:"Badr Abdullah"}]},{id:"35935",title:"The Development of Laser Diode Arrays for Printing Applications",slug:"the-development-of-laser-diode-arrays-for-printing-applications",totalDownloads:3033,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"106897",title:"Dr.",name:"Olek",surname:"Kowalski",slug:"olek-kowalski",fullName:"Olek Kowalski"}]},{id:"35936",title:"High-Power Pulsed 2-μm Tm3+-Doped Fiber Laser",slug:"high-power-pulsed-2-m-tm3-doped-fiber-laser",totalDownloads:2883,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"5449",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianqiu",surname:"Xu",slug:"jianqiu-xu",fullName:"Jianqiu Xu"},{id:"110808",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",surname:"Tang",slug:"yulong-tang",fullName:"Yulong Tang"}]},{id:"35937",title:"Advances in High-Power Laser Diode Packaging",slug:"advances-in-high-power-laser-diode-packaging",totalDownloads:7249,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"113389",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronnie",surname:"Teo",slug:"ronnie-teo",fullName:"Ronnie Teo"}]},{id:"35938",title:"Laser Diode Gas Spectroscopy",slug:"laser-diode-gas-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:2025,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"103920",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Pineda-Vadillo",slug:"pablo-pineda-vadillo",fullName:"Pablo Pineda-Vadillo"}]},{id:"35939",title:"CW THz Wave Generation System with Diode Laser Pumping",slug:"cw-thz-wave-generation-system-with-diode-laser-pumping",totalDownloads:2907,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"106244",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",surname:"Ragam",slug:"srinivasa-ragam",fullName:"Srinivasa Ragam"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1505",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3305b759b0efc22e8ed16e9048818817",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",bookSignature:"Viacheslav Kazmiruk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1505.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100815",title:"Dr.",name:"Viacheslav",surname:"Kazmiruk",slug:"viacheslav-kazmiruk",fullName:"Viacheslav Kazmiruk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2397",title:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bcc83fcd6b4bbfdaa677b37d94bdbdb6",slug:"advanced-aspects-of-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10",title:"Coherence and Ultrashort Pulse Laser Emission",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1bd25a76712d1cb8792820acf2ff001",slug:"coherence-and-ultrashort-pulse-laser-emission",bookSignature:"F. J. Duarte",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13752",title:"Dr.",name:"F. J.",surname:"Duarte",slug:"f.-j.-duarte",fullName:"F. J. Duarte"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2018",title:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9f4716122beee57c42cff13c357a2cb",slug:"recent-progress-in-optical-fiber-research",bookSignature:"Moh. Yasin, Sulaiman W. Harun and Hamzah Arof",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"294347",title:"Dr.",name:"Moh",surname:"Yasin",slug:"moh-yasin",fullName:"Moh Yasin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3166",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Advanced Materials and Devices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7263978cf34e637a4b9592eb4975f3e",slug:"optoelectronics-advanced-materials-and-devices",bookSignature:"Sergei L. Pyshkin and John M. Ballato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergei",surname:"Pyshkin",slug:"sergei-pyshkin",fullName:"Sergei Pyshkin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2245",title:"Plasmonics",subtitle:"Principles and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e74f79681a8c87bb027f48ad33a3e068",slug:"plasmonics-principles-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ki Young Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2245.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12009",title:"Dr.",name:"Ki Young",surname:"Kim",slug:"ki-young-kim",fullName:"Ki Young Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3710",title:"Advances in Solid State Lasers",subtitle:"Development and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-solid-state-lasers-development-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mikhail Grishin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3710.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4862",title:"Mr.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Grishin",slug:"mikhail-grishin",fullName:"Mikhail Grishin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"256",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Materials and Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c0d6a2a51ac114edd58f2c667297503",slug:"optoelectronics-materials-and-techniques",bookSignature:"Padmanabhan Predeep",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36735",title:"Prof.",name:"P.",surname:"Predeep",slug:"p.-predeep",fullName:"P. Predeep"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3581",title:"Recent Optical and Photonic Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"recent-optical-and-photonic-technologies",bookSignature:"Ki Young Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3581.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12009",title:"Dr.",name:"Ki Young",surname:"Kim",slug:"ki-young-kim",fullName:"Ki Young Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"525",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Devices and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f444b982565b0c4be6117a35f7810047",slug:"optoelectronics-devices-and-applications",bookSignature:"Padmanabhan Predeep",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/525.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36735",title:"Prof.",name:"P.",surname:"Predeep",slug:"p.-predeep",fullName:"P. Predeep"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"17588",title:"Delignification Process of Agro-Industrial Wastes an Alternative to Obtain Fermentable Carbohydrates for Producing Fuel",doi:"10.5772/22381",slug:"delignification-process-of-agro-industrial-wastes-an-alternative-to-obtain-fermentable-carbohydrates",body:'
1. Introduction
Fossil fuels, mainly petroleum, coal, and natural gas, were the main energy sources for most industries during the 20th century, and are still the most important feedstocks to produce energy in the world. “Currently, the world energy market worth around 1.5 trillion dollars is dominated by fossil fuels” (Goldemberg, 2006). However, these sources are not longer regarded sustainable, and their availability is much lower. Shafiee and Topal (2009) predicted that oil, coal and gas reserves will last around 35, 107 and 37 years for petroleum, coal and natural gas, respectively. In addition their combustion involve environmental issues such as global warming due to greenhouse gas emissions (Naik et al., 2010). Therefore, the interest for questing sustainable and environmental energy sources has risen in the last two decades; giving origin to the production of fuels from renewable feedstocks, such as biomass. These feedstocks are commonly divided in three categories: wood, residues from agricultural, industrial or domestic origin, and energy crops from dedicated farming (Bringezu et al., 2007).
The use of these renewable resources to produce fuel has created two different generations in biofuel production. The first biofuel generation is based on grain or food sources, and is constituted mainly by ethanol, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), and pure plant oil (PPO) (Bringezu et al., 2007). However, environmental impacts, energy efficiency, and eutrophycation have limited the production of these first generation biofuels. In addition, land competition of energy crops with food crops has arisen a fuel-versus-food debate exacerbated by the increase of food prices, particularly those of maize, wheat, sugar beet, cassava, sweet sorghum, sugarcane, oilseed rape, soybean and oil palm (Börjesson & Tufvesson, 2011; Vries et al., 2010). For example, the United States Department of Energy reported that in 2005 the bioethanol production reached about 15 billion litters for which nearly 36 MMt of maize, 13% of total US maize crops, were used. These values were estimated to double in 2010 by the Renewable Fuel Association (Cassman & Liska, 2007).
The second generation of biofuels is produced from non-grain and non-food sources such as lignocellulosic sources and algae biomass (Naik et al., 2010; Simmons et al., 2008). Lignocellulosic feedstocks include agro-industrial by-products, perennial grasses, vegetable and wood residues. They can be burned to produce heat and electricity and also be used to obtain liquid fuels (Naik et al., 2010). Wastes and by-products from agro-industrial processes such as coconut shells, rice husks, sugarcane bagasse, corncob and corn stover among many others, are abundantly produced in the world daily and have modest if any applications. These wastes and by-products are rich sources of cellulose and hemicellulose, which constitute important substrates in fermentative processes directed to biofuel production. However, as opposed to sugarcane juice or maize starch, these substrates are not readily available. The structural carbohydrates in the plant cell wall are wrapped up in lignin, which is an inert polymer that protects the plant and consequently constitutes an important barrier to fermentation. Therefore, a very effective way but not the only option to significantly increase biomass digestibility is lignin degradation or separation (delignification). The operation is aimed to increase the digestibility of constituent sugars through increment in gross material pore size (Sierra et al., 2008). It is challenging due to the recalcitrance of lignin and may require expensive chemicals and relatively high temperatures and pressures for acceptable reaction rates. Otherwise, at mild conditions (i.e. use of microorganisms or purified enzymes) it takes long times. Other ways to increase lignocelluloses digestibility include partial to total solubilization of hemicelluloses, and separation acetyl groups that link hemicellulose and lignin (Zhu et al., 2008). Crystallinity reduction of cellulose fibrils is sought because low crystallinity results in more reactivity; however, after delignification and sugar degradation with chemicals, an increased crystallinity is usually observed (Chang & Holtzapple, 2000). This increase is attributed to a preferential degradation of amorphous cellulose and less ordered crystalline forms during chemical pretreatment. A common method to obtain a significant reduction in crystallinity is sudden release of reactor vapor pressure. This operation is known as steam explosion.
The operations aimed to turn lignocellulose digestible through either of the mechanisms described above are widely known as “pretreatments”. They typically start with size reduction by chipping and grinding. In addition to being a rate-limiting step, a chemical pretreatment increases the cost of bioethanol production due to the high-energy requirements of heating and mechanical size reduction. Energy consumption during size reduction of wood may surpass 0.1—0.4 MJ/kg, which is the required energy consumption to achieve sensible net energy output from wood to ethanol production (Kumar et al., 2009).
Chemical separation of lignin and carbohydrates can be achieved through the use of acids, alkalies, and solvents, which promote selective solubilisation of either component. If acidic, carbohydrates solubilise; if alkaline, lignin degrades and solubilises (Mosier et al., 2005); if with solvents –widely known as organosolv pretreatment– carbohydrates solubilise (Zhao et al., 2009). Chemical processes may not be as selective as biological processes but may represent advantages related to required time, scalability, and process control.
Biological delignification can be conducted using either microorganisms, which produce a set of enzymes that work synergically, or purified enzymes. The most widely used microorganisms are fungi from the Basidiomysetes family. Nevertheless, bacteria from Pseudomonas, Flavobacteria, Xanthomonas, Bacillus, Aeromonas and Cellulomonas strains can also decompose lignin and its derivatives. Biological lignin degradation can be conducted by culturing the microorganism in submerged, semisolid or solid cultures where enzymes such as lignin peroxidase, xylanase, laccase, and manganese peroxidase (among others) perform selective lignin degradation.
In this chapter, the reactions that lead to delignification of feedstocks in several different choices of chemical and biological pretreatments are discussed. In addition, other compositional changes during pretreatment are briefly reviewed. Although some basic chemical aspects related to lignocelluloses compositional analysis is presented here, it is out of the scope of this chapter to make a deep chemical discussion on this subject. All throughout the text, the reader is referred to several recent reviews and key articles for more detailed discussions.
2. Generalities of lignocellulosic compounds
Lignocellulose is the major renewable organic matter with an estimated production of about 200 x 109 tons per year (Reddy & Yang, 2005). This is mainly constituted by lignin and cell wall polysaccharides such as cellulose, pectins, and hemicelluloses, which may be valuable substrates for biofuels production. Lignin is found in the cell wall and sometimes within woody tissue in quantities that vary widely depending on the type of plant, the part of the plant, and its age. Klason lignin is reported to range between 8 and 22% for herbaceous crops and between 19 to 30% for woody crops (Hatakeyama & Hatakeyama, 2005). Lignins are complex natural polymers resulting from oxidative coupling of, primarily, 4-hydroxyphenylpropanoids. The monomers conforming lignin are p-coumaril, conyferil, and sinapyl alcohols. They differ from each other in the degree of methoxylation (Fig. 1). The proportion in which they are present in lignin varies widely depending on the type of plant. These monomers produce p-hydroxyphenyl, guaiacyl, and syringyl phenylpropanoid units (Fig. 1), which are capable of generating electron delocalized radicals that couple at various sites (Boerjan et al., 2003). These monomers can form under different chemical routes dimmers or participate in lignifications. Some basic linkages between lignin monomers are illustrated in Fig. 1. For a deeper discussion refer to Boerjan et al. (2003).
Cellulose is constituted entirely by glucan chains linked by (14) bonds which interact with each other via hydrogen bonds (Keegstra, 2010). Hemicelluloses on the other hand, are constituted by backbones of glucose (14) linked, mannose, and xylose with an equatorial configuration. Consequently, hemicelluloses include xylans (mainly), glucans, mannans, glucomannans, and xyloglucans (Scheller & Ulvskov, 2010).
Lignin molecular mass ranges from 103 and 105 depending on plant species and variations. The reported values may also be influenced by extracting or processing methods and analytic techniques. Soluble lignin presents a discrete maximum absorbance at 205 or 280 nm, with an extinction coefficient (ε) varying according to the lignin source and the used solvent. It also presents a characteristic fluorescence with a broad maximum emission ranging from 400 to 500 nm, depending on the excitation wavelength. Lignin is an amorphous polymer and presents a broad distribution of molecular arrangements, with intra- and intermolecular distances that can vary from 0.40 to 0.98 nm. The glass transition of lignin in solid state does not present first order thermodynamic transitions; and at temperatures lower than the decomposition temperature, lignin can adopt a glassy or rubbery state. It has been shown that the heat capacity and intermolecular distance increase at the glass transition temperature (Tg). Also, Tg increases linearly with increments in lignin molecular weight, and strongly depends on the thermal history of the lignin sample. For example, Tg in kraft lignin is close to 100 °C, while it varies between 70 to 85 °C for hydrolysis lignin. Since the solidification rate affects the enthalpy of glassy lignin, enthalpy of the glassy state decreases when a lignin sample is slowly cooled from the melt. On the other hand, if the sample is quenched, the enthalpy increases since molecular chains are more randomly frozen than those of slowly glassified samples. Then, in samples below Tg the measured enthalpy of glassy polymers decreases as a function of time. This is called enthalpy relaxation, which is monitored through heat capacity change at glass transition.
Figure 1.
Lignin monomers p-coumaril (a), conyferil (b) and sinapyl (c) alcohols, and their units inside lignin p-hydroxyphenyl (d), guaiacyl (e), and syringyl (f). Major structural units of lignin and presence in softwood (sw) and hardwood (hw), (g) -O-4 unit (- aryl ether), sw: 50 % and hw: 60 %; (h) -5 (-O-4) unit (phenylcoumaran), sw: 11% and hw 6 %; (i) - unit (resinol), sw and hw ~ 2 %; (j) [5-5/-O-4(-O-4)] unit (dibenzodioxocin); (k) 4-O-5 unit (biphenyl ether), sw and hw ~ 5 %; (l) 5-5 unit (biphenyl), sw: 18 % and hw: 10 % (Boerjan et al., 2003; Dimmel, 2010).
2.2. Chemical composition of agro-industrial wastes and by-products
Knowledge of chemical components of agro-industrial wastes produced worldwide should precede any attempt for fuel production. Although it is difficult to establish the major agro-industrial crops and their by-products generated worldwide, this work presents in Table 1 a selection of agro-industrial by-products based on their use for bioethanol production, and major crops reported by the FAO (2008) for the most populated countries in the word (China, India, US, Indonesia, Brazil, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Russia and Japan). This is according to the Population Reference Bureau (PRB, 2010).
3. Biological delignification
The production of alcohols from lignocellulosic materials involve two steps: 1) the hydrolysis of macromolecules (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and xylose) to release the carbohydrates that are further depolymerized to produce free sugars, and 2) the fermentation of these free sugars (Martinez et al., 2009; Perez et al., 2002). Among the lignocellulose constituent macromolecules, lignin is the most recalcitrant due to its amorphous hydrophobic heteropolymeric nature (Martinez et al., 2009). Although chemical/thermal processes allow good delignification levels, biodelignification has mild reaction conditions, higher product yields, few side reactions, less energy demand, and less reactor requirements to resist pressure and corrosion, which makes the bio-delignification a promissory pre-treatment for the production of biofuels. However, bio-delignification takes much longer than chemical or thermal processes, usually 8-12 weeks (Yu et al., 2010a), showing the importance of exploring new microorganisms, and the improving of culture conditions. Tables 2 and 3 summarize some fungi and bacteria used for bio-delignification of lingocellulosic materials.
3.1. Delignifying enzymes
Bio-delignification can be produced by the action of lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), laccase, and versatile peroxidase (VP). Although up to now it has not been described a microorganism producing all the ligninolytic enzymes, the presence of two or more enzymes have been associated with higher delignification levels than those observed with the isolated enzymes showing the synergistic action of this set of enzymes (Costa et al., 2002; Gonçalves et al., 1998; Kannan et al., 1990).
3.1.1. Lignin peroxidase
LiP [EC 1.11.1.14] has been mainly isolated from Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Nevertheless, LiPs have been also found in other white- and brown-rot fungi strains, Aspergilllus strains, and bacteria such as Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Streptomyces viridosporus and Streptomyces lividans (Crawford et al., 1993; Ghodake et al., 2009; Zerbini et al., 1999). LiPs are glycosilated enzymes of about 340 amino acids with a molecular weight between 38 and 50 kDa, a single heme, and two calcium ions (Hammel & Cullen, 2008; Sinclair et al., 1992). LiPs isozymes of P. chrysosporium are encoded by a family of 10 closely related and well-characterized genes (Hammel & Cullen, 2008), while in Trametes versicolor the LiP gene is arranged into a gene cluster encoding for two LiP and one MnP (Johansson & Nyman, 1996), and bacterial LiP seems to be encoded only for one gene (Wang et al., 1990).
By-product
Country
Lc
G
X
A
C
H
Reference
Corn storver
US
13.3
31.9
18.9
2.8
(Templeton et al., 2009)
Cotton stalk
China
19.75
35.60
21.88
(Zhang et al., 2010)
Sugarcane baggase
Brazil
22.8
43.4
24.4
2.0
(Carrasco et al., 2010; Guo et al., 2009)
Oil palm (empty fruit bunches)
Colombia
4.15
46.77
17.92
(Piarpuzán et al., 2011)
Silvergrass
Europe a,b
7.6-11.5
43.0-52.2
24.8-33.9
(Hodgson et al., 2010)
Switchgrass (Panicum sp.)
US
21.4
35.0
21.8
3.5
(Garlock et al., 2011)
Rice straw
China
7.2-12.8
30.3-38.2
19.8-31.6
(Jin & Chen, 2007)
Wheat straw
Canada
18.15
38.27
18.75
1.5
(Tamaki & Mazza, 2010)
Oat straw
India
15.5
36.0
48.5
(Pandey & Pandey, 2002)
Barley straw
Russia
22.2
41.3
19.5
(Kocheva et al., 2008)
Rye straw
Russia
20.5
49.0
17.4
(Kocheva et al., 2008)
Soya stalks
Russia
25.4
37.6
17.3
(Torgashov et al., 2010)
Coconut husk
Malaysia
32.8
44.2
12.1
(Khalil et al., 2006)
Eucalyptus wood
China
26.2
44.9
11.4
(Yu et al., 2010c)
Sunflower stalks
India
17.5
38.5
33.5
(Sharma et al., 2002)
Sorghum stover
China
14.3
27.3
13.1
1.4
(Li et al., 2010)
Cassava baggase
Thailand
2.2
19.1
4.2
1.4
(Kosugi et al., 2009)
Olive wood
Spain
20.4
34.4
20.3
(Ruiz et al., 2006)
Eucalyptus wood
Brazil China
27.1 26.2
51.49 44.9
13.11 11.4
0.47
(Brito et al., 2008) (Yu et al., 2010c)
Construction wood waste
Korea
22.7-25.3
6.3-9
45.4-51.2
(Cho et al., 2011)
Pinus wood
US
26.8
6.6
1.6
43.6
(Frederick Jr et al., 2008)
Table 1.
Composition of major agro-industrial by-products use in delignification processes to obtain fermentable carbohydrates (L, lignin; G, glucan; X, xylan; A, arabian or arabinosyl substituents; C, cellulose, and H, hemicellulose).(a Samples were taken in three countries: Germany, Denmark and Sweden. b Variations are due to the Miscanthus species and harvest season. c Lignin composition refers to total acid- soluble and insoluble lignin. N.D: Not determined. )
Strain
Culture Conditions
L* (%)
Substrate
Remarks
Reference
Process
Temp. (C)
Time (d)
Aspergillus niger
SS
55
0.08
20
Cellulose pulp
Crude extract containing xylanases
(Betini et al., 2009)
Aspergillus niveus
SS
55
0.08
20
Cellulose pulp
Crude extract containing xylanases
(Betini et al., 2009)
Aspergillus ochraceus
SS
55
0.08
20
Cellulose pulp
Crude extract containing xylanases
(Betini et al., 2009)
Ceriporiopsis subvermispora
SS
27
30
20
Sugarcane bagasse
Xylanase and MnP production
(Costa et al., 2005)
SS
25
60
N.S.
Paddy straw
Cellulose lost.
(Sharma & Arora, 2010)
SS
28
42
32
Corn stover
Improvement in sugar hydrolysis
(Wan & Li, 2010)
Echinodontium taxodii
Sm
25
30
42
Corn straw
Enhanced efficiency of alkaline/oxidative treatment
(Yu et al., 2010b)
Euc-1
SS
28
35
55
Wheat straw
Laccase, MnP and LiP production
(Dias et al., 2010)
Gleophyllum trabeum
SS
27
12
0
Wood chips
68% of carbohydrate degradation
(Fissore et al., 2010)
Gonoderma lacidum
Sm
25
30
55
Corn straw
Enhanced efficiency of alkaline/oxidative treatment
(Yu et al., 2010b)
Irpex lacteus
SS
28
35
55
Wheat straw
MnP and LiP production
(Dias et al., 2010)
SS
28
15
12
Corn stalks
Combination with mild alkaline pretreatment allowed 80% lignin reduction
(Yu et al., 2010a)
Oxysporus sp.
Sm
25
60
69
Pomace from olive oil
Laccase production
(Haddadin et al., 2002)
Panos tigrinus strains
SS
30
10
4 to 7
Sugarcane bagasse
Expression of MnP, LiP and lacasse
(Gonçalves et al., 1998)
Penicillium oxalicum + Pleurotus osteatus
SS
N.S.
0.125
21
Wood pulp
Synergistic action of crude extract containing xylanase and laccase
(Dwivedi et al., 2010)
Phanerochaete chrysosporium
Sm
39
14
34
Cotton stalks
Improvement in carbohydrate availability
(Shi et al., 2009)
SS
39
10
21
Cotton stalks
Improvement in carbohydrate availability
(Shi et al., 2009)
Phlebia brevispora
SS
25
60
N.S.
Paddy straw
Cellulose lost.
(Sharma & Arora, 2010)
Phlebia floridensis
SS
25
60
N.S.
Paddy straw
Cellulose lost.
(Sharma & Arora, 2010)
Phlebia radiate
SS
25
60
N.S.
Paddy straw
Cellulose lost.
(Sharma & Arora, 2010)
Pycnoporus cinnabarinus
SS
24
30
12
Sugarcane bagasse
No cellulose degradation
(Meza et al., 2006)
Pycnoporus sanguineus
Sm
30
21
25
Wheat straw
(Lu et al., 2010)
Sm
28
1
71
Wheat straw
Native and recombinant laccase
(Lu et al., 2010)
Sm
30
21
27
Corn strover
(Lu et al., 2010)
Sm
28
1
57
Corn strover
Native and recombinant laccase
(Lu et al., 2010)
Pynnoporus cinnabarinus
SS
30
15
12
Prosopis juliflora
20% increment in sugar release
(Gupta et al., 2010)
SS
30
15
8
Lantana camara
20% increment in sugar release
(Gupta et al., 2010)
Trametes versicolor
Sm
25
30
52
Corn straw
Enhanced efficiency of alkaline/oxidative treatment
(Yu et al., 2010b)
Table 2.
Fungus strains used for the delignification of lignocelullose materials. L* = Lignin Lost, Sm = Submerged Fermentation, SS = Solid-state fermentation, MnP = Manganese peroxidase, LnP = Lignin peroxidase, N.S. = Non specified.
Strain
Culture Conditions
L (%)
Substrate
Remarks
Reference
Process
Temp. (C)
Time (d)
Bacillus macerans
SS
28
45
50
Cotton saw
(Singh et al., 2008)
Bacillus pamilus
Sm
55
2
8
Kraft-pulp
Cellulase-free
(Kaur et al., 2010)
Bacillus sp.
Sm
35
2
56
Pulp and paper mill effluent
Xylanase and MnP production
(Mishra & Thakur, 2010)
Cellulomonas cartae
SS
28
45
50
Cotton saw
(Singh et al., 2008)
Cellulomonas uda
SS
28
45
50
Cotton saw
(Singh et al., 2008)
Zymomonas mobilis
SS
28
45
33
Cotton saw
(Singh et al., 2008)
Table 3.
Bacteria strains used for the delignification of lignocelullose materials. L* = Lignin Lost, Sm = Submerged Fermentation, SS = Solid-state fermentation, MnP = Manganese peroxidase, LnP = Lignin peroxidase, N.S. = Non specified.
Due to the complex nature of lignin, the delignification process must be carried out extracellulary, and the LiP is found in all the peripheral regions of the fungal cell cytoplasm in association with the cell membrane, fungal cell wall, and extracellular slime materials (Daniel et al., 1989). In addition, in solid wood LiP is detected in low concentrations associated with both superficial and degradation zones within secondary cell walls undergoing fungal attack, while in liquid cultures (i.e. submerged-state fermentation) a much greater level of extracellular peroxidase activity is associated with wood fragments degraded by fungus. Although LiP is able to oxidize aromatic compounds with a high redox potentials by single electron abstraction and is the most efficient lignin-degrading enzyme (Piontek et al., 2001), in vitro the majority of lignin-derived preparations actually experience overall polymerization after LiP exposure (Sarkanen et al., 1991). LiP activity is controlled by the ionization degree suggesting that specifics amino acids residues play a role in lignin binding, and that this enzyme is capable of oxidizing lignin directly at the protein surface by a long-range electron transfer process (Johjima et al., 1999).
LiPs degrade lignin through H2O2 using a mechanism that resembles that used for other peroxidades (Hammel & Cullen, 2008; Martinez et al., 2005; Wong, 2009). The first step involves the formation of a high redox potential oxo-ferryl intermediate (compound I, LiP-I) as result of the reaction of the heme cofactor with H2O2. In a second step two consecutive 1e− reductions are carried out (Fig. 2): (i) a 1e− reduction of LiP by a reducing substrate yields to compound II (LiP-II) and a substrate radical cation, and (ii) a 1e− reduction that returns the enzyme to the ferric oxidation state, completing the catalytic cycle (Wong, 2009). The radical cation of the substrate produced in this cycle undergoes rearrangements and non-enzymatic degradations (Fig. 2), which in turn leads to a set of reactions that results in lignin depolymerization (Wong, 2009). Mutagenesis studies have shown that LiP has two distinct substrate interaction sites: (i) the classical heme edge, which degrades lignin-derived compounds and dyes, and (ii) the glutamine 146 site, which is implicated in catalysis of lignin-derived compounds.
Figure 2.
LiP-catalyzed oxidation of non-phenolic\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-O-4 lignin model compound. Modified from Wong (2009).
LiP genes have been cloned and expressed in Phanerochaete sordida, Trichoderma reesei, Pichia pastoris, Pichia methanolica and Escherichia coli, obtaining recombinant enzymes with similar properties to those observed in native enzymes (Nie et al., 1998; Saloheimo et al., 1989; Sugiura et al., 2009; Wang & Wen, 2009). A recent work showed that by coupling a directed evolution technique with a rapid colorimetric screening method, it was possible to obtain a recombinant LiP with improved H2O2 stability, polychlorinated phenol degradability, and kinetic properties (Ryu et al., 2008).
3.1.2. Manganese peroxidase
The MnPs [EC 1.11.1.13] share many of the characteristics previously discussed for LiPs. They are glycosilated, extracellular heme-containing enzymes of about 350 amino acids, a molecular weight around 40 kDa, and the same peroxidase catalytic cycle of LiP (Martinez et al., 2009; Martinez et al., 2005). MnP has been isolated mainly from basidiomycetes including P. chrysosporium, Schizophyllum sp., Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, Panus tigrinus, Lentinula edodes, Nematoloma frowardii, Bjerkandera adusta, T. versicolor, and Dichomitus squalens, among others. The presence of MnP has been also reported in an Aspergillus terreus strain (Kanayama et al., 2002). The enzyme production is specie- and strain-dependent, with an important role of the carbon source, the lignocellulosic substrate and the presence of aromatic compounds (Elisashvili & Kachlishvili, 2009). Catalytic cycle of MnP is similar to that of LiP (Fig. 3): (i) compound I (MnP-I), a Fe(IV)-oxo-porphyrin radical cation, is produced by reaction of enzyme and H2O2, (ii) Mn2+ reduces compound I to compound II, producing Mn3+, and (iii) the resting enzyme is regenerated (Wong, 2009). This Mn3+ oxidizes phenolic substrates in a second-order reaction, producing phenoxy-radicals, which in turn led to a set of reactions that result in lignin depolymerization (Perez et al., 2002) (Fig. 3).
Figure 3.
MnP-catalyzed oxidation of phenolic aryglycerol -aryl ether lignin model compound. Modified from Wong (2009).
The MnP has a single binding site for Mn2+ near the heme, from which two Mn3+ equivalents are obtained at the expense of one H2O2 equivalent in a reaction requiring oxalate or another appropriate manganese chelator (Timofeevski & Aust, 1997; Wariishi et al., 1992). However, MnP can also catalyze a manganese-dependent disproportionation of H2O2 in the absence of manganese chelator, which may protect the enzyme from inactivation by H2O2 under limited free oxalate conditions (Timofeevski & Aust, 1997). Reaction of Mn3+ with H2O2 is catalyzed by Cu2+, which explains the inhibition of MnP by Cu2+ (Aitken & Irvine, 1990). Active site and crystal structure analysis of P. chrysosporium MnP, the most studied MnP enzyme, have shown that arginine 42 and acidic amino acids (i.e glutamic or aspartic acid) at positions 35, 45, 39 and 179 are involved in Mn2+ binding (Sundaramoorthy et al., 2010; Whitwam et al., 1997), while serine 172 seems to been involved in heme binding (Ambert-Balay et al., 2000). MnP encoding genes have been cloned from several white-rot fungi strains, where up to three different genes have been reported each one encoding for a specific isoform (Alvarez et al., 2009; Martinez et al., 2009; Martinez et al., 2005). The expression of MnP genes is mainly regulated by Mn via a growth-stage-specific and concentration-dependent mechanism (Brown et al., 1991). Cu2+, Zn2+, Ag+, Cd2+, Se, H2O2, ethanol, sodium arsenite, and 2,4-dichlorophenol, as well as heat shock regulate the MnP gene expression, while the co-administration with Mn significantly enhances the MnP production (Alvarez et al., 2009; Catal et al., 2008).
MnP genes have been homo- or heterologous expressed in P. chrysosporium, P. ostreatus, P. pastoris, Aspergillus oryzae, and Zea mays, producing recombinant enzymes with similar kinetic and stabilities properties to those observed for native enzymes (Clough et al., 2006; Gu et al., 2003; Jiang et al., 2008).
3.1.3. Laccase
Laccases [EC 1.10.3.2] are glycosilated multicopper enzymes, with wide molecular weights ranging from 50 to 140 kDa (Gaitan et al., 2011; Wong, 2009). Unlike LiP and MnP, laccases are widely distributed in nature and can be found in plants, fungi, bacteria and insects (Dwivedi et al., 2011; Riva, 2006). Although transgenic plants over-expressing laccase genes have been used for energy production, phytoremediation, and alteration in phenolic metabolism (Riva, 2006), most of the delignification process have been carried out by using microorganisms. In fungi, where they play a role in the host-pathogen interaction during the first step of infection (Punelli et al., 2009), laccases have been found in Trametes versicolor, Trametes pubescens, Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, Myceliophthora thermophila, Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus ferulae, Pleurotus astreatus, Cerrena unicolor, Cyathus bulleri, Lentinula edodedes, and Agaricus blazei, among others. In bacteria the enzyme has been reported in Azospirrullum lipoferum, Marinomonas medierranea, Streptomyces griseus, Haloferax volcanii, and Bacillus subtilis. Laccases are monomeric or homopolymeric enzymes (Riva, 2006; Wong, 2009), and the cellular localization depends on the organism, with plant and fungal laccases as extracellular enzymes, while an intracellular localization is observed in most of the bacterial laccases (Diamantidis et al., 2000; Riva, 2006).
Laccase catalyze the monoelectric oxidation of phenolic and nonphenolic substrates to their corresponding reactive radicals in a reaction mediated by the four Cu atoms located at the catalytic core. During the substrate oxidation there is a reduction of one oxygen molecule to two water molecules and four radicals (Arora & Sharma, 2010). The four copper atoms are arranged in three different groups: Type-1 or blue Cu, Type-2 or normal Cu and Type-3 or coupled binuclear Cu centers. These Cu atoms produce the lignin degradation in a three-step reaction: (i) the Type-1 Cu is reduced by oxidizing lignin, (ii) the electron is transferred from Type-1 Cu to Type-2 and Type-3 Cu cluster, and (iii) oxygen is reduced to water at Type-2 and Type-3 Cu centres (Dwivedi et al., 2011; Riva, 2006). Laccases can oxidize a wide range of substrates including polyphenols, methoxysubstituted phenols, and aromatic diamines, among others, through C-C cleavage, alkyl-aryl cleavage or C oxidation (Fig. 4) (Arora & Sharma, 2010; Wong, 2009). Since laccases use oxygen instead of the H2O2 uses for peroxidases, the toxic effect of this compound in cell viability can be avoided giving to the laccases an important role in early stages of delignification (Sterjiades et al., 1993). Due to the large size of laccases and the highly complex structure of lignin, in most cases it cannot be degraded directly, requiring the presence of intermediate substrates (i.e. chemical mediators), which oxidized radicals are able to induce the depolymerization of complex substrates (Riva, 2006).
Figure 4.
Laccase-catalyzed oxidation of phenolic -1 lignin model compound. Modified from Wong (2009).
Laccases are presented as up to six isoenzymes, with different molecular weights, expression profiles, stability, substrate affinity, and encoded by different genes (Dwivedi et al., 2011; Gaitan et al., 2011; Xiao et al., 2006). Laccase gene expression is mainly up regulated by Cu2+ addition, although other potent inducers are Mn2+, Fe3+, heavy metals, 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone, H2O2, caffeine, amphotericin B, syringic acid, tannic acid, Tween 80, soybean oil, aromatic compounds, and microclimatic changes (i.e. lower temperature and osmotic pressure) (Dekker et al., 2007; Galhaup et al., 2002; Xiao et al., 2006). On the other hand, laccase production can be down-regulated or inhibited by proline, urea, glucose Hg2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sn2+, Ba2+, Co2+, Cd2+, Mn2+, and Zn2+, fatty acids, sulfydryeagents, hydroxyglycine, kojic acid, EDTA, l-cysteine, dithiothreitol, glutathione, thiourea, and cationic quaternary ammonium detergents; by chelating the Cu atoms, by modifying amino acid residues or by causing conformational changes in the glycoprotein (Dekker et al., 2007; Dwivedi et al., 2011; Galhaup et al., 2002).
Laccase genes have been cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris, P. methanolic, Kluyveromyces lactis, Aspergillus niger, Coriolus versicolor, and E. coli, with significantly higher levels and similar or even better kinetic and stability profiles than those observed for native enzymes (Guo et al., 2006; Hong et al., 2007; Ranieri et al., 2009; Rodriguez et al., 2008; Salony et al., 2008).
3.2. Fungi delignification
During the last two decades white-rot fungi strains have shown to produce the more efficient delignification (Martinez et al., 2009; Vicuña, 2000; Wong, 2009) Phanerochaete chrysosporium is the most studied white-rot fungi used in biodelignification, with lignin reduction levels ranging from 11 to 73% and incubation times between 10 to 60 days. However, the differences among the substrates (i.e. rice straw, cotton stalks, mustard straw and sugarcane bagasse) and the culture conditions (e.g. solid-state fermentation-SSF, submerged fermentation-SmF, temperature and time), limit the comparison between the studies.
Since carbohydrates are needed for the second stage of biofuel production (i.e. sugar fermentation), the degradation during the delignification stage is a side reaction that affects the yield of biofuel production. Hence, a selection of a microorganism with a low cellulose activity is an important task. Phanerochaete chrysosporium (Shi et al., 2009), Pycnoporus cinnabarinus (Meza et al., 2006), Echinodontium taxodii (Yu et al., 2010b), Euc-1 (Dias et al., 2010), Irpex lacteus (Dias et al., 2010; Yu et al., 2010a), and Pycnoporus sanguineus (Lu et al., 2010), have shown high lignin degradation specificity, while significant levels of carbohydrate degradation have been reported for Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (Wan & Li, 2010), Gleophyllum trabeum (Fissore et al., 2010), Phlebia brevispora (Sharma & Arora, 2010), Phlebia floridensis (Sharma & Arora, 2010), Phlebia radiata (Sharma & Arora, 2010), and Pleurotus sajor-caju (Kannan et al., 1990). This carbohydrates degradation during biodelignification could also depend on the substrate, since fungi with high lignin selectivity can show carbohydrate lost with certain lignocellulosic materials, as observed for paddy straw that presented cellulose lost with all the white-rot fungi used in the delignification (Sharma & Arora, 2010).
Biodelignification has a direct effect on the availability of sugars for ethanol production, which significantly improves the yield of biofuel production. Although this beneficial effect of delignification is not evaluated in all the studies, the results show that there is no need to produce a 100% delignification since increases above 20% in carbohydrates availability can be obtained with just 8% delignification (Gupta et al., 2010; Shi et al., 2009; Wan & Li, 2010). In addition, the biodelignification has been used before chemical pretreatments (i.e. alkaline/oxidative or mild alkaline) allowing up to 80% lignin reduction (Yu et al., 2010a; Yu et al., 2010b). These results strongly suggest that combination of biological and chemical/physical delignification methods might be a feasible alternative to improves delignification levels and reduces the volume and conditions of the chemical/physical pretreatments, promoting the generation of eco-friendly processes for paper and biofuels companies.
Finally, the use of crude extracts from ligninolytic fungi has shown to be a promissory alternative for delignification. Crude extracts from Aspergillus niger, A. niveus, and A. ochraceus, containging xylanases, allowed a 20% delignification of cellulase pulp in 2 h (Betini et al., 2009), while a crude extract of Penicillium oxalicum and Pleurotus osteatus, containg xylanase and laccase enzymes, produced a 21% delignification of wood pulp in 3 h (Dwivedi et al., 2010).
3.3. Bacterial delignification
Bacteria are less used microorganism in delignification of lignocellulose materials. Most of the studies use Bacillus strains (Table 3), although Cellulomonas and Zymomonas have been recently reported as promissory ligninolytic bacteria (Singh et al., 2008).
The loss of lignin ranges from 8% to 56%, with similar temperatures and times to those used in fungi-mediated delignification. Bacteria delignification is mainly mediated by extracellular xylanases, although a synergistic effect has been observed by the addition of MnP, pectinase or -L-arabinofuranosidase (Bezalel et al., 1993; Kaur et al., 2010). However, these high lignin removal levels might be accompanied with high levels of cellulose degradation, as observed for B. macerans, C. cartae, C. uda, and Z. mobilis with cellulose reductions ranging from 31% to 51%. One strategy to overcome this issue is the use of cellulase-free extracts (Kaur et al., 2010) or purified enzymes (Bezalel et al., 1993), that allows up to 20% delignification levels within shorter incubations times than those observed with the whole microorganisms.
Even though bacteria have shown significant delignification levels, the main application is in the paper industry on pre-bleaching steps or to reduce toxic compounds from paper mill effluents. However, biodelignification has a direct impact in pulp properties, free-sugars, and reduction in effluent toxicity and in the use of chloride compounds (Kaur et al., 2010; Mishra & Thakur, 2010; Singh et al., 2008).
4. Chemical separation of Lignin and carbohydrates
This section establishes the basis of three types of chemical pretreatment: acidic, alkaline and with solvents. For each, lignin and carbohydrate solubilisation (or degradation) are discussed. It is clear that different types of chemical pretreatments affect biomass differently not only because of differences in the solubilized component (Harmsen et al., 2010), but also because the accessibility attained is different and changes differently as subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis occurs (Kumar & Wyman, 2009).
A few reports giving meaningful comparisons between different types of chemical pretreatment have been obtained (Wyman et al., 2005 a; 2005b; Wyman et al., 2009). A more complete coverage is impractical because different authors present important differences in selected substrates, analytical procedures, and/or method to report results. Abatzoglou et al. (1992) discuss the application of a severity factor or severity parameter to account for the effect of acid on lignocelluloses composition and the extent of reaction if acid pretreatment is used. They state that due to the complexity of reactions, kinetic parameters lack mechanistic meaning and are functions of the ranges of experimental conditions used. Severity factors combine into a single parameter the effect of the different operational variables and have been adapted to other types of chemical pretreatments. One widely adopted defining equation (slightly or importantly modified in some later studies) is as follows:
where R0 is the reaction ordinate, T is the pretreatment temperature in ºC, and t is the pretreatment time in min. R0 is meant to provide a zonal indication of the predominant reactions taking place in lignocelluloses. This end result was empirically motivated.
4.1. Acidic
Two main configurations of acid pretreatment are diluted and concentrated. During dilute acid pretreatment structural carbohydrates are efficiently solubilized and possibly degraded to an extent that depends on the pretreatment conditions. Here, partial hemicelluloses solubilisation is obtained, therefore increasing pore size. Hydrolysis of the remaining hemicelluloses and cellulose is frequently achieved through a subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis stage that uses enzyme cocktails containing cellulases and xylanases (Mosier et al., 2005; Wyman & Lloyd, 2005). The acidic reagent may be liquid hot water (pH of water decreases with temperature), dilute or concentrated hydrochloric, sulfuric, phosphoric, peracetic, oxalic, and maleic acid among others. Virtually any acid (either mineral or organic) may be used, but sulfuric acid is widely preferred, even though recent studies have shown better hemicelluloses yields with other acids (Lee & Jeffries, 2011). Pretreatment time (accounted from the moment the biomass reaches the desired pretreatment temperature) ranges between 1 min and 180 h. Reactor configurations include but are not limited to flow-through, continuous, and batch. Temperatures range between 25 and 200C at pressures between 1 atm and 15 atm. Initial acid concentration may range between 0.1 and 6%, more typically between 0.7 and 4% (Kumar et al., 2009; Sierra et al., 2008). In batch reactors, total pressure corresponds to the saturation pressure of the mixture at the pretreatment temperature. Typically, the highest temperatures require less time and result in a more extensive cellulose degradation. The dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment can achieve high reaction rates and significantly improves cellulose hydrolysis (Esteghlalian et al., 1997). Its cost is similar or higher than for other pretreatment options (Eggeman & Elander, 2005).
Neutralization of pH is necessary for the downstream enzymatic hydrolysis or fermentation processes. Dilute-acid pretreatment is also known to have a negative influence on the enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass. For example, recent studies report the formation of spherical droplets of lignin and/or lignin and carbohydrate complexes on the cellulose surface. These droplets, preferentially formed at temperatures greater than 130ºC, have an important negative impact on biomass subsequent enzymatic digestibility (Selig et al., 2007). Some other researches argue that materials that have been subjected to acid hydrolysis can be harder to ferment because of the presence of toxic substances including but not limited to furfural and hydroxymethylfurfural (Galbe & Zacchi, 2002). Furthermore, acid pretreatment results in costly materials of construction, high pressures, neutralization and conditioning of hydrolysate prior to biological steps, slow cellulose digestion by enzymes, and nonproductive binding of enzymes to lignin (Wyman et al., 2005b).
The concentrated acid pretreatment is more widely known as concentrated acid hydrolyisis because it results in complete solubilisation of carbohydrates. Clearly, subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis is not required. This type of pretreatment has a long story (1883 for hydrolysis of cellulose in cotton) with the first industrial plant built in Germany in 1937 using hydrochloric acid. The Arkenol\'s process, claimed to reduce sugar loss to less than 3%, separating 98% of the acid (Farone & Cuzens, 1996), starts mixing lignocelluloses waste (less than 10% moisture content) with 70%-77% sulfuric acid added at a ratio of 1.25:1 (acid : cellulose+hemicellulose), the temperature is controlled at less than 50°C. Afterwards, water is added to dilute the acid to 20%-30 and hydrolysis at 100°C takes place for an hour. This results in a gel, which is pressed to remove an acid/sugar product stream. Residual solids are subjected to a second hydrolysis step. A chromatographic column is used to separate acid and sugars (Nanguneri & Hester, 1990). The fermentation converts both the xylose and the glucose to ethanol at theoretical yields of 85% and 92%, respectively. A triple effect evaporator is required to reconcentrate the acid (Yancey & Kadam, 1997).
The industrially used concentrated pretreatment must not be confused with the complete solubilisation of carbohydrates widely used for quantification of structural lignin and carbohydrates. The corresponding protocol uses sulfuric acid reagent in two stages, one concentrated at mild temperature (72% w/w, 30ºC) and the other diluted at high temperature (4% w/w, 121ºC) (Sluiter et al., 2004).
4.1.1. Reactions during acid pretreatment
During acid pretreatment a rather severe solubilisation (and some degradation of monomers) of hemicelluloses occur. Concurrently, a change in the lignin structure takes place. Wood lignin submitted to diluted acid pretreatment (Sannigrahi et al., 2008), as well as wood submitted to steam explosion (Li et al., 2007), and switchgrass submitted to diluted acid pretreatment (Pingali et al., 2010) presented a decrease in the -O-4 linkages in lignin, which are fragmented during high temperature acid-catalyzed reactions. The extent at which these reactions occur is illustrated in Fig. 5 (Li et al., 2007). Other effects of acid pretreatment on the structure of wood lignin include a decrease in the protonated and oxygenated aromatic carbons per aromatic ring (Sannigrahi et al., 2008).
As a result of the substantial cleavage of -O-4 linkages, the molecular weight distribution of lignin would be expected to decrease; however, this is not the case. A comprehensive repolymerization (condensation reactions) resulting in an increase in molecular size and a more heterogeneous lignin structure is obtained (Li et al., 2007) (Fig. 6). The simultaneous depolymerization and repolymerization of lignin during an acid pretreatment are undesirable reactions since they will lead to an increase in the heterogeneity of the resulting lignin. In addition, solubility and reactivity properties will be negatively affected. Reactions, shifting the pH-conditions of the steam treatment towards the alkaline side could be one way to reduce the formation of carbonium ions and inhibit severe structural changes in the lignin polymer. Alternatively, the addition of inhibitors for the repolimerization reactions (i.e., reactive phenol, 2-naphthol (Li et al., 2007)) lead to an important delignification with the production of lignin with uniform structure.
Figure 5.
The -O-4 structure in lignin together with 13C/1H shift values for CH-groups.
Figure 6.
Competition between depolimerization (route 1) and repolimerization (route 2) reactions in lignin during acid pretreatment (Li et al., 2007).
On the other hand, depolymerization of polysaccharides resulting from steam treatment through cleavage of glucosidic linkages is desirable for conversion of carbohydrates through fermentation processes. However, if monomeric carbohydrates are further degraded into HMF (from hexoses) and furfural (from pentoses), a true yield loss occurs. Maximum loss of glucose and xylose in HFM and furfural formation have been reported as ~35% and ~5% of original content respectively depending on pretreatment conditions (Farone & Cuzens, 1996). While the carbohydrate content decreases following pretreatment, the proportion of hexose sugars within the carbohydrate fraction increases. Li et al (Li et al., 2005) reported that only about half this fraction was true lignin while the rest comprised “pseudo-lignin” material. This lignin like material is formed by dehydration and repolymerization of polysaccharide degradation products such as furfural, which are formed during high temperature pretreatments.
The discussion presented here is not comprehensive but only fundamental. The presence of products from lignin, glucose and xylose degradation reactions including but not limited to organic acids, phenols and aromatic aldehydes (Chen et al., 2006) is an indication of this fact. In depth studies to elucidate the mechanisms through which these reactions occur is important because all of the degradation products are inhibitors of fermentation and result in an undesired carbohydrates yield loss.
4.1.2. Kinetic modeling acid pretreatment
As discussed in the previous section, all of the main cell wall constituents of lignocelluloses react during acid pretreatment. However, kinetic studies are not available for lignin reactions. The main focus of kinetic modeling work has been hemicelluloses hydrolysis with its consequent degradation. Because xylose is often the main constituent in hemicelluloses, comprising up to 90% of the total hemicellulose dry weight depending on the feedstock (McMillan, 1992), hemicelluloses degradation modeling only accounts for the production of xylose monomers. Three main mechanisms have been proposed and are depicted in Fig. 7. The most adapted mechanism (Fig. 7b) uses a four-step pseudo-first-order irreversible reactions with Arrhenius type constants.
Figure 7.
Mechanisms for degradation of hemicelluloses during acid pretreatment. (a) Accounts for the formation of furfural and from there other degradation products (Morinelly et al., 2009) (b) Accounts for different hemicelluloses hydrolysis reactivities (fast and slow)(Chen et al., 1996; Esteghlalian et al., 1997; Grohmann et al., 1985; Lee et al., 2000; Schell et al., 2003) (c) lumped system approach. A reaction system (S) is composed of N subsystems producing M final products P. The reaction stoichiometric coefficients are (Abatzoglou et al., 1992).
Some work also accounts for cellulose degradation reactions as shown in the following equation (Lee et al., 2000):
Rate equations are then obtained for the different reactors and reactions considered. For example, for reactions in Fig. 7a the equations are:
For models in Fig. 7b, reported activation energies in k1 and k2 varied between 50 and 250 kJ kmol-1 depending on the reactor employed and the feedstock used. The highest values were reported for continuous reactors at pilot plant scale using corn stover (Schell et al., 2003) and the lowest for wheat straw in a batch reactor (Grohmann et al., 1985). High activation energies may serve as an indication that the system follows a chemical reaction-limited kinetics rather than a mass transport limited kinetics. Some interesting conclusions from the diverse dilute sulfuric acid kinetic studies are: (i) xylose yields are favored at high temperatures and short times (Chen et al., 1996; Esteghlalian et al., 1997; Grohmann et al., 1985; Lee et al., 2000; Morinelly et al., 2009; Schell et al., 2003); (ii) selectivity defined in terms of either Arrhenius constants ratios or activation energies ratios shows that high temperatures have an enhancing effect on the hemicelluloses breakdown to oligomers (i.e., in Fig. 7a, E1/E2 > 1 ), however, the hydrolysis of oligomers is less favored than the formation of degradation products (i.e., in Fig 7a, E2/E3 < 1) (Morinelly et al., 2009); (iii) high solids concentration is desirable because in addition to help the process economics, less degradation of xylose to furfural is obtained, and these solids act as a barrier that protects monomers from degradation, though the main drawback of is slow reaction rates (Morinelly et al., 2009); (iv) total carbohydrates yields are lower at pilot scale than they are in laboratory scale, demonstrating the importance of pilot plant scale measurements in the scaling up of the process (Schell et al., 2003); (v) countercurrent shrinking bed reactors result in solubilisation of both cellulose and hemicellulase, but selectivity of desired monomers is better than with other reactors because of lower residence times (Lee et al., 2000); and (vi) no direct comparisons among different studies can be made due to important differences in reaction conditions.
4.2. Alkaline
Alkali delignification of lignocellulosic biomass is widely applied at industrial scale. The process is known as soda and kraft pulping and its chemistry has been extensively discussed (Alen, 2000; Klinke et al., 2002; Sjöström, 1981). Frequently, an oxidative agent is applied at high temperatures obtaining an important enhancement of the pretreatment effects. Sodium, potassium, calcium, and ammonium hydroxides are suitable for this type of pretreatment. Among these, calcium hydroxide is the least expensive and can be easily regenerated using the lime Kiln technology; however, at industrial scale, sodium hydroxide is widely preferred (Sanchez, 2007). Lime pretreatment has proven to be a useful method for selectively reducing the lignin content of lignocellulosic biomass without significant loss in carbohydrates, thus realizing an important increase in biodigestibility (Chang et al., 1997; Kim & Holtzapple, 2005; Sierra, 2005; Sierra et al., 2009a; 2009b). With ammonium hydroxide two main processes have been developed: Ammonia Freeze Explosion (AFEX) and Ammonia Recycle Percolation (ARP). In AFEX, biomass is mixed with liquid ammonia and then treated at high-pressure. When pretreatment time is elapsed, the pressure is suddenly released. The combined chemical and physical effects of this pretreatment increase lignocelluloses pore size making it digestible (Shao et al., 2010). There are many adjustable parameters in the AFEX process: ammonia loading, water loading, temperature, time, blow down pressure, and number of treatments (Holtzapple et al., 1991). In ARP the biomass is pretreated with aqueous ammonia in a flow-through column reactor. The liquid flows at high temperature through the reactor column, which has been previously packed with biomass. To prevent flash evaporation the reactor system must be slightly pressurized (Kim et al., 2003). After reaction the solid fraction, rich in cellulose and hemicellulose, is separated from the liquid.
Another pretreatment ranked within this category is referred to as wet alkaline oxidation or catalytic wet oxidation. The alkali agents reported are NaOH and Na2CO3. This is not to be confused with wet oxidation pretreatment which does not use an alkali. The oxidative agent may be oxygen, air, or hydrogen peroxide (Klinke et al., 2002). Alkaline wet oxidation uses temperatures above 180°C, pressures in the range 1.4 – 1.6 MPa, and reaction times up to 30 min.
4.2.1. Reactions during alkaline pretreatment
The major effect of alkaline pretreatment is delignification. Alkaline pretreatments successfully increase lignocelluloses digestibility without the production of furfural and methylfurfural (Harmsen et al., 2010; Sierra et al., 2008). Concurrently, acetyl removal is obtained, which is advantageous because acetyl groups inhibit fermentation (Wyman et al., 2009). Alkaline hydrolysis mechanism is based on saponification of intermolecular ester bonds crosslinking xylan hemicelluloses and lignin (Sun & Cheng, 2002).
Although lignin degradation has been the subject of much study over many years, it is far from being completely understood. Complete biomass delignification is difficult because of its location within the deep cell wall, hydrophobicity, physical stiffness, strong polyring bonds of C–O–C, C–C, and the tendency of recondensation (Kim et al., 2003). Fortunately, complete delignification is not required to make biomass fully digestible (Sierra et al., 2009b; Sierra et al., 2010).
Alkaline depolymerization of lignin mostly depends on the cleavage of two types of aryl ether bonds: Caliphatic OCaromatic and Caromatic O Caromatic (ordered from least to most stable), which frequently correspond to - and -aryl ether bonds (50-70% in wood). Examples of these typical delignification reactions (only OH¯ anions involved) are presented in Fig. 8. Oxidative agents importantly enhance the effects of alkaline pretreatments. Oxygen is relatively unreactive; however, in alkaline media it is reduced through the reaction with phenolic hydroxyl groups to superoxide radical (-O2•). The production of these groups requires very basic conditions (pH >12). Reactions involved in alkaline oxidative pretreatments are primarily single-electron (radical) reactions. Delignification reactions involve the formation of several different acids that introduce hydrophilic groups into the lignin structure. Nucleophilic attack also occurs in some extend causing ring opening, which promotes further degradation and solubilization. Condensation products may leave remaining lignin unreactive in the oxidative alkaline media.
Because lignin fractions contain reactive groups, undesirable condensation reactions may occur between lignin entities retarding delignification. This is known to occur mostly in terminal phases of delignification processes and at the unoccupied C-5 position of phenolic units (Sjöström, 1981).
Figure 8.
Lignin degradation reactions in alkaline conditions involving - and -aryl ether linkages (a) cleavage of -aryl ether linkage (b) cleavage of CH2O group (c) example of a possible condensation reaction. (d) Example of alkaline oxygen degradation of lignin (Gierer & Stockholm, 1985; Guay, 2000).
Unfortunately, alkaline delignification is not completely selective. A fraction of carbohydrates in the presence of alkali and oxygen undergo both oxidation and alkaline degradation generating a complex mixture of products. A wide variety of organic acids are produced as a result of carbohydrates degradation during alkaline pretreatment (Klinke et al., 2002). Due to this fact, an important decrease in pH may take place during pretreatment, particularly if initial alkali concentration is not high. If pretreatment starts with a high initial alkali concentration, pH is approximately constant and first order reaction rates of cellobiose degradation are obtained (Bonn et al., 1985).
4.3.2. Kinetic modeling alkaline pretreatment
Kinetic models applied to oxygen bleaching of paper pulp focus on the degradation of polymers, either lignin or carbohydrates. Even though there is complex modeling (Kopelman, 1988), most models separate different moieties that degrade at three different rates: rapid, medium, and slow (de Groot et al., 1994; Susilo & Bennington, 2007). These models were successfully applied to lignin and carbohydrate degradation of lime pretreatment of sugar cane bagasse (Granda, 2005), corn stover (Kim & Holtzapple, 2006), and poplar wood (Sierra et al., 2011a; Sierra et al., 2011b).
Two parallel, first-order reactions accurately represent delignification and carbohydrate degradation. They consider differing reactivities for each biomass component (lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose). This model successfully represents literature data (Sierra et al., 2011a).
Where
and
kij = rate constant for component i (L, G o X) and moiety j (f, s) (min–1)
aij = frequency factor for component i (L, G o X) and moiety j (f, s) (min–1)
Eij = activation energy for component i (L, G o X) and moiety j (f, s) (kJ/mol)
ij = exponent for component i (L, G o X) and moiety j (f, s) (dimensionless)
The models allow the calculation of selectivity, defined for glucan with equation 6. Glucan and xylan selectivity measure the ability of pretreatment to remove lignin while retaining carbohydrates.
Using this definition it is possible to calculate the pretreatment conditions that result in a desired biomass composition.
4.3. Organosolv
Organosolv pretreatment is similar to organosolv pulping. The main purpose is lignin separation from the carbohydrates matrix. This pretreatment is effective removing biomass recalcitrance because it achieves almost complete separation of biomass components (Zhao et al., 2009). Three separate fractions are obtained: solid lignin, an aqueous stream, and high purity cellulose. Lignin is recovered unaltered; thus, it has high potential for other applications. In the aqueous phase hemicelluloses are either hydrolysed to xylose monomers or degraded (Johanson et al., 1987).
Some of the most commonly used solvents are low boiling point methanol, ethanol, and acetone. Both alcohols are low cost and miscible in water. At 180 ºC, the addition of a catalyst is required (at ~0.2% concentration). Both mineral acids (i.e., hydrochloric, sulfuric and phosphoric) and organic acids (i.e., formic, oxalic, acetylsalicylic, and salicylic) may be used as catalysts to accelerate delignification and xylan degradation (Zhao et al., 2009); however, acids are not required if the pretreatment is conducted at temperatures in the range 190 to 210 ºC because liquid hot water is acidic (Duf & Murray, 1996). In alcohol organosolv, the solvent concentration is 50-80% with the highest concentration for hard to pretreat biomass. Usually, pretreatment temperatures for methanol are lower than for ethanol, but ethanol is safer due to its lower toxicity. The Lignol technology uses ethanol as solvent and converts a range of cellulosic feedstocks into several valuable organic chemicals and fuels (Arato et al., 2005). Using low boiling point solvents, such as ethanol, methanol and acetone, organosolv pretreatment requires high pressures because pretreatment runs at high temperatures. To perform at atmospheric pressure, a variety of high boiling point alcohols may be used including but not limited to ethylene glycol, glycerol, and tetrahydrofurfuryl. Organosolv pretreatment with low boiling point alcohols has successfully run at 240 ºC for 4 h. Drawbacks include high-energy consumption for solvents recovery and high costs of solvents (Aziz and Sarkanen 1989).
Other kind of organic compounds such as formic, acetic, and peracetic acids, dimethylsulfoxide, ethers, ketone, and phenols are widely used (Thring et al., 1990). When the solvents are organic acids, subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis may not be as successful as with other solvents, probably due to inhibition caused by acetyl groups (Pan et al., 2006). If peracetic acid is used, pretreatment can be conducted at ambient or mild temperatures (e.g., 80ºC) for long times and the addition of NaOH may cause biomass swelling. Compared to acid and alkaline pretreatment at the same conditions, peracetic acid is more effective (Zhao et al., 2008).
Due to important advantages obtained through efficient separation of components, organosolv pre-treatments are the most promising options for a biorefinery. Nevertheless, these type of pre-treatments are still very undeveloped because they require extensive and cumbersome washing steps in order to obtain complete solvents removal, and they are energy intensive if high solvents recovery is to be achieved (Zhao et al., 2009). Removal of solvents is not only required for the process economics but also because their presence may be inhibitory for enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation (Holtzapple & Humphrey, 1984). If high pressures must be applied, the equipment costs increase substantially.
4.3.1. Reactions during organosolv pretreatment
In organosolv pretreatment, the reactions that take place highly depend on the solvent choice. For example, if alcohols are used, OH¯ attacks the lignin-hemicellulose acid ester bonds at the carbons of the lignin monomers as well as the ether and 4-O-methylglucoronic bonds. Of these, cleavages of ether linkages are primarily responsible for lignin breakdown. Also, hydrolysis of the glycosidic bonds in hemicelluloses occurs. If an acid catalyst is employed, degradation of lignin and monosaccharides may happen (Chum et al., 1990).
On the other hand, if peracetic acid is used, the hydroxonium ion is present (OH+) generated from peracetic acid in acidic media. This ion attacks lignin by ring hydroxylation. Peracetic acid is a powerful oxidizing agent; thus, oxidative demethylation and ring opening may occur. Other reactions are displacement of side chains and cleavage of -arylether bonds.
5. Biotransformation of lignocellulosic material into alternative fuels
The main interest in the use of agro-industrial by-products and agro-waste streams is the release of the fermentable carbohydrates contained into the lignocellulosic matrix. The cost of lignocellulosic feedstocks is currently appealing because it is lower than any other energy sources. For example, crude oil price ranges from $40 to $80 per barrel, generating an energy price that ranges from $7.1 to $14.2 GJ-1, while the energy price from lignocellulosic ranges from $0 to $3 GJ-1 (Zhang, 2008). Nevertheless, the actual cost of fuel production from lignocellulosic feedstock can be higher than conventional processes (e.g. ethanol from sugarcane or corn) generating an expensive fuel (Ferris & Joshi, 2010). This can be caused by increased lignocelluloses prices due to higher demand, biomass conditioning and transportation costs, and the cost and yields of the different process stages like pretreatment, saccharification, detoxification and fermentation (Aden et al., 2002). The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), in its economical evaluation of biotransforming corn stover to ethanol in a plant that uses simultaneous saccharification and fermentation technology, calculated an ethanol selling price close to $1.07 per gallon (+$0.12/-$0.05) in a plant with an installed capacity of 2000 metric tons of lignocellulose per day. They considered the total project investment, the variable operating cost and fixed operating cost for a plant life of 20 years and an ethanol production of 69.5 millions of gallons per year. They showed that the most expensive item in the process is the feedstock cost followed by the pretreatment cost. Further details can be consulted in the NREL report (Aden et al., 2002). Technological alternatives to Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation may even result in more favorable prices.
Transformation of highly oxygenated compounds like carbohydrates allows the production of alcohols, carboxylic acids, and esters. Compounds like fragrances solvents, and lubricants may be produced from lignocellulosic feedstocks, and bio-polymers such as polylactic acid and poly(trimethylene terephthalate) that use lactic acid and 1,3-propanediol as precursors, respectively, can be obtained through carbohydrates fermentations (Ragauskas et al., 2006). Among the different chemical compounds that can be used as fuels, alcohols are of a particular interest due to characteristics like a high octane number, broad flammability limits, high flame speeds, and high vaporization heats. These properties have allowed blending ethanol, one of the most important alcohols, with gasoline in mixtures that contain up to 85% ethanol (E85)(Turner et al., 2011). Currently, ethanol and methanol are the most important alcohols used in internal engine combustion. Although these alcohols are obtained after fermentation of the free sugars that result from the depolymerization of carbohydrate polymers, alcohols also can be obtained by direct fermentation of the released carbohydrate polymers. Fig. 9 summarizes the process stages in the widely studied Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation Technology.
During pretreatment toxic compounds are released in a concentration that may vary widely. These compounds have been grouped in four categories: (i) sugar degradation products, (ii) lignin degradation products, (iii) compounds derived from cellulose structure, and (iv) heavy metal ions released by corrosion of the hydrolysis equipments. These compounds include but are not limited to furfural and hydroxymethyl furfural formed by the degradation of pentoses and hexoses; acetic, formic, galacturonic and glucuronic acids formed during the hydrolysis of hemicellulose; and aromatic and phenolic compounds, like cinnamaldehyde, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, and syringaldehyde (Cardona et al., 2010; Mussatto & Roberto, 2004; Sánchez & Cardona, 2008).
Figure 9.
Process scheme of the lignocellulosic biomass transformation to liquid fuels, mainly alcohols. SSF: simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, CF: co-fermentation, and SSCF: simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (Adapted from Cardona et al. (2010))
The detoxification stage, in which most of the inhibitory compounds formed in the pre-treatment stage are removed, is important for the further fermentation stage. This process can be conducted by physical and chemical or biological means. The biological detoxification (BD) may be advantageous because of minimal generation of waste streams, chemical inputs are not required, possible recharging of adsorption resins is not needed, and it is suitable for solid-liquid mixtures (Nichols et al., 2010). The participation of peroxidases and laccases in BD processes has been evaluated. Lacasses have completely removed phenol compounds of low molecular weight by an oxidative polymerization mechanism without varying the acetic acid and furans composition in the hydrolyzate (Chandel et al., 2007). The use of microorganisms like the fungi Thrichoderma reesei and Aspergillus nidulas to remove acetic and formic acids, furfural and hydroxymethyl furfural, and acid benzoic derivatives has been also reported (Palmqvist & Hahn-Hägerdal, 2000; Yu et al., 2011). Finally, another important but not widely reported method is the adaptation of microorganisms to the hydrolyzate. This method is based in the re-use of the microorganism in successive hydrolizate treatments where the microorganism of one assay is used as inoculum for the next one (Silva & Roberto, 2001). Classical physical-chemical processes are based on toxic compound precipitation, adsorption onto charcoal, diatomaceous earth, ion-exchange resins, and pH adjustment of the extractive (Mussatto & Roberto, 2004). Moroever, new alternatives that use membranes have emerged. One example is the use of reactive membrane extraction in which is avoid the dispersion of one phase in the other reducing the presence of organic compounds, or solvents, in the aqueous phase or hydrolyzate (Simonne et al., 1997).
Carbohydrates depolymerization widely known as hydrolysis or saccharification is carried out by using cellulolytic enzymes complexes constituted by endoglucanases, exoglucanases or cellobiohydrolases, and cellobiases (Bansal et al., 2009; Lee, 1997). Endoglucanases (EC 3.2.1.4, endo-1,4-D-glucanohydrolase) create free chain-ends attacking low crystallinity regions in the cellulose fiber by cleaving -1,4-glycosidic bonds. Exoglucanases (EC 3.2.1.91, 1,4-b-D-glucan cellobiohydrolase) remove cellobiose units from the free chain-ends providing a further hydrolysis of the molecule. Finally, the cellobiase or β-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21) hydrolyses the cellobiose to glucose. Bansal et al. (2009) reviewed the mechanism and mathematical modelling of cellulose hydrolysis by cellulases where the mechanism main steps are: (i) cellulose adsorption onto the substrate via the binding domain, (ii) location of a suitable bond to hydrolysis on the substrate surface, usually the end of the chain or cleavable bond if cellobiohydrolase or endoglucanase is presented, respectively, (iii) formation of enzyme–substrate complex to initiate hydrolysis, (iv) hydrolysis of the -glycosidic bond and simultaneous forward sliding of the enzyme along the cellulose chain, (v) desorption of cellulases from the substrate or repetition of step iv or steps ii and iii if the catalytic domain detaches from chain, vi) hydrolysis of cellobiose to glucose if -glucosidase. The main product of the cellulose hydrolysis is glucose, which can be further fermented or chemically transformed. In this stage, the most important parameters to be controlled are reaction time, temperature, pH, enzyme dosage and substrate load (Sánchez & Cardona, 2008).
The last biological stage is fermentation. Streams from the detoxification and/or saccharification stages have a high xylose and glucose concentration. These sugars might be bio-converted to fuels by several microorganisms, including Candida albicans, Candida shehatae, Kluveromyces fragilis, Kluveromyces marxianus, Pichia stipitis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus stearothermophilus, Clostridium cellulolyticum, Clostridium beijerinckii, Escherichia coli, and Zymomonas mobilis, which can produce compounds like ethanol, glycerol, butanol, and acetate, among others depending on their metabolic networks. Nevertheless, important differences in the metabolic transformation of xylose a C-5 carbohydrate and glucose a C-6 carbohydrate between bacteria and fungi cause that not all native microorganisms are capable of metabolizing both carbohydrates to ethanol.
It is known that bacteria can transform xylose to xylulose by using xylose isomerase, while most yeasts, fungi, plants, and animals use aldose (xylose) reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase with xylitol as an intermediate (Chiang & Knight, 1960 ). Nevertheless, if the first reaction step uses NADPH as a cofactor, the reaction is tied to NADPH production, with a subsequent NAD+ reduction, which can cause a cofactor imbalance under oxygen limitation (Bruinenberg et al., 1983). For example, Toivari (2004) reported an endogenous xylose metabolic pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae which in aerobic conditions generated a xylitol accumulation into cells caused by lack of NAD+, but when xylitol is released to the medium the ethanol production yield decreases (Eliasson et al., 2000; Eliasson et al., 2001). Due to these metabolic drawbacks, genetically modified microorganisms capable to ferment both C-5 and C-6 carbohydrates are the focus of attention to improve ethanol production yields. Extensive literature use S. cerevisiae as biological model due to its tolerance to media up to 20 %v/v in ethanol among other toxic compounds released during its growth. Also, Z. mobilis is amply considered since it has been genetically modified to obtain ethanol by co-fermentation of several substrates like glucose, xylose and arabinose. This topics have been reviewed elsewhere (Kambam & Henson, 2010; Vinuselvi et al., 2011).
For the production of liquid biofuels, mainly ethanol, sequential or simultaneous operational configurations between the hydrolysis or saccharification and fermentation stages have been adopted. Simultaneous saccharification-fermentation (SSF) processes present better ethanol production yields and less energy consumption than sequential hydrolysis-fermentation (SHF) (Sánchez & Cardona, 2008), fermentation time is shorter than SHF, contamination risk with external microorganism is reduced, and presents an important cost reduction since cellulose hydrolysis occurs during glucose fermentation that decreases the inhibition caused by sugars on cellulases. The most important disadvantages of SSF are the difference of optimal temperature for the hydrolysis (45-50°C) and fermentation (28-35°C) stages, the inhibition of the fermenting microorganism and even the cellulose activity caused by the ethanol and the toxic compounds than can be eventually produced during the lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment, and low final concentration of products due to the use of dilute media to obtain suitable rheological properties (Sánchez & Cardona, 2008; Szczodrak & Fiedurek, 1996). The most important advantage of SHF is that hydrolysis and fermentation stages can be carried out at their optimal condition.
The search of new strains or genetically engineered strains that can produce ethanol from xylose allows that through independent fermentations (co-fermentation, CF) of pentoses and hexoses, the ethanol production yield increases (Fig. 9). Nevertheless, the fact that most of the genetically engineered strains to metabolize xylose produce ethanol from glucose has risen in the inclusion of the co-fermentation process to the SSF, which is known as simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) (Fig. 9). This configuration integrates in only one unit the hydrolysis of cellulose and the fermentation of pentoses. Although economical benefits are evident by using CF and SSCF, challenges emerge because most of xylose-fermenting yeasts (XFY) are not ethanol tolerant; thus, they are prompt to inhibition. New ethanol-tolerant strains should be selected for the CF process, otherwise, joining ethanol removal processes to the SSCF process can help incrementing the ethanol production yield (Chen, 2010).
The direct microbial conversion (DMC) of lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol has also been studied. In DMC, the biodelignification, hydrolysis, and fermentation are done in the same process unit by either one microorganism or a consortium of microorganisms. DMC seems to be an economical process since all the necessary stages for lignocellulosic bioconversion are interconnected. Nevertheless, DMC are slow, and undesired by-products mainly acetic and lactic acids may result when bacteria are used. Another obstacle in DMC is that hydrolysis products such as glucose and cellobiose, can cause inhibition of the cellulase complex limiting the rate of saccharification and final concentration of sugars which result in low ethanol production yields (Mielenz, 2001; Szczodrak & Fiedurek, 1996).
Although most of alternative fuel investigations have focused on biotechnology processes, mainly ethanol production, other chemical compounds of interest useful as fuel, like esters hydrogen, and hydrocarbons can be obtained. In addition, chemical technologies have been rising up as a feasible alternative in which the main goal is to obtain oxygenated hydrocarbons, by removing oxygen from carbohydrates, which can be subsequently transformed to an alternative fuel (Ragauskas et al., 2006).
Despite the fact that biological agents can be involved in all the lignocellulosic transformation stages, few processes employ biological agents in all the stages. More commonly, a combination of biological, chemical, and thermo-chemical processes is employed along the different stages. This results in the production of methanol, butanol, hydrogen, and methane, as important fuel alternatives. Methanol production can be accomplished by (i) biochemical conversion of sugars, (ii) thermo-chemical conversion of biomass by using heat energy and chemical catalyst, (iii) production of syngas from biomass gasification at high temperature and an oxygen-starved environment, and (iv) biomass pyrolysis at high temperature under an oxygen-free environment (Dolan, 2010). Hydrogen production from biomass can be achieved by (i) syngas production and its later transformation by water shift reaction, (ii) autothermal reforming of bio-oils produced by pyrolysis, (iii) aqueous phase reforming of sugars and sugar alcohols, and (iv) biological means, enzymes and microorganisms, in dark fermentations (Tanksale et al., 2010). Methane is produced mainly by anaerobic digestion of the biomass (Li et al., 2011). The catalytic thermochemical processes do not require a delignification stage of biomass, but this is a necessary step to improve the amount of fermentable carbohydrates if the fuel is to be produced by reforming the gasses produced by anaerobic fermentation of these sugars or by any biological means. Thermochemical and chemical catalyst production of these fuels has been reviewed elsewhere (Kalinci et al., 2009; Tanksale et al., 2010).
6. Conclusions
An efficient biorefinery must be capable of using all the components in lignocellulosic wastes resourcefully for the production of fuels in addition to other chemicals and products. Valuable substances contained in these resources must be extracted first. Then, polysaccharides and lignin must be used to produce fuels and other valuable chemicals. Some carbohydrates derived products are: ethanol, carboxylic acids, levulinic acid, glycerol and sorbitol. Lignin, on the other hand, may be used as an energy source through combustion or can be transformed into syngas or bio-oil.
If polysaccharides are to be biologically processed, the lignocelluloses digestibility must be importantly improved. This is achieved by pretreatment, which separate lignin from carbohydrates through chemical or biological means. In some instances, this is achieved by partial delignification or lignin degradation.
Full biological processes are advantageous due to high selectivity and mild reaction conditions, but they are not available yet. Recent studies promote the production of genetically engineered multitask microorganisms able not only to lignocelluloses delignification but also saccharification and fermentation. Additionally, these microorganisms should be marginally inhibited by substrate and product concentration. While this technological dream becomes a scalable economic reality, pretreatments may be carried out by chemical means. In this sense, there is a wide range of possibilities. Advantages and disadvantages of each have been briefly discussed above.
Notable efforts have been conducted to improve ethanol production yields by using lignocellulosic wastes and crops, some of which have been submitted to genetic modifications in the lignin composition. Concurrently, highly desirable integrated processes for non-liquid alternative fuels such as hydrogen are in a very early stage of development. Thus, liquid fuels and products from lignocelluloses can be considered as a bridge between the current highly contaminating petroleum age and the future more sophisticated and clean hydrogen combustion age.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/17588.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/17588.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17588",totalDownloads:6690,totalViews:867,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 18th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 27th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 9th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/17588",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/17588",book:{slug:"alternative-fuel"},signatures:"Oscar Sánchez, Roció Sierra and Carlos J. Alméciga-Díaz",authors:[{id:"47504",title:"MSc",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez",fullName:"Oscar Sanchez",slug:"oscar-sanchez",email:"ofsanchezm@unal.edu.co",position:null,institution:null},{id:"56842",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocio",middleName:null,surname:"Sierra",fullName:"Rocio Sierra",slug:"rocio-sierra",email:"rsierra@uniandes.edu.co",position:null,institution:null},{id:"56843",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"Javier",surname:"Almeciga-Diaz",fullName:"Carlos Almeciga-Diaz",slug:"carlos-almeciga-diaz",email:"cjalmeciga@javeriana.edu.co",position:"Assistant Professor",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Generalities of lignocellulosic compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Physic-chemical properties of lignin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Chemical composition of agro-industrial wastes and by-products",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Biological delignification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Delignifying enzymes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.2. Manganese peroxidase",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.3. Laccase",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Fungi delignification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3. Bacterial delignification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Chemical separation of Lignin and carbohydrates",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1. Acidic",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.1. Reactions during acid pretreatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.1.2. Kinetic modeling acid pretreatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2. Alkaline",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.2.1. Reactions during alkaline pretreatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.3.2. Kinetic modeling alkaline pretreatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.3. Organosolv",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"4.3.1. Reactions during organosolv pretreatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"5. Biotransformation of lignocellulosic material into alternative fuels ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AbatzoglouN.ChornetE.BelkacemilK.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992\n\t\t\t\t\tPhenomenological kinetics of complex systems: The development of a generalized severity parameter and its application to lignocellulosics fractionation. Chemical Engineering Sicence. 47\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (April 1992), 11091122 , 0009-2509'},{id:"B2",body:'AdenA.RuthM.IbsenK.JechuraJ.NeevesK.SheehanJ.WallaceB.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tLignocellulosic Biomass to Ethanol Process Design and Economics Utilizing Co-Current Dilute Acid Prehydrolysis and Enzymatic Hydrolysis for Corn Stover (1st ed.), National Renewable Energy Lab, Golden, CO.'},{id:"B3",body:'AgarwalU.AtallaR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Vibrational Spectroscopy, In: Lignin and Lignans, Heitner, C., Dimmel, D. & Schmidt, J., 103136 , CRC Press, 978-1-57444-486-5 Boca Raton, FL.'},{id:"B4",body:'AitkenM. D.IrvineR. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tCharacterization of reactions catalyzed by manganese peroxidase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium.\n\t\t\t\t\tArchives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 276\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (February 1990), 405414 , 0003-9861'},{id:"B5",body:'AlenR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Basic Chemistry of Wood Delignification., In: Forest Products Chemistry, Stenius, 59104 , Finnish Paper Engineers’ Association, 9-52521-603-9 Finland.'},{id:"B6",body:'AlvarezJ. M.CanessaP.MancillaR. A.PolancoR.SantibanezP. A.VicunaR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tExpression of genes encoding laccase and manganese-dependent peroxidase in the fungus Ceriporiopsis subvermispora is mediated by an ACE1-like copper-fist transcription factor. Fungal Genetics and Biology. 46\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2009), 104111 , 1096-0937'},{id:"B7",body:'Ambert-BalayK.DoughertyM.TienM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tReactivity of manganese peroxidase: site-directed mutagenesis of residues in proximity to the porphyrin ring. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 382\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (October 2000), 8994 , 0003-9861'},{id:"B8",body:'AratoC.PyeE.GjennestadG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tThe lignol approach to biorefining of woody biomass to produce ethanol and chemicals.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 123\n\t\t\t\t\t1-3 , (March 2005), 871882 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B9",body:'AroraD. S.SharmaR. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tLigninolytic Fungal Laccases and Their Biotechnological Applications. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 160\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (March 2010), 17601788 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B10",body:'BansalP.HallM.RealffM. J.LeeJ. H.BommariusA. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tModeling cellulase kinetics on lignocellulosic substrates. Biotechnology Advances. 27\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (November 2009), 833848 , 0734-9750'},{id:"B11",body:'BetiniJ. H.MichelinM.Peixoto-NogueiraS. C.JorgeJ. A.TerenziH. F.PolizeliM. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tXylanases from Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus niveus and Aspergillus ochraceus produced under solid-state fermentation and their application in cellulose pulp bleaching. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (October 2009), 819824 , 1615-7605'},{id:"B12",body:'BezalelL.ShohamY.RosenbergE.\n\t\t\t\t\t1993 Characterization and delignification activity of a thermostable α-L-arabinofuranosidase from Bacillus stearothermophilus. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 40\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 1993), 5762 , 0175-7598'},{id:"B13",body:'BoerjanW.RalphJ.BaucherM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tLignin Biosynthesis.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnnual Review of Plant Biology. 54\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (June 2003), 519546 , 1543-5008'},{id:"B14",body:'BonnG.BinderH.LeonhardH.BobleterO.\n\t\t\t\t\t1985\n\t\t\t\t\tThe alkaline degradation of cellobiose to glucose and fructose. Monatshefte für Chemie / Chemical Monthly. 116\n\t\t\t\t\t8\n\t\t\t\t\t961971 , 0026-9247.'},{id:"B15",body:'BörjessonP.TufvessonL. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011 Agricultural crop-based biofuels- resource efficiency and environmental performance including direct land use changes. Journal of Cleaner Production. 19\n\t\t\t\t\t108-120 , (January 2011), 0959-6526'},{id:"B16",body:'BourbonnaisR.PaiceM. G.FreiermuthB.BodieE.BornemanS.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tReactivities of various mediators and laccases with kraft pulp and lignin model compounds.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied and Environmental Microbiology. 63\n\t\t\t\t\t12 (December 1997), 46274632 , 0099-2240'},{id:"B17",body:'BringezuS.RamesohlS.ArnoldK.FischedickM.vonGeibler. J.LiedtkeandC.SchützH.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tTowards a sustainable biomass strategy. What we know and what we should know. Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy. 163 (June 2007), 0949-5266'},{id:"B18",body:'BritoJ. O.SilvaF. G.LeãoM. M.AlmeidaG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tChemical composition changes in eucalyptus and pinus woods submitted to heat treatment. Bioresource Technology. 99\n\t\t\t\t\t18 (December 2008), 85458548 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B19",body:'BrownJ. A.AlicM.GoldM. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tManganese peroxidase gene transcription in Phanerochaete chrysosporium: activation by manganese.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Bacteriology. 173\n\t\t\t\t\t13 (July 1991), 41014106 , 0021-9193'},{id:"B20",body:'BruinenbergP. M.de BotP. H. M.van DijkenJ. P.ScheffersW. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t1983\n\t\t\t\t\tThe role of redox balances in the anaerobic fermentation of xylose by yeasts. European Journal of Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 18\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (September 1983), 287292 , 0175-7598'},{id:"B21",body:'CardonaC. A.QuinteroJ. A.PazI. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tProduction of bioethanol from sugarcane bagasse: Status and perspectives. Bioresource Technology. 101\n\t\t\t\t\t13 (July 2010), 47544766 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B22",body:'CarrascoC.BaudelH. M.SendeliusJ.ModigT.RoslanderC.GalbeM.Hahn-HägerdalB.ZacchiG.LidénG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tSO2-catalyzed steam pretreatment and fermentation of enzymatically hydrolyzed sugarcane bagasse. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 46\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (February 2010), 6473 , 0141-0229'},{id:"B23",body:'CassmanK. G.LiskaA. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Food and fuel for all: Realistic or foolish? Biofuels, Bioproducts, and Biorefining. 1\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (September 2007), 1823 , 1932-1031'},{id:"B24",body:'CatalT.LiuH.BermekH.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tSelenium induces manganese-dependent peroxidase production by the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta (Willdenow) P. Karsten. Biological Trace Element Research. 123\n\t\t\t\t\t1-3 , (June 2008), 211217 , 0163-4984'},{id:"B25",body:'ChandelA. K.KapoorR. K.SinghA.KuhadR. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tDetoxification of sugarcane bagasse hydrolysate improves ethanol production by Candida shehatae NCIM 3501. Bioresource Technology. 98\n\t\t\t\t\t10 (July 2007), 19471950 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B26",body:'ChangV.BurrB.HoltzappleM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tLime pretreatment of switchgrass. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 63-65 , 1 (March 1997), 319 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B27",body:'ChangV.HoltzappleM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tFundamental factors affecting biomass enzymatic reactivity.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 84-86 , 1 (March 2000), 537 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B28",body:'ChenR.LeeY.TorgetB.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tKinetic and modeling investigation on two-stage reverse-flow reactor as applied to dilute-acid pretreatment of agricultural residues. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 57 58, (March 1996), 133146 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B29",body:'ChenS.MoweryR.CastleberryV.WalsumP.ChamvlissK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tHigh-performance liquid chromatography method for simultaneous determination of aliphatic acid, aromatic acid and neutral degradation products in biomass pretreatment hydrolysates. Journal of Chromatography, 1004 (February 2006), 5461 , 0021-9673'},{id:"B30",body:'ChenY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment and application of co-culture for ethanol production by co-fermentation of glucose and xylose: a systematic review. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 38\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (May 2010), 581597 , 1367-5435'},{id:"B31",body:'ChiangC.KnightS. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t1960 ). The metabolism of D-xylose by moulds. Nature. 188\n\t\t\t\t\t79-81 , (October 1960), 0028-0836'},{id:"B32",body:'ChoD. H.ShinS.J.BaeY.ParkC.KimY. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tEthanol production from acid hydrolysates based on the construction and demolition wood waste using Pichia stipitis. Bioresource Technology. 102\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (March 2011), 44394443 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B33",body:'ChumH.JohnsonD.BlackS.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tOrganosolv pretreatment for enzymic hydrolysis of poplars. 2. Catalyst effects and the combined severity parameter. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 29\n\t\t\t\t\t29 (February 1990), 156162 , 0888-5885'},{id:"B34",body:'CloughR. C.PappuK.ThompsonK.BeifussK.LaneJ.DelaneyD. E.HarkeyR.DreesC.HowardJ. A.HoodE. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tManganese peroxidase from the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium is enzymatically active and accumulates to high levels in transgenic maize seed. Plant Biotechnology Journal. 4\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2006), 5362 , 1467-7652'},{id:"B35",body:'CostaS. M.GonçalvesA. R.EspositoE.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tAction of white-rot fungus Panus tigrinus on sugarcane bagasse: Evaluation of selectivity. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology- Part A Enzyme Engineering and Biotechnology. 98-100 , (March 2002), 357364 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B36",body:'CostaS. M.GonçalvesA. R.EspositoE.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tCeriporiopsis subvermispora used in delignification of sugarcane bagasse prior to soda/anthraquinone pulping.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied Biochemistry and Biotechnology- Part A Enzyme Engineering and Biotechnology. 122\n\t\t\t\t\t1-3 , (March 2005), 695706 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B37",body:'CrawfordD. L.DoyleJ. D.WangZ.HendricksC. W.BentjenS. A.BoltonH.Jr FredricksonJ. K.BleakleyB. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tEffects of a lignin peroxidase-expressing recombinant, Streptomyces lividans TK23.1, on biogeochemical cycling and the numbers and activities of microorganisms in soil.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied and Environmental Microbiology. 59\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (February 1993), 508518 , 0099-2240'},{id:"B38",body:'DanielG.NilssonT.PetterssonB.\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tIntra- and Extracellular Localization of Lignin Peroxidase during the Degradation of Solid Wood and Wood Fragments by Phanerochaete chrysosporium by Using Transmission Electron Microscopy and Immuno-Gold Labeling.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied and Environmental Microbiology. 55\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (April 1989), 871881 , 0099-2240'},{id:"B39",body:'de GrootB.Van DamJ. E. G.van der ZwanR. P.RietK.v.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994\n\t\t\t\t\tSimplified Kinetic Modelling of Alkaline Delignification of Hemp Woody Core. Holzforschung. 48\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (March 1994), 207214 , 0018-3830'},{id:"B40",body:'DekkerR. F.BarbosaA. M.GieseE. C.GodoyS. D.CovizziL. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tInfluence of nutrients on enhancing laccase production by Botryosphaeria rhodina MAMB-05.\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Microbiology. 10\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (September 2007), 177185 , 1139-6709'},{id:"B41",body:'DiamantidisG.EffosseA.PotierP.BallyR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tPurification and characterization of the first bacterial laccase in the rhizospheric bacterium Azospirillum lipoferum. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t7 (July 2000), 919927\n\t\t\t\t\t0038-0717'},{id:"B42",body:'DiasA. A.FreitasG. S.MarquesG. S.SampaioA.FragaI. S.RodriguesM. A.EvtuguinD. V.BezerraR. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzymatic saccharification of biologically pre-treated wheat straw with white-rot fungi. Bioresourse Thecnology. 101\n\t\t\t\t\t15 (August 2010), 60456050 , 1873-2976'},{id:"B43",body:'DimmelD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Overview, In: Lignin and Lignans, Heitner, C., Dimmel, D. & Schmidt, J., 110 , CRC Press, 978-1-57444-486-5 Boca Raton, FL.'},{id:"B44",body:'DolanG. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tMethanol Production and Utilization (1st ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 978-0-47075-002-5 Hoboken, NJ.'},{id:"B45",body:'DoradoJ.AlmendrosG.CamareroS.MartínezA. T.VaresT.HatakkaA.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tTransformation of wheat straw in the course of solid-state fermentation by four ligninolytic basidiomycetes. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 25\n\t\t\t\t\t7 (October 1999), 605612 , 0141-0229'},{id:"B46",body:'DufS.MurrayW.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 Bioconversion of forest products industry waste cellulosics to fuel ethanol: A review. Bioresource Technology. 55\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (n.d.), 133 , 0960-8524\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B47",body:'DwivediP.VivekanandV.PareekN.SharmaA.SinghR. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tBleach enhancement of mixed wood pulp by xylanase-laccase concoction derived through co-culture strategy. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 160\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2010), 255268 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B48",body:'DwivediU. N.SinghaP.PandeyaV. P.KumaraA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tStructure-function relationship among bacterial, fungal and plant laccases. Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic. 68\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (Febrary 2011), 117128 , 1381-1177'},{id:"B49",body:'EggemanT.ElanderR. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tProcess and economic analysis of pretreatment technologies.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 96\n\t\t\t\t\t18 (December 2005), 20192025 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B50",body:'EliassonA.ChristenssonC.WahlbomC. F.Hahn-HagerdalB.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tAnaerobic Xylose Fermentation by Recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae Carrying XYL1, XYL2, and XKS1 in Mineral Medium Chemostat Cultures.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied and Environmental Microbiology. 66\n\t\t\t\t\t8 (August 1, 2000), 33813386 .'},{id:"B51",body:'EliassonA.HofmeyrJ.H. S.PedlerS.Hahn-HägerdalB.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tThe xylose reductase/xylitol dehydrogenase/xylulokinase ratio affects product formation in recombinant xylose-utilising Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 29\n\t\t\t\t\t4-5 , (September 2001), 288297 , 0141-0229'},{id:"B52",body:'ElisashviliV.KachlishviliE.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tPhysiological regulation of laccase and manganese peroxidase production by white-rot Basidiomycetes. Journal of Biotechnology. 144\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (October 2009), 3742 , 1873-4863'},{id:"B53",body:'EsteghlalianA.HashimotoA.FenskeJ.PennerM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tModeling and optimization of the dilute sulfuric-acid pretreatment of corn stover, poplar and switchgrass. Bioresource Technology. 59\n\t\t\t\t\t2-3 , (February 1997), 129136 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B54",body:'FAO.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Food and Agricultural commodities production. http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx.'},{id:"B55",body:'FerrisJ.JoshiS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Prospects for Ethanol and Biodiesel, 2008 to 2017 and Impacts on Agriculture and Food, In: Handbook of Bioenergy Economics and Policy, Khanna, M., Scheffran, J. & Zilberman, D., 91111 , Springer, 978-1-44190-369-3 New York.'},{id:"B56",body:'FissoreA.CarrascoL.ReyesP.RodríguezJ.FreerJ.MendonçaR. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tEvaluation of a combined brown rot decay-chemical delignification process as a pretreatment for bioethanol production from Pinus radiata wood chips. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 37\n\t\t\t\t\t9 (May 2010), 893900 , 1367-5435'},{id:"B57",body:'Frederick JrW. J.LienS. J.CourcheneC. E.De MartiniN. A.RagauskasA. J.IisaK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tCo-production of ethanol and cellulose fiber from Southern Pine: A technical and economic assessment. Biomass and Bioenergy. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t12 (December 2008), 12931302 , 0961-9534'},{id:"B58",body:'GaitanI. J.MedinaS. C.GonzalezJ. C.RodriguezA.EspejoA. J.OsmaJ. F.SarriaV.Almeciga-DiazC. J.SanchezO. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tEvaluation of toxicity and degradation of a chlorophenol mixture by the laccase produced by Trametes pubescens. Bioresource Technology. 102\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (February 2011), 36323635 , 1873-2976'},{id:"B59",body:'GalbeM.ZacchiG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tA review of the production of ethanol from softwood.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 59\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (September 2002), 618628 , 0175-7598'},{id:"B60",body:'GalhaupC.GollerS.PeterbauerC. K.StraussJ.HaltrichD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tCharacterization of the major laccase isoenzyme from Trametes pubescens and regulation of its synthesis by metal ions.\n\t\t\t\t\tMicrobiology. 148 No. Pt 7, (July 2002), 21592169 , 1350-0872'},{id:"B61",body:'GarlockR. J.BalanV.DaleB. E.RameshPallapolu. V.LeeY. Y.KimY.MosierN. S.LadischM. R.HoltzappleM. T.FallsM.SierraR.ShiJ.EbrikM. A.RedmondT.YangB.WymanC. E.DonohoeB. S.VinzantT. B.ElanderR. T.HamesB.ThomasS.WarnerR. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011 Comparative material balances around leading pretreatment technologies for the conversion of switchgrass to soluble sugars. Bioresource Technology. Vol. In Press, (n.d.), 0960-8524'},{id:"B62",body:'GhodakeG. S.KalmeS. D.JadhavJ. P.GovindwarS. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tPurification and partial characterization of lignin peroxidase from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus NCIM 2890 and its application in decolorization of textile dyes. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 152\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2009), 614 , 1559-0291'},{id:"B63",body:'GiererJ.StockholmS.\n\t\t\t\t\t1985\n\t\t\t\t\tChemistry of delignification. Part 1: General concept and reactions during pulping. Wood Science and Technology. 19 (n.d.), 289312 , 0043-7719'},{id:"B64",body:'GlasserW. G.SarkanenS.\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tLignin (American Chemical Society, 0-84121-631-2 DC.'},{id:"B65",body:'GoldembergJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tThe promise of clean energy. Energy Policy. 34 (Octuber 2006), 21852190 , 0301-4215'},{id:"B66",body:'GonçalvesA. R.EspositoE.BenarP.\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tEvaluation of Panus tigrinus in the delignification of sugarcane bagasse by FTIR-PCA and pulp properties. Journal of Biotechnology. 66\n\t\t\t\t\t2-3 , (December 1998), 177185 , 0168-1656'},{id:"B67",body:'GrohmannK.TorgetR.HimmelM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1985 Optimization of dilute-acid pretreatment of biomass. Biotechnology and Bioengineering Symposium. 15 (n.d.), 5980 , 0572-6565'},{id:"B68",body:'GuL.LajoieC.KellyC.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tExpression of a Phanerochaete chrysosporium manganese peroxidase gene in the yeast Pichia pastoris.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiotechnology Progress. 19\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (September 2003), 14031409 , 8756-7938'},{id:"B69",body:'GuayD. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Mechanisms of Oxidative Degradation of Carbohydrates During Oxygen delignification. I. Reaction of Photochemically generated Hydroxyl Radical with Methyl β-D-Glucoside. Journal of Wood Chemistry and Technology. 20\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (n.d.), 375394 , 0277-3813'},{id:"B70",body:'GuoG.L.HsuD.C.ChenW.H.ChenW.H.HwangW.S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tCharacterization of enzymatic saccharification for acid-pretreated lignocellulosic materials with different lignin composition. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 45\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (August 2009), 8087 , 0141-0229'},{id:"B71",body:'GuoM.LuF.DuL.PuJ.BaiD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tOptimization of the expression of a laccase gene from Trametes versicolor in Pichia methanolica. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 71\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (August 2006), 848852 , 0175-7598'},{id:"B72",body:'GuptaR.MehtaG.KhasaY. P.KuhadR. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tFungal delignification of lignocellulosic biomass improves the saccharification of cellulosics. Biodegradation. Vol. In press, (August 2010), 0923-9820'},{id:"B73",body:'HaddadinM. S.Al-NatourR.Al-QsousS.RobinsonR. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tBio-degradation of lignin in olive pomace by freshly-isolated species of Basidiomycete.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 82\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (April 2002), 131137 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B74",body:'HammelK. E.CullenD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tRole of fungal peroxidases in biological ligninolysis. Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 11\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (June 2008), 349355 , 1369-5266'},{id:"B75",body:'HarmsenP.HuijgenW.Bermúdez-LópezL.BakkerR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tLiterature Review of Physical and Chemical Pretreatment Processes for Lignocellulosic Biomass (1st ed.), 978-9-08585-757-0 Netherlands.'},{id:"B76",body:'HatakeyamaH.HatakeyamaT.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010a\n\t\t\t\t\tLignin Structure, Properties, and Applications, In: Biopolymers, Abe, A., Dusek, K. & Kobayashi, S., 163 , Springer, 978-3-64213-629-0 Berlin.'},{id:"B77",body:'HatakeyamaH.HatakeyamaT.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010b Thermal Properties of Isolated and in situ Lignin, In: Lignin and Lignans, Heitner, C., Dimmel, D. & Schmidt, J., 301319 , CRC Press, 978-1-57444-486-5 Boca Raton, FL.'},{id:"B78",body:'HatakeyamaT.HatakeyamaH.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Lignin, In: Thermal Properties of Green Polymers and Biocomposites, Hatakeyama, T. & Hatakeyama, H., 171215 , Springer, 1-40202-354-5'},{id:"B79",body:'HodgsonE. M.ListerS. J.BridgwaterA. V.Clifton-BrownJ.DonnisonI. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tGenotypic and environmentally derived variation in the cell wall composition of Miscanthus in relation to its use as a biomass feedstock. Biomass and Bioenergy. 34\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (May 2010), 652660 , 0961-9534'},{id:"B80",body:'HoltzappleM.HumphreyA.\n\t\t\t\t\t1984 The effect of organosolv pretreatment on the enzymic hydrolysis of poplar. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 26\n\t\t\t\t\t7 (July 1984), 670676 , 0006-3592'},{id:"B81",body:'HoltzappleM.JunJ.GaneshA.SrinivasP.DaleB.\n\t\t\t\t\t1991 The Ammonia Freeze Explosion (AFEX) Process: A Practical Lignocellulose Pretreatment. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 28-29 , 1 (March 1991), 5974 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B82",body:'HongY. Z.ZhouH. M.TuX. M.LiJ. F.XiaoY. Z.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tCloning of a laccase gene from a novel basidiomycete Trametes sp. 420 and its heterologous expression in Pichia pastoris. Current Microbiology. 54\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (April 2007), 260265 , 0343-8651'},{id:"B83",body:'JiangF.KongsaereeP.SchilkeK.LajoieC.KellyC.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tEffects of pH and temperature on recombinant manganese peroxidase production and stability. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 146\n\t\t\t\t\t1-3 , (March 2008), 1527 , 1559-0291'},{id:"B84",body:'JinS.ChenH.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tNear-infrared analysis of the chemical composition of rice straw. Industrial Crops and Products. 26\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (August 2007), 207211 , 0926-6690'},{id:"B85",body:'JohansonA.AaltonenO.YlinenP.\n\t\t\t\t\t1987 Organosolv pulping- method and pulp properties. Biomass. 13\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (n.d.), 4565 , 0144-4565'},{id:"B86",body:'JohanssonT.NymanP. O.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tA cluster of genes encoding major isozymes of lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase from the white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor.\n\t\t\t\t\tJohanssonT.NymanP. O. (1996). A cluster of genes encoding major isozymes of lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase from the white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor. Gene. Vol. 170, No. 1, (April 1996), pp. 31-8, ISSN 0378-1119.. 170\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (April 1996), 3138 , 0378-1119'},{id:"B87",body:'JohjimaT.ItohN.KabutoM.TokimuraF.NakagawaT.WariishiH.TanakaH.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tDirect interaction of lignin and lignin peroxidase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (March 1999), 19891994 , 0027-8424'},{id:"B88",body:'KalinciY.HepbasliA.DincerI.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tBiomass-based hydrogen production: A review and analysis. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 34\n\t\t\t\t\t21 (November 2009), 87998817 , 0360-3199'},{id:"B89",body:'KambamP. K. R.HensonM. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tEngineering bacterial processes for cellulosic ethanol production. Biofuels. 1\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (September 2010), 729743 , 1759-7269'},{id:"B90",body:'KanayamaN.TohruS.KeiichiK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tPurification and characterization of an alkaline manganese peroxidase from Aspergillus terreus LD-1.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 93\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (April 2002), 405410 , 1389-1723'},{id:"B91",body:'KannanK.OblisamiG.LoganathanB. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzymology of ligno-cellulose degradation by Pleurotus sajor-caju during growth on paper-mill sludge. Biological Wastes. 33\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 1990), 18 , 0269-7483'},{id:"B92",body:'KaparajuP.SerranoM.ThomsenA. B.KongjanP.AngelidakiI.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tBioethanol, biohydrogen and biogas production from wheat straw in a biorefinery concept. Bioresource Technology. 100\n\t\t\t\t\t9 (May 2009), 25622568 , 1873-2976'},{id:"B93",body:'KaurA.MahajanR.SinghA.GargG.SharmaJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tApplication of cellulase-free xylano-pectinolytic enzymes from the same bacterial isolate in biobleaching of kraft pulp. Bioresource Technology. 101\n\t\t\t\t\t23 (July 2010), 91509155 , 1873-2976'},{id:"B94",body:'KeegstraK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tPlant cell walls. Plant Physiology. 154\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (October 2010), 483486 , 1532-2548'},{id:"B95",body:'KhalilH. P. S. A.AlwaniM. S.OmarA. K. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 Chemical composition, anatomy, lignin distribution, and cell wall structure of Malaysian plant waste fibers. BioResources. 1\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (November 2006), 220232 ., 1930-2126'},{id:"B96",body:'KimS.HoltzappleM. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tLime pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of corn stover.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 96\n\t\t\t\t\t18 (December 2005), 19942006 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B97",body:'KimS.HoltzappleM. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tDelignification kinetics of corn stover in lime pretreatment. Bioresource Technology. 97\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (March 2006), 778785 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B98",body:'KimT. H.KimJ. S.SunwooC.LeeY. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tPretreatment of corn stover by aqueous ammonia.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 90\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (October 2003), 3947 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B99",body:'KlinkeH. B.AhringB. K.SchmidtA. S.ThomsenA. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Characterization of degradation products form alkaline wet oxidation of wheat straw. Bioresource Technology. 82 (March 2002), 1526 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B100",body:'KochevaL.KarmanovA.MironovM.BelyiV.BelyaevV.MonakovY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tStraw lignins: Hydrodynamic and conformational properties of the macromolecules. Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry. 81\n\t\t\t\t\t11 (November 2008), 20332039 , 1070-4272'},{id:"B101",body:'KopelmanR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1988\n\t\t\t\t\tFractal Reaction Kinetics. Science. 241\n\t\t\t\t\t4873 (September 1988), 16201626 , 0036-8075'},{id:"B102",body:'KosugiA.KondoA.UedaM.MurataY.VaithanomsatP.ThanapaseW.AraiT.MoriY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tProduction of ethanol from cassava pulp via fermentation with a surface-engineered yeast strain displaying glucoamylase. Renewable Energy. 34\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (May 2009), 13541358 , 0960-1481'},{id:"B103",body:'KumarP.BarrettD.DelwicheM.StroeveP.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tMethods for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for efficient hydrolysis and biofuel production. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 48\n\t\t\t\t\t8 (March 2009), 37133729 , 0888-5885'},{id:"B104",body:'KumarR.WymanC.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Does change in accesibility with conversion depend on both the substrate and the pretreatment technology? Bioresource Technology, 100 (September 2009), 41934202 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B105",body:'LeeJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tBiological conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Biotechnology. 56\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (July 1997), 124 , 0168-1656'},{id:"B106",body:'LeeJ.JeffriesT.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011 Efficiencies of acid catalyst in the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass over a range of combined severity factors. Bioresource Technology. Vol. In press, (n.d.), 0960-8524'},{id:"B107",body:'LeeY.ZhangwenW.TorgetR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Modeling of countercurrent shringking-bed reactor in dilute-acid total-hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Bioresource Technology. 71\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2000), 2939 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B108",body:'LiB.Z.BalanV.YuanY.J.DaleB. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tProcess optimization to convert forage and sweet sorghum bagasse to ethanol based on ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) pretreatment. Bioresource Technology. 101\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (February 2010), 12851292 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B109",body:'LiJ.GunnarH.GóranG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Lignin depolymerization/repolymerization and its critical role for deligniWcation of aspen wood by steam explosion. Bioresource Technology. 98 (n.d.), 30613068 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B110",body:'LiJ.HenriksoonG.GellerstedtG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tCarbohydrate reactions during high-temperature steam treatment of aspen wood. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 125\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (June 2005), 175188 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B111",body:'LiX.KondoR.SakaiK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tBiodegradation of sugarcane bagasse with marine fungus Phlebia sp. MG-60. Journal of Wood Science. 48\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (April 2002), 159162 , 1435-0211'},{id:"B112",body:'LiY.ParkS. Y.ZhuJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tSolid-state anaerobic digestion for methane production from organic waste. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 15\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2011), 821826 , 1364-0321'},{id:"B113",body:'LuC.WangH.LuoY.GuoL.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tAn efficient system for pre-delignification of gramineous biofuel feedstock in vitro: Application of a laccase from Pycnoporus sanguineus H275. Process Biochemistry. 45\n\t\t\t\t\t7 (July 2010), 11411147 , 1359-5113'},{id:"B114",body:'MartinezA. T.Ruiz-DuenasF. J.MartinezM. J.Del RioJ. C.GutierrezA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzymatic delignification of plant cell wall: from nature to mill. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 20\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (June 2009), 348357 , 1879-0429'},{id:"B115",body:'MartinezA. T.SperanzaM.Ruiz-DuenasF. J.FerreiraP.CamareroS.GuillenF.MartinezM. J.GutierrezA.del RioJ. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tBiodegradation of lignocellulosics: microbial, chemical, and enzymatic aspects of the fungal attack of lignin.\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Microbiology. 8\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (September 2005), 195204 , 1139-6709'},{id:"B116",body:'Mc MillanJ. Process for pretreating lignocellulosic biomass: a review, In: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Available from: http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=7171656'},{id:"B117",body:'MezaJ. C.SigoillotJ. C.LomascoloA.NavarroD.AuriaR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tNew process for fungal delignification of sugar-cane bagasse and simultaneous production of laccase in a vapor phase bioreactor.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemis ry. 54\n\t\t\t\t\t11 (May 2006), 38523858 , 0021-8561'},{id:"B118",body:'MielenzJ. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tEthanol production from biomass: technology and commercialization status.\n\t\t\t\t\tCurrent Opinion in Microbiology. 4\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (June 2001), 324329 , 1369-5274'},{id:"B119",body:'MishraM.ThakurI. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tIsolation and characterization of alkalotolerant bacteria and optimization of process parameters for decolorization and detoxification of pulp and paper mill effluent by Taguchi approach. Biodegradation. 21\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (April 2010), 967978 , 0923-9820'},{id:"B120",body:'MorinellyJ.JensenJ.BrowneM.CoT.ShonnardD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tKinetic characterization of xylose monomer and oligomer concentrations during dilute acid pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass from forests and switchgrass. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 48\n\t\t\t\t\t22 (September 2009), 98779884 , 0888-5885'},{id:"B121",body:'MosierN.WymanC.DaleB.ElanderR.LeeY. Y.HoltzappleM.LadischM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tFeatures of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 96\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (April 2005), 673686 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B122",body:'MussattoS. I.RobertoI. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tAlternatives for detoxification of diluted-acid lignocellulosic hydrolyzates for use in fermentative processes: a review.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 93\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (May 2004), 110 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B123",body:'NaikS. N.GoudV. V.RoutP. K.DalaiA. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tProduction of first and second generation biofuels: A comprehensive review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 14 (February 2010), 578597 , 0136-4032'},{id:"B124",body:'NanguneriD.HesterR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tAcid/sugar separation using ion exclusion resins: A process analysis and a design. Separation Science and Technology. 25\n\t\t\t\t\t13-15 , (n.d.), 18291842 , 1520-5754'},{id:"B125",body:'NicholsN. N.DienB. S.CottaM. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tFermentation of bioenergy crops into ethanol using biological abatement for removal of inhibitors. Bioresource Technology. 101\n\t\t\t\t\t19 (October 2010), 75457550 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B126",body:'NieG.ReadingN. S.AustS. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tExpression of the lignin peroxidase H2 gene from Phanerochaete chrysosporium in Escherichia coli.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 249\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (August 1998), 146150 , 0000-6291X.'},{id:"B127",body:'OsonoT.TakedaH.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tFungal decomposition of Abies needle and Betula leaf litter.\n\t\t\t\t\tMycologia. 98\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (March 2006), 172179 , 0027-5514'},{id:"B128",body:'PalmqvistE.Hahn-HägerdalB.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tFermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. I: inhibition and detoxification. Bioresource Technology. 74\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (August 2000), 1724 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B129",body:'PanX.GilkesN.SaddlerJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of acetyl groups on enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic substrates. Holzforschung. 60\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (n.d.), 398401 , 0018-3830'},{id:"B130",body:'PandeyP.PandeyA. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tProduction of cellulase-free thermostable xylanases by an isolated strain of Aspergillus niger PPI, utilizing various lignocellulosic wastes. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 18\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (April 2002), 281283 , 0959-3993'},{id:"B131",body:'PellinenJ.AbuhasanJ.JoyceT. W.ChangH. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tBiological delignification of pulp by Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Journal of Biotechnology. 10\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t161170 , 0168-1656'},{id:"B132",body:'PerezJ.Munoz-DoradoJ.de la RubiaT.MartinezJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tBiodegradation and biological treatments of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin: an overview. International Microbiology. 5\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (June 2002), 5363 , 1139-6709'},{id:"B133",body:'PiarpuzánD.QuinteroJ. A.CardonaC. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tEmpty fruit bunches from oil palm as a potential raw material for fuel ethanol production. Biomass and Bioenergy. 35\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (March 2011), 11301137 , 0961-9534'},{id:"B134",body:'PingaliS.UrbanV.HellerW.Mc GaugheyJ.O’NeillH.FostonM.MylesD.RagauskasA.EvansB.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tBreakdown of Cell Wall Nanostructure in Dilute Acid Pretreated Biomass. Biomacromolecules. 11\n\t\t\t\t\t9 (August 2010), 23292335 , 1525-7797'},{id:"B135",body:'PiontekK.SmithA. T.BlodigW.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tLignin peroxidase structure and function.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemical Society Transactions. 29 No. Pt 2, (May 2001), 111116 , 0300-5127'},{id:"B136",body:'PRB.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tWorld Population Data Sheet, In:\n\t\t\t\t\tPopulation Reference Burea, Available from: http://www.prb.org/pdf10/10wpds_eng.pdf'},{id:"B137",body:'PunelliF.ReverberiM.PorrettaD.NogarottoS.FabbriA. A.FanelliC.UrbanelliS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tMolecular characterization and enzymatic activity of laccases in two Pleurotus spp. with different pathogenic behaviour.\n\t\t\t\t\tMycological Research. 113 No. Pt 3, (March 2009), 381387 , 0953-7562'},{id:"B138",body:'RagauskasA. J.WilliamsC. K.DavisonB. H.BritovsekG.CairneyJ.EckertC. A.FrederickW. J.Jr HallettJ. P.LeakD. J.LiottaC. L.MielenzJ. R.MurphyR.TemplerR.TschaplinskiT.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tThe path forward for biofuels and biomaterials. Science. 311\n\t\t\t\t\t5760 (January 2006), 484489 , 1095-9203'},{id:"B139",body:'RalphJ.LanducciL.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 NMR of Lignins, In: Lignin and Lignans, Heitner, C., Dimmel, D. & Schmidt, J., 137243 , CRC Press, 1-57444-486-5 Raton, FL.'},{id:"B140",body:'RanieriD.ColaoM. C.RuzziM.RomagnoliG.BianchiM. M.\n\t\t\t\t2009 Optimization of recombinant fungal laccase production with strains of the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis from the pyruvate decarboxylase promoter. FEMS Yeast Research. 9\n\t\t\t\t6 (September 2009), 892902 , 1567-1364'},{id:"B141",body:'ReddyN.YangY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tBiofibers from agricultural byproducts for industrial applications.\n\t\t\t\t\tTrends in Biotechnology. 23\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2005), 2227 , 0167-7799'},{id:"B142",body:'RivaS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tLaccases: blue enzymes for green chemistry. Trends in Biotechnology. 24\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (May 2006), 219226 , 0167-7799'},{id:"B143",body:'RodriguezE.Ruiz-DuenasF. J.KooistraR.RamA.MartinezA. T.MartinezM. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tIsolation of two laccase genes from the white-rot fungus Pleurotus eryngii and heterologous expression of the pel3 encoded protein. Journal of Biotechnology. 134\n\t\t\t\t\t1-2 , (March 2008), 919 , 0168-1656'},{id:"B144",body:'RuizE.CaraC.BallesterosM.ManzanaresP.BallesterosI.CastroE.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tEthanol Production From Pretreated Olive Tree Wood and Sunflower Stalks by an SSF Process, In: Twenty-Seventh Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals, McMillan, J. D., Adney, W. S., Mielenz, J. R. & Klasson, K. T., 631643 , Humana Press, 978-1-59745-268-7 New York, NY.'},{id:"B145",body:'RyuK.KangJ. H.WangL.LeeE. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tExpression in yeast of secreted lignin peroxidase with improved 2,4-dichlorophenol degradability by DNA shuffling. Journal of Biotechnology. 135\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (June 2008), 241246 , 0168-1656'},{id:"B146",body:'SaloheimoM.BarajasV.Niku-PaavolaM. L.KnowlesJ. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tA lignin peroxidase-encoding cDNA from the white-rot fungus Phlebia radiata: characterization and expression in Trichoderma reesei.\n\t\t\t\t\tGene. 85\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (December 1989), 343351 , 0378-1119'},{id:"B147",body:'SalonyGarg. N.BaranwalR.ChhabraM.MishraS.ChaudhuriT. K.BisariaV. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tLaccase of Cyathus bulleri: structural, catalytic characterization and expression in Escherichia coli.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1784\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (February 2008), 259268 , 0006-3002'},{id:"B148",body:'Sanchez, D. Recausticizing: Principles and practice, In: Vector process equipment Inc., Available from: http://www.tappi.org/content/events/08kros/manuscripts/2-1.pdf'},{id:"B149",body:'SánchezÓ. J.CardonaC. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tTrends in biotechnological production of fuel ethanol from different feedstocks. Bioresource Technology. 99\n\t\t\t\t\t13 (September 2008), 52705295 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B150",body:'SannigrahiP.RagauskasA.MillerS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Effects of Two-Stage Dilute Acid Pretreatment on the Structure and Composition of Lignin and Cellulose in Loblolly Pine Bioenegy Research. 1\n\t\t\t\t\t3-4 , (December 2008), 205214 , 1939-1234'},{id:"B151",body:'SarkanenS.RazalR. A.PiccarielloT.YamamotoE.LewisN. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tLignin peroxidase: toward a clarification of its role in vivo.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Biological Chemistry. 266\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (February 1991), 36363643 , 0021-9258'},{id:"B152",body:'SchellD.FarmerJ.NewmanM.Mc MillanJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tDilute-sulfuric acid pretreatment of corn stover in pilot-scale reactor. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 105\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (n.d.), 6985 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B153",body:'SchellerH. V.UlvskovP.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Hemicelluloses. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 61\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (Junuary 2010), 263289 , 1545-2123'},{id:"B154",body:'SchmidtJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Electronic Spectroscopy of Lignins, In: Lignin and Lignans, Heitner, C., Dimmel, D. & Schmidt, J., 49102 , CRC Press, 1-57444-486-5 Raton.'},{id:"B155",body:'SeligM. J.ViamajalaS.DeckerS. R.TukerM. P.HimmelM. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tDeposition of lignin droplets produced during dilute acid pretreatment of maize stems retards enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose. Biotechnology Progress. 23\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (November 2007), 13331339 , 8756-7938'},{id:"B156",body:'ShafieeS.TopalE.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 When will fossil fuel reserves be diminished? Energy Policy. 37\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2009), 181189 , 0301-4215'},{id:"B157",body:'ShaoQ.ChundawatS.KrishnanC.BalsB.Leonardoda.CostaSousa. L.ThelenK.DaleB.BalanV.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzymatic digestibility and ethanol fermentability of AFEX-treated starch-rich lignocellulosics such as corn silage and whole corn plant. Biotechnology for biofuels. 3\n\t\t\t\t\t12 (January 2010), 1754-6834'},{id:"B158",body:'SharmaR. K.AroraD. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tChanges in biochemical constituents of paddy straw during degradation by white rot fungi and its impact on in vitro digestibility. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 109\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (February 2010), 679686 , 1364-5072'},{id:"B159",body:'SharmaS. K.KalraK. L.GrewalH. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzymatic saccharification of pretreated sunflower stalks. Biomass and Bioenergy. 23\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (September 2002), 237243 , 0961-9534'},{id:"B160",body:'ShiJ.Sharma-ShivappaR. R.ChinnM. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tMicrobial pretreatment of cotton stalks by submerged cultivation of Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Bioresource Technology. 100\n\t\t\t\t\t19 (October 2009), 43884395 , 1873-2976'},{id:"B161",body:'SierraR.GarcíaL.HoltzappleM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011a\n\t\t\t\t\tSelectivity and delignification kinetics for oxidative short-term lime pretreatment of poplar wood. Part I: constant-pressure. Biotechnology Progress. Vol. In press, 1520-6033'},{id:"B162",body:'SierraR.GarciaL.HoltzappleM.LaverdeD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011b\n\t\t\t\t\tSelectivity and delignification kinetics for oxidative short-term lime pretreatment of poplar wood. Part II: varying pressure. Biotechnology Progress. Vol. In press, 1520-6033'},{id:"B163",body:'SierraR.GrandaC. B.HoltzappleM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009a\n\t\t\t\t\tLime Pretreatment, In: Biofuels: Methods and Protocols, Mielenz, J. R., 115124 , Humana Press, 978-1-60761-213-1 New York.'},{id:"B164",body:'SierraR.GrandaC. B.HoltzappleM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009b\n\t\t\t\t\tShort-Term Lime Pretreatment of Poplar Wood. Biotechnology Progress. 25\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (March 2009), 323332 , 1520-6033'},{id:"B165",body:'SierraR.HoltzappleM.GrandaC. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tLong-term Lime Pretreatment of Poplar Wood. AIChE Journal. 57\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (July 2010), 13201328 , 0001-1541'},{id:"B166",body:'SierraR.SmithA.GrandaC. B.HoltzappleM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tProducing Fuels and Chemicals from Lignocellulosic Biomass. Chemical Engineering Progress. 104\n\t\t\t\t\t8 (August 2008), S10S18 .'},{id:"B167",body:'SilvaC. J. S. M.RobertoI. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tImprovement of xylitol production by Candida guilliermondii FTI 20037 previously adapted to rice straw hemicellulosic hydrolysate.\n\t\t\t\t\tLetters in Applied Microbiology. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (April 2001), 248252 , 0147-2765X.'},{id:"B168",body:'SimmonsB. A.LoqueD.BlanchH. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tNext-generation biomass feedstocks for biofuel production. Genome Biology. 9\n\t\t\t\t\t242 (December 2008), 1465-6914'},{id:"B169",body:'SimonneA.SimonneE.EitenmillerR.MillsH.CresmanC.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Could the Dumas Method Replace the Kjeldahl Digestion for Nitrogen and Crude Protein Determinations in Foods? Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 73\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (n.d.), 3945 , 1097-0010'},{id:"B170",body:'SinclairR.YamazakiI.BumpusJ.BrockB.ChangC. S.AlboA.PowersL.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992\n\t\t\t\t\tStructure of the active site of lignin peroxidase isozyme H2: native enzyme, compound III, and reduced form.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemistry. 31\n\t\t\t\t\t20 (May 1992), 48924900 , 0006-2960'},{id:"B171",body:'SinghP.SumanA.TiwariP.AryaN.GaurA.ShrivastavaA. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tBiological pretreatment of sugarcane trash for its conversion to fermentable sugars. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 24\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (May 2008), 667673 , 0959-3993'},{id:"B172",body:'SjöströmE.\n\t\t\t\t\t1981 The chemistry of oxygen delignification. Paperi ja puu. 63\n\t\t\t\t\t6-7 , (n.d.), 438442 , 0031-1243'},{id:"B173",body:'SluiterA.HamesB.RuizR.ScarlataC.SluiterJ.TempletonD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tDetermination of Structural Carbohydrates and Lignin in Biomass. (1st edition), National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO.'},{id:"B174",body:'SterjiadesR.DeanJ.GambleG.HimmelsbachD.ErikssonK.\n\t\t\t\t\t1993 Extracellular laccases and peroxidases from sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) cell-suspension cultures- Reactions with monolignols and lignin model compounds. Planta. 190\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (May 1993), 7587 , 0032-0935'},{id:"B175",body:'SugiuraT.YamagishiK.KimuraT.NishidaT.KawagishiH.HiraiH.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tCloning and homologous expression of novel lignin peroxidase genes in the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 73\n\t\t\t\t\t8 (August 2009), 17931798 , 1347-6947'},{id:"B176",body:'SunY.ChengJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tHydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials for ethanol production: a review.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 83\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (May 2002), 111 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B177",body:'SundaramoorthyM.GoldM. H.PoulosT. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tUltrahigh (0.93A) resolution structure of manganese peroxidase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium: implications for the catalytic mechanism. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 104\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (June 2010), 683690 , 1873-3344'},{id:"B178",body:'SusiloJ.BenningtonC. P. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tModelling Kappa Number and Pulp Viscosity in Industrial Oxygen Delignification Systems. Chemical Engineering Research and Design. 85\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (n.d.), 872881 , 0263-8762'},{id:"B179",body:'SzczodrakJ.FiedurekJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tTechnology for conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol. Biomass and Bioenergy. 10\n\t\t\t\t\t5-6 , (July 1996), 367375 , 0961-9534'},{id:"B180",body:'TamakiY.MazzaG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tMeasurement of structural carbohydrates, lignins, and micro-components of straw and shives: Effects of extractives, particle size and crop species. Industrial Crops and Products. 31\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (May 2010), 534541 , 0926-6690'},{id:"B181",body:'TanksaleA.BeltraminiJ. N.LuG. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tA review of catalytic hydrogen production processes from biomass. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 14\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (January 2010), 166182 , 1364-0321'},{id:"B182",body:'TempletonD.SluiterA.HaywardT.HamesB.ThomasS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tAssessing corn stover composition and sources of variability via NIRS. Cellulose. 16\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (August 2009), 621639 , 0969-0239'},{id:"B183",body:'ThringR.ChornetE.QverendR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tRecovery of a solvolytic lignin: effects of spent liquor/acid volume ratio, acid concentration and temperature.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiomass. 23 (n.d), 289305 , 0144-4565'},{id:"B184",body:'TimofeevskiS. L.AustS. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tEffects of Mn2+ and oxalate on the catalatic activity of manganese peroxidase.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 239\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (October 1997), 645649 , 0000-6291X.'},{id:"B185",body:'ToivariM. H.SalusjarviL.RuohonenL.PenttilaM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tEndogenous Xylose Pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied and Environment Microbiology. 70\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (June 2004), 36813686 , 0099-2240'},{id:"B186",body:'TorgashovV.GertE.ZubetsO.KaputskiiF.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tA comparative study of isolation conditions, morphology, and properties of cellulose obtained from the stalks of cereals and oil-yielding plants. Russian Journal of Bioorganic Chemistry. 36\n\t\t\t\t\t7 (December 2010), 838846 , 1068-1620'},{id:"B187",body:'TripathiM. K.MishraA. S.MisraA. K.VaithiyanathanS.PrasadR.JakhmolaR. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tSelection of white-rot basidiomycetes for bioconversion of mustard (Brassica compestris) straw under solid-state fermentation into energy substrate for rumen micro-organism. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 46\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (March 2008), 364370 , 0147-2765X.'},{id:"B188",body:'TurnerD.XuH.CracknellR. F.NatarajanV.ChenX.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tCombustion performance of bio-ethanol at various blend ratios in a gasoline direct injection engine. Fuel. 90\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (May 2011), 19992006 , 0016-2361'},{id:"B189",body:'VasquezM. P.daSilva. J. N.de SouzaM. B.Jr PereiraN.Jr \n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzymatic hydrolysis optimization to ethanol production by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 137-140 , 1-12 , (April 2007), 141153 , 1559-0291'},{id:"B190",body:'VicuñaR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tLigninolysis. A very peculiar microbial process.\n\t\t\t\t\tMolecular Biotechnology. 14\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (February 2000), 173176 , 1073-6085'},{id:"B191",body:'VinuselviP.ParkJ. M.LeeJ. M.OhK.GhimC.M.LeeS. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tEngineering microorganisms for biofuel production. Biofuels. 2\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (February 2011), 153166 , 1759-7269'},{id:"B192",body:'VriesS.C.dVenG. W.J.v.dIttersumM.K.vGillerK. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tResource use efficiency and environmental performance of nine major biofuel crops, processed by first-generation conversion techniques. Biomass and Bioenergy. 34 (May 2010), 588601 , 0961-9534'},{id:"B193",body:'WanC.LiY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tMicrobial delignification of corn stover by Ceriporiopsis subvermispora for improving cellulose digestibility. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 47\n\t\t\t\t\t1-2 , (July 2010), 3136 , 0141-0229'},{id:"B194",body:'WangW.WenX.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tExpression of lignin peroxidase H2 from Phanerochaete chrysosporium by multi-copy recombinant Pichia strain. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China). 21\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (February 2009), 218222 , 1001-0742'},{id:"B195",body:'WangZ. M.BleakleyB. H.CrawfordD. L.HertelG.RafiiF.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tCloning and expression of a lignin peroxidase gene from Streptomyces viridosporus in Streptomyces lividans.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Biotechnology. 13\n\t\t\t\t\t2-3 , (February 1990), 131144 , 0168-1656'},{id:"B196",body:'WariishiH.ValliK.GoldM. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 Manganese(II) oxidation by manganese peroxidase from the basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Kinetic mechanism and role of chelators. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 267\n\t\t\t\t\t33 (November 1992), 2368823695 , 0021-9258'},{id:"B197",body:'WhitwamR. E.BrownK. R.MusickM.NatanM. J.TienM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Mutagenesis of the Mn2+-binding site of manganese peroxidase affects oxidation of Mn2+ by both compound I and compound II. Biochemistry. 36\n\t\t\t\t\t32 (August 1997), 97669773 , 0006-2960'},{id:"B198",body:'WongD. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tStructure and action mechanism of ligninolytic enzymes. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 157\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (May 2009), 174209 , 1559-0291'},{id:"B199",body:'WymanC.LloydT. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Combined sugar yields for dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment of corn stover followed by enzymatic hydrolysis of the remaining solids Bioresource Technology. 96\n\t\t\t\t\t18 (December 2005), 19671977 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B200",body:'WymanC. E.DaleB. E.ElanderR. T.HoltzappleM.LadischM. R.LeeY. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005a\n\t\t\t\t\tComparative sugar recovery data from laboratory scale application of leading pretreatment technologies to corn stover.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 96\n\t\t\t\t\t18 (December 2005), 20262032 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B201",body:'WymanC. E.DaleB. E.ElanderR. T.HoltzappleM.LadischM. R.LeeY. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005b\n\t\t\t\t\tCoordinated development of leading biomass pretreatment technologies.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresource Technology. 96\n\t\t\t\t\t18 (December 2005), 19591966 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B202",body:'WymanC. E.DaleB. E.ElanderR. T.HoltzappleM.LadischM. R.LeeY. Y.SaddlerJ. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tComparative sugar recovery and fermentation data following pretreatment of poplar wood by leading technologies. Biotechnology Progress. 25\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (March 2009), 333339 , 1520-6033'},{id:"B203",body:'XiaoY. Z.HongY. Z.LiJ. F.HangJ.TongP. G.FangW.ZhouC. Z.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tCloning of novel laccase isozyme genes from Trametes sp. AH28-2 and analyses of their differential expression. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 71\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (July 2006), 493501 , 0175-7598'},{id:"B204",body:'YanceyM.KadamK.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tBiomass to ethanol facility design, cost estimate, and financial evaluation: Volume I. (1st ed.), National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Gorlden, CO.'},{id:"B205",body:'YuH.DuW.ZhangJ.MaF.ZhangX.ZhongW.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010a\n\t\t\t\t\tFungal treatment of cornstalks enhances the delignification and xylan loss during mild alkaline pretreatment and enzymatic digestibility of glucan. Bioresource Technology. 101\n\t\t\t\t\t17 (September 2010), 67286734 , 1873-2976'},{id:"B206",body:'YuH.ZhangX.SongL.KeJ.XuC.DuW.ZhangJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010b\n\t\t\t\t\tEvaluation of white-rot fungi-assisted alkaline/oxidative pretreatment of corn straw undergoing enzymatic hydrolysis by cellulase. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 110\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (December 2010), 660664 , 1389-1723'},{id:"B207",body:'YuQ.ZhuangX.YuanZ.WangQ.QiW.WangW.ZhangY.XuJ.XuH.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010c\n\t\t\t\t\tTwo-step liquid hot water pretreatment of Eucalyptus grandis to enhance sugar recovery and enzymatic digestibility of cellulose. Bioresource Technology. 101\n\t\t\t\t\t13 (July 2010), 48954899 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B208",body:'YuY.FengY.XuC.LiuJ.LiD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tOnsite bio-detoxification of steam-exploded corn stover for cellulosic ethanol production. Bioresource Technology. 102\n\t\t\t\t\t8 (January 2011), 51235128 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B209",body:'ZerbiniJ. E.OliveiraE. M.BonE. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tLignin peroxidase production by Streptomyces viridosporus T7A: nitrogen nutrition optimization using glucose as carbon source.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 77-79 , (March 1999), 681688 , 0273-2289'},{id:"B210",body:'ZhangG.ZhangL.DengH.SunP.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tPreparation and characterization of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose from cotton stalk using microwave heating. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology. Vol. In press, (n.d.), 1097-4660'},{id:"B211",body:'ZhangY. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tReviving the carbohydrate economy via multi-product lignocellulose biorefineries. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 35\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (May 2008), 367375 , 1367-5435'},{id:"B212",body:'ZhaoX.ChenK.LiuD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tOrganosolv pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for enzymatic hydrolysis. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 82\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (April 2009), 815827 , 0175-7598'},{id:"B213",body:'ZhaoX.ZhangL.LiuD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tComparative study on chemical pretreatment methods for improving enzymatic digestibility of crofton weed stem. Bioresource Technology. 99\n\t\t\t\t\t9 (June 2008), 37293736 , 0960-8524'},{id:"B214",body:'ZhuL.O’DwyerJ. P.ChangV. S.GrandaC. B.HoltzappleM. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tStructural features affecting biomass enzymatic digestibility. Bioresource Technology. 99\n\t\t\t\t\t9 (June 2008), 38173828 , 0960-8524'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jai- Oscar Sánchez1",address:"",affiliation:'
1Universidad de Los Andes, Chemical Engineering Department, Colombia
1Universidad de Los Andes, Chemical Engineering Department, Colombia
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Carlos J. Alméciga-Díaz2",address:"",affiliation:'
1Universidad de Los Andes, Chemical Engineering Department, Colombia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"325",title:"Alternative Fuel",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Alternative Fuel",slug:"alternative-fuel",publishedDate:"August 9th 2011",bookSignature:"Maximino Manzanera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/325.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27371",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximino",middleName:null,surname:"Manzanera",slug:"maximino-manzanera",fullName:"Maximino Manzanera"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"17583",title:"Biodiesel Production by Using Heterogeneous Catalysts",slug:"biodiesel-production-by-using-heterogeneous-catalysts",totalDownloads:15988,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Rubi Romero, Sandra Luz Martínez and Reyna Natividad",authors:[{id:"54382",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubi",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",fullName:"Rubi Romero",slug:"rubi-romero"},{id:"57495",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandra Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez",fullName:"Sandra Luz Martínez",slug:"sandra-luz-martinez"},{id:"57496",title:"Dr.",name:"Reyna",middleName:null,surname:"Natividad",fullName:"Reyna Natividad",slug:"reyna-natividad"}]},{id:"17584",title:"An Overview of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions and Alternative Feedstock for Biodiesel Production",slug:"an-overview-of-enzyme-catalyzed-reactions-and-alternative-feedstock-for-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:5037,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Maria Manuela Camino Feltes, Débora de Oliveira, Jorge Luiz Ninow and José Vladimir de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"55230",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Camino Feltes",fullName:"Maria Manuela Camino Feltes",slug:"maria-manuela-camino-feltes"},{id:"57306",title:"Prof.",name:"Débora",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",fullName:"Débora De Oliveira",slug:"debora-de-oliveira"},{id:"57307",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge Luiz",middleName:null,surname:"Ninow",fullName:"Jorge Luiz Ninow",slug:"jorge-luiz-ninow"},{id:"57308",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",fullName:"Jose Vladimir De Oliveira",slug:"jose-vladimir-de-oliveira"}]},{id:"17585",title:"Biodiesel Fuel Production by Enzymatic Transesterification of Oils: Recent Trends, Challenges and Future Perspectives",slug:"biodiesel-fuel-production-by-enzymatic-transesterification-of-oils-recent-trends-challenges-and-futu",totalDownloads:10534,totalCrossrefCites:9,signatures:"Nevena Luković, Zorica Knežević-Jugović and Dejan Bezbradica",authors:[{id:"45320",title:"MSc",name:"Nevena",middleName:null,surname:"Lukovic",fullName:"Nevena Lukovic",slug:"nevena-lukovic"},{id:"57079",title:"Prof.",name:"Dejan",middleName:null,surname:"Bezbradica",fullName:"Dejan Bezbradica",slug:"dejan-bezbradica"},{id:"57080",title:"Dr.",name:"Zorica",middleName:null,surname:"Knežević-Jugović",fullName:"Zorica Knežević-Jugović",slug:"zorica-knezevic-jugovic"}]},{id:"17586",title:"Engine Test of Bio-Diesel Manufactured from Waste Cooking Oil and Reward Preferential Benefit Analyses for Its Promotion",slug:"engine-test-of-bio-diesel-manufactured-from-waste-cooking-oil-and-reward-preferential-benefit-analys",totalDownloads:2423,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jai-Houng Leu",authors:[{id:"44408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jai-Houng",middleName:null,surname:"Leu",fullName:"Jai-Houng Leu",slug:"jai-houng-leu"}]},{id:"17587",title:"Waste Animal Fats with High FFA as a Renewable Energy Source for Biodiesel Production - Concept, Experimental Production and Impact Evaluation on Air Quality",slug:"waste-animal-fats-with-high-ffa-as-a-renewable-energy-source-for-biodiesel-production-concept-experi",totalDownloads:3685,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Francisc Popescu and Ioana Ionel",authors:[{id:"11036",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionel",fullName:"Ioana Ionel",slug:"ioana-ionel"},{id:"11047",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisc",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",fullName:"Francisc Popescu",slug:"francisc-popescu"}]},{id:"17588",title:"Delignification Process of Agro-Industrial Wastes an Alternative to Obtain Fermentable Carbohydrates for Producing Fuel",slug:"delignification-process-of-agro-industrial-wastes-an-alternative-to-obtain-fermentable-carbohydrates",totalDownloads:6690,totalCrossrefCites:10,signatures:"Oscar Sánchez, Roció Sierra and Carlos J. Alméciga-Díaz",authors:[{id:"47504",title:"MSc",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez",fullName:"Oscar Sanchez",slug:"oscar-sanchez"},{id:"56842",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocio",middleName:null,surname:"Sierra",fullName:"Rocio Sierra",slug:"rocio-sierra"},{id:"56843",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"Javier",surname:"Almeciga-Diaz",fullName:"Carlos Almeciga-Diaz",slug:"carlos-almeciga-diaz"}]},{id:"17589",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Spark Ignition Engine Fuelled with Ethanol and Methanol Gasoline Blended Fuels",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-spark-ignition-engine-fuelled-with-ethanol-and-methanol-",totalDownloads:11512,totalCrossrefCites:9,signatures:"Ioannis Gravalos, Dimitrios Moshou, Theodoros Gialamas, Panagiotis Xyradakis, Dimitrios Kateris and Zisis Tsiropoulos",authors:[{id:"50923",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Gravalos",fullName:"Ioannis Gravalos",slug:"ioannis-gravalos"},{id:"57241",title:"Prof.",name:"Theodoros",middleName:null,surname:"Gialamas",fullName:"Theodoros Gialamas",slug:"theodoros-gialamas"},{id:"57242",title:"MSc.",name:"Panagiotis",middleName:null,surname:"Xyradakis",fullName:"Panagiotis Xyradakis",slug:"panagiotis-xyradakis"},{id:"57244",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kateris",fullName:"Dimitrios Kateris",slug:"dimitrios-kateris"},{id:"57245",title:"MSc",name:"Zisis",middleName:null,surname:"Tsiropoulos",fullName:"Zisis Tsiropoulos",slug:"zisis-tsiropoulos"},{id:"101768",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Moshou",fullName:"Dimitrios Moshou",slug:"dimitrios-moshou"}]},{id:"17590",title:"Use of Charcoal and Partially Pirolysed Biomaterial in Fly Ash to Produce Briquettes: Sugarcane Bagasse",slug:"use-of-charcoal-and-partially-pirolysed-biomaterial-in-fly-ash-to-produce-briquettes-sugarcane-bagas",totalDownloads:6262,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Silvio Rainho Teixeira, Agda Eunice de Souza, Angel Fidel Vilche Peña, Regiane Godoy de Lima and Álvaro Gil Miguel",authors:[{id:"39266",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvio Rainho",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Silvio Rainho Teixeira",slug:"silvio-rainho-teixeira"},{id:"57428",title:"Dr.",name:"Angel Fidel",middleName:null,surname:"Vilche Peña",fullName:"Angel Fidel Vilche Peña",slug:"angel-fidel-vilche-pena"},{id:"57429",title:"MSc.",name:"Agda Eunice",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Agda Eunice Souza",slug:"agda-eunice-souza"},{id:"57430",title:"BSc.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Gil Miguel",fullName:"Alvaro Gil Miguel",slug:"alvaro-gil-miguel"},{id:"57431",title:"BSc.",name:"Regiane",middleName:null,surname:"Godoy De Lima",fullName:"Regiane Godoy De Lima",slug:"regiane-godoy-de-lima"}]},{id:"17591",title:"Biomass Waste as a Renewable Source of Biogas Production - Experiments",slug:"biomass-waste-as-a-renewable-source-of-biogas-production-experiments",totalDownloads:5601,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Adrian Eugen Cioablă and Ioana Ionel",authors:[{id:"11036",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionel",fullName:"Ioana Ionel",slug:"ioana-ionel"},{id:"61179",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Cioabla",fullName:"Adrian Eugen Cioabla",slug:"adrian-eugen-cioabla"}]},{id:"17592",title:"Influential Parameters on Biomethane Generation in Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Plants",slug:"influential-parameters-on-biomethane-generation-in-anaerobic-wastewater-treatment-plants",totalDownloads:5469,totalCrossrefCites:11,signatures:"Meisam Tabatabaei, Alawi Sulaiman, Ali M. Nikbakht, Norjan Yusof and Ghasem Najafpour",authors:[{id:"54639",title:"Prof.",name:"Alawi",middleName:null,surname:"Sulaiman",fullName:"Alawi Sulaiman",slug:"alawi-sulaiman"},{id:"58880",title:"Dr.",name:"Meisam",middleName:null,surname:"Tabatabaei",fullName:"Meisam Tabatabaei",slug:"meisam-tabatabaei"},{id:"58882",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"M. Nikbakht",fullName:"Ali M. Nikbakht",slug:"ali-m.-nikbakht"},{id:"58883",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghasem",middleName:null,surname:"Najafpour",fullName:"Ghasem Najafpour",slug:"ghasem-najafpour"},{id:"58884",title:"Prof.",name:"Norjan",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",fullName:"Norjan Yusof",slug:"norjan-yusof"}]},{id:"17593",title:"Alternative Fuels in Cement Manufacturing",slug:"alternative-fuels-in-cement-manufacturing",totalDownloads:20627,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Moses P.M. Chinyama",authors:[{id:"47232",title:"Dr.",name:"Moses",middleName:null,surname:"Chinyama",fullName:"Moses Chinyama",slug:"moses-chinyama"}]},{id:"17594",title:"Waste Biomass as Alternative Bio-Fuel - Co-Firing versus Direct Combustion",slug:"waste-biomass-as-alternative-bio-fuel-co-firing-versus-direct-combustion",totalDownloads:2542,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Gavrilă Trif-Tordai and Ioana Ionel",authors:[{id:"11036",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionel",fullName:"Ioana Ionel",slug:"ioana-ionel"},{id:"61182",title:"Dr.",name:"Gavrila",middleName:null,surname:"Trif Tordai",fullName:"Gavrila Trif Tordai",slug:"gavrila-trif-tordai"}]},{id:"17595",title:"Nano-Porous Silicon-Based Mini Hydrogen Fuel Cells",slug:"nano-porous-silicon-based-mini-hydrogen-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:3193,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Tayyar Dzhafarov and Sureyya Aydin Yuksel",authors:[{id:"36681",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyar",middleName:null,surname:"Dzhafarov",fullName:"Tayyar Dzhafarov",slug:"tayyar-dzhafarov"},{id:"80862",title:"Dr.",name:"Sureyya Aydin",middleName:null,surname:"Yuksel",fullName:"Sureyya Aydin Yuksel",slug:"sureyya-aydin-yuksel"}]},{id:"17596",title:"Hydrogen - The Ecologically Ideal Energy Vector",slug:"hydrogen-the-ecologically-ideal-energy-vector",totalDownloads:2611,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mircea Cârdu and Malvina Baica",authors:[{id:"56810",title:"Prof.",name:"Malvina",middleName:null,surname:"Baica",fullName:"Malvina Baica",slug:"malvina-baica"},{id:"56861",title:"Prof.",name:"Mircea",middleName:null,surname:"Cardu",fullName:"Mircea Cardu",slug:"mircea-cardu"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"36273",title:"Introduction to Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"introduction-to-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Theophile Theophanides",authors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",middleName:null,surname:"Theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile"}]},{id:"36166",title:"Using Infrared Spectroscopy to Identify New Amorphous Phases - A Case Study of Carbonato Complex Formed by Mechanochemical Processing",slug:"using-infrared-spectroscopy-to-identify-new-amorphous-phases-a-case-study-of-carbonato-complexes-fo",signatures:"Tadej Rojac, Primož Šegedin and Marija Kosec",authors:[{id:"25116",title:"Prof.",name:"Marija",middleName:null,surname:"Kosec",fullName:"Marija Kosec",slug:"marija-kosec"},{id:"105876",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadej",middleName:null,surname:"Rojac",fullName:"Tadej Rojac",slug:"tadej-rojac"},{id:"111754",title:"Prof.",name:"Primoz",middleName:null,surname:"Segedin",fullName:"Primoz Segedin",slug:"primoz-segedin"}]},{id:"36167",title:"Application of Infrared Spectroscopy to Analysis of Chitosan/Clay Nanocomposites",slug:"application-of-infrared-spectroscopy-to-analysis-of-chitosan-clay-nanocomposites",signatures:"Suédina M.L. Silva, Carla R.C. Braga, Marcus V.L. Fook, Claudia M.O. Raposo, Laura H. Carvalho and Eduardo L. Canedo",authors:[{id:"104808",title:"Prof.",name:"Suedina Maria",middleName:"De Lima",surname:"Silva",fullName:"Suedina Maria Silva",slug:"suedina-maria-silva"},{id:"111910",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:"Lima",surname:"R. C. Braga",fullName:"Carla R. C. Braga",slug:"carla-r.-c.-braga"},{id:"142933",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcus Vinícius",middleName:null,surname:"Lia Fook",fullName:"Marcus Vinícius Lia Fook",slug:"marcus-vinicius-lia-fook"},{id:"142934",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia Maria",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira Raposo",fullName:"Claudia Maria De Oliveira Raposo",slug:"claudia-maria-de-oliveira-raposo"},{id:"142936",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Hecker De Carvalho",fullName:"Laura Hecker De Carvalho",slug:"laura-hecker-de-carvalho"},{id:"142939",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Canedo",fullName:"Eduardo Luis Canedo",slug:"eduardo-luis-canedo"}]},{id:"36168",title:"Structural and Optical Behavior of Vanadate-Tellurate Glasses Containing PbO or Sm2O3",slug:"structural-and-optical-behavior-of-vanadate-tellurate-glasses",signatures:"E. Culea, S. Rada, M. Culea and M. Rada",authors:[{id:"114650",title:"Dr",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Culea",fullName:"Eugen Culea",slug:"eugen-culea"},{id:"114653",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Rada",fullName:"Simona Rada",slug:"simona-rada"}]},{id:"36169",title:"Water in Rocks and Minerals - Species, Distributions, and Temperature Dependences",slug:"water-in-rocks-and-minerals-species-distributions-and-temperature-dependences",signatures:"Jun-ichi Fukuda",authors:[{id:"105384",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Fukuda",fullName:"Jun-Ichi Fukuda",slug:"jun-ichi-fukuda"}]},{id:"36170",title:"Attenuated Total Reflection - Infrared Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Mineral - Aqueous Electrolyte Solution Interfaces: A General Overview and a Case Study",slug:"attenuated-total-reflection-infrared-spectroscopy-applied-to-the-study-of-mineral-aqueous-el",signatures:"Grégory Lefèvre, Tajana Preočanin and Johannes Lützenkirchen",authors:[{id:"108416",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Lützenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Lützenkirchen",slug:"johannes-lutzenkirchen"},{id:"111675",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lefevre",fullName:"Gregory Lefevre",slug:"gregory-lefevre"},{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin"}]},{id:"36171",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko"}]},{id:"36172",title:"FTIR Spectroscopy of Adsorbed Probe Molecules for Analyzing the Surface Properties of Supported Pt (Pd) Catalysts",slug:"ftir-spectroscopy-of-adsorbed-probe-molecules-for-analyzing-the-surface-properties-of-supported-pt-p",signatures:"Olga B. Belskaya, Irina G. Danilova, Maxim O. Kazakov, Roman M. Mironenko, Alexander V. Lavrenov and Vladimir A. Likholobov",authors:[{id:"107715",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Belskaya",fullName:"Olga Belskaya",slug:"olga-belskaya"},{id:"140198",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Danilova",fullName:"Irina Danilova",slug:"irina-danilova"},{id:"140200",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxim",middleName:null,surname:"Kazakov",fullName:"Maxim Kazakov",slug:"maxim-kazakov"},{id:"140202",title:"Mr.",name:"Roman",middleName:"Mikhailovich",surname:"Mironenko",fullName:"Roman Mironenko",slug:"roman-mironenko"},{id:"140203",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lavrenov",fullName:"Alexander Lavrenov",slug:"alexander-lavrenov"},{id:"140204",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Likholobov",fullName:"Vladimir Likholobov",slug:"vladimir-likholobov"}]},{id:"36173",title:"Hydrothermal Treatment of Hokkaido Peat - An Application of FTIR and 13C NMR Spectroscopy on Examining of Artificial Coalification Process and Development",slug:"hydrothermal-treatment-of-hokkaido-peat-an-application-of-ftir-and-13c-nmr-spectroscopy-on-examinin",signatures:"Anggoro Tri Mursito and Tsuyoshi Hirajima",authors:[{id:"104786",title:"Dr.",name:"Anggoro Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Mursito",fullName:"Anggoro Tri Mursito",slug:"anggoro-tri-mursito"},{id:"110978",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Hirajima",fullName:"Tsuyoshi Hirajima",slug:"tsuyoshi-hirajima"}]},{id:"36174",title:"FTIR - An Essential Characterization Technique for Polymeric Materials",slug:"ftir-an-essential-characterization-technique-for-polymeric-materials",signatures:"Vladimir A. Escobar Barrios, José R. Rangel Méndez, Nancy V. Pérez Aguilar, Guillermo Andrade Espinosa and José L. Dávila Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"12709",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rene",middleName:null,surname:"Rangel-Mendez",fullName:"Jose Rene Rangel-Mendez",slug:"jose-rene-rangel-mendez"},{id:"12711",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir Alonso",middleName:null,surname:"Escobar Barrios",fullName:"Vladimir Alonso Escobar Barrios",slug:"vladimir-alonso-escobar-barrios"},{id:"112164",title:"Dr",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Espinosa",fullName:"Guillermo Andrade-Espinosa",slug:"guillermo-andrade-espinosa"},{id:"112165",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Dávila-Rodríguez",fullName:"José Luis Dávila-Rodríguez",slug:"jose-luis-davila-rodriguez"},{id:"112167",title:"Dr.",name:"Nancy Verónica",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Aguilar",fullName:"Nancy Verónica Pérez-Aguilar",slug:"nancy-veronica-perez-aguilar"}]},{id:"36175",title:"Preparation and Characterization of PVDF/PMMA/Graphene Polymer Blend Nanocomposites by Using ATR-FTIR Technique",slug:"preparation-and-characterization-of-pvdf-pmma-graphene-polymer-blend-nanocomposites-by-using-ft-ir-t",signatures:"Somayeh Mohamadi",authors:[{id:"108556",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamadi",fullName:"Somayeh Mohamadi",slug:"somayeh-mohamadi"}]},{id:"36176",title:"Reflectance IR Spectroscopy",slug:"fundamental-of-reflectance-ir-spectroscopy",signatures:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",authors:[{id:"111629",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahra",middleName:null,surname:"Monsef Khoshhesab",fullName:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",slug:"zahra-monsef-khoshhesab"}]},{id:"36177",title:"Evaluation of Graft Copolymerization of Acrylic Monomers Onto Natural Polymers by Means Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"evaluation-of-graft-copolymerization-of-acrylic-monomers-onto-natural-polymers-by-means-infrared-spe",signatures:"José Luis Rivera-Armenta, Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández, Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel-Aldana, Ana María Mendoza-Martínez, Carlos Velasco-Santos and Ana Laura Martínez-Hernández",authors:[{id:"37761",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Hernandez",fullName:"Ana Laura Martinez-Hernandez",slug:"ana-laura-martinez-hernandez"},{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta"},{id:"108894",title:"MSc.",name:"Cynthia Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Hernández",fullName:"Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández",slug:"cynthia-graciela-flores-hernandez"},{id:"108896",title:"MSc.",name:"Ruth Zurisadai",middleName:null,surname:"Del Angel Aldana",fullName:"Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel Aldana",slug:"ruth-zurisadai-del-angel-aldana"},{id:"108898",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velasco-Santos",fullName:"Carlos Velasco-Santos",slug:"carlos-velasco-santos"},{id:"108905",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",fullName:"Ana Maria Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez"}]},{id:"36178",title:"Applications of FTIR on Epoxy Resins - Identification, Monitoring the Curing Process, Phase Separation and Water Uptake",slug:"applications-of-ftir-on-epoxy-resins-identification-monitoring-the-curing-process-phase-separatio",signatures:"María González González, Juan Carlos Cabanelas and Juan Baselga",authors:[{id:"107857",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Baselga",fullName:"Juan Baselga",slug:"juan-baselga"},{id:"138113",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"María González",slug:"maria-gonzalez"},{id:"138114",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Cabanelas",fullName:"Juan C. Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. Teodor, Georgiana-Ileana Truica, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu"},{id:"108318",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia D.",middleName:null,surname:"Teodor",fullName:"Eugenia D. Teodor",slug:"eugenia-d.-teodor"},{id:"108323",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana-Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Badea",fullName:"Georgiana-Ileana Badea",slug:"georgiana-ileana-badea"},{id:"136337",title:"Ms.",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache",slug:"andreia-tache"}]},{id:"36184",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. Nascimento",authors:[{id:"102015",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Macedo",fullName:"Daniel Macedo",slug:"daniel-macedo"},{id:"112309",title:"MSc",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Romolos",surname:"Cesário",fullName:"Moisés Cesário",slug:"moises-cesario"},{id:"112310",title:"Ms.",name:"Graziele",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Graziele Souza",slug:"graziele-souza"},{id:"112311",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Cela",fullName:"Beatriz Cela",slug:"beatriz-cela"},{id:"112312",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Paskocimas",fullName:"Carlos Paskocimas",slug:"carlos-paskocimas"},{id:"112314",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Antonio Martinelli",slug:"antonio-martinelli"},{id:"112315",title:"Prof.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Dulce Melo",slug:"dulce-melo"},{id:"112316",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubens",middleName:"Maribondo Do",surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Rubens Nascimento",slug:"rubens-nascimento"}]},{id:"36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Perla E. García Casillas, Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez and Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",authors:[{id:"104636",title:"Dr.",name:"Perla E.",middleName:null,surname:"García Casillas",fullName:"Perla E. García Casillas",slug:"perla-e.-garcia-casillas"},{id:"112440",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos A.",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Pérez",fullName:"Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",slug:"carlos-a.-martinez-perez"},{id:"112441",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Gonzalez",fullName:"Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez",slug:"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{id:"36187",title:"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis",slug:"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect",signatures:"Tarik Chafik",authors:[{id:"107310",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarik",middleName:null,surname:"Chafik",fullName:"Tarik Chafik",slug:"tarik-chafik"}]},{id:"36188",title:"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra",slug:"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra",signatures:"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. Marais",authors:[{id:"112229",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Aldrich",fullName:"Chris Aldrich",slug:"chris-aldrich"},{id:"112232",title:"Prof.",name:"Hansie",middleName:null,surname:"Knoetze",fullName:"Hansie Knoetze",slug:"hansie-knoetze"},{id:"135327",title:"Ms.",name:"Corne",middleName:null,surname:"Marais",fullName:"Corne Marais",slug:"corne-marais"}]},{id:"36189",title:"Optical Technologies for Determination of Pesticide Residue",slug:"optical-technology-for-determination-of-pesticide-residue",signatures:"Yankun Peng, Yongyu Li and Jingjing Chen",authors:[{id:"113343",title:"Prof.",name:"Yankun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Yankun Peng",slug:"yankun-peng"},{id:"116636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yongyu Li",slug:"yongyu-li"},{id:"116637",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingjing",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jingjing Chen",slug:"jingjing-chen"}]},{id:"36190",title:"High Resolution Far Infrared Spectra of the Semiconductor Alloys Obtained Using the Synchrotron Radiation as Source",slug:"high-resolution-spectra-of-semiconductor-s-alloys-obtained-using-the-far-infrared-synchrotron-radi",signatures:"E.M. Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"67243",title:"Unveiling of Matters: The Role of Investigative Journalism in Uncovering Corruption in the Arab World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86418",slug:"unveiling-of-matters-the-role-of-investigative-journalism-in-uncovering-corruption-in-the-arab-world",body:'
1. Introduction
Corruption is a complex phenomenon and a difficult problem in all around the world. It is complex because of its deep roots in the social, cultural, economic, political, legal, and ethical value systems of individuals, communities, cultures, and countries ([1], p. 153).
Transparency International defines corruption as “the abuse of entrusted power for private gain” [2]. It includes [3]:
A: Dishonest or illegal behavior especially by powerful people
B: Inducement to wrong by improper or unlawful means
It is not exaggeration to say that corruption in the Arab world is the common factor that stands behind major problems faced by its countries. It increases poverty ratio and multiplies agony and suffering of Arab people.
Corruption in the Arab world seems to be a chronical and progressive disease that turns to epidemic in some Arab countries. This is due to the lack of democratic system that allows for equal citizenship, equal opportunities, social justice, human right, dignity, transparency, and accountability. Despite the political changes that shook the Arab region on 2011, corruption has not witnessed any improvement. On the contrary, the majority of Arab countries have failed to fulfill the will of the people to build democratic systems allowing for greater transparency and accountability [4].
According to the Corruption Perceptions Index 2016, 90% of the Arab countries have scored below 50, which is a failing grade. Five out of the 10 most corrupt countries in the world are from the following regions: Iraq, Libya, Sudan, Yemen, and Syria [4]. Those countries are also inflicted with political instability, war, internal conflicts, and terrorism, stressing the fact that war and conflict fuel corruption and in particular political corruption [4]. Moreover, they in specific have occupied these ranks throughout the year 2012–2016, followed by Algeria, Egypt, Mauritania, and Lebanon ranking from 108 to 136. Only the United Arab Emirates and Qatar which occupy 24 and 31 ranks, respectively, other Arab countries fall within 70–90 ranks in this index [5].
The failure to fight corruption explains the sharp drop of most of the Arab countries in the Corruption Perceptions Index 2016. The hope for Arab countries to fight corruption and end impunity has not seen any progress yet [5].
2. Investigative journalism and corruption in the Arab world
Investigative journalism (IJ) is a form of journalism in which reporters go in-depth to investigate a single story that may uncover corruption, review government policies or of corporate houses, or draw attention to social, economic, political, or cultural trends ([6], p. 7) as well as loopholes in legislation and legal articles. It involves exposing to the public matters that are concealed—either deliberately by someone in a position of power or accidentally—behind a chaotic mass of facts and circumstances that obscure understanding ([7], p. 8).
Investigative journalism is a new phenomenon in the Arab world. During the last two decades, an important shift has occurred in this type of journalism in the Arab world led, mainly, by efforts of Arab Reporters for Investigative Journalism (ARIJ).1 These reports had covered different aspects and tackled serious issues ranging from political, social, health, legislative, administrative, financial, educational, environmental, and other issues. These efforts have created new culture of story-based inquiry journalism in many Arab countries, like Egypt, Yemen, Tunisia, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and other countries. Many investigative reports had been achieved including written, audio, and video reports. However, majority of these reports were produced for print and online journalism.
Journalism in general and investigative reporting in specific play a vital role in raising awareness about corruption and combating it. They are among the most important sources of public awareness raising on corruption. However, investigative journalism is very challenging. Of thousands of journalists around the globe, only a few of them select this profession and decide to be investigative journalists.
3. Panama Papers
The Panama Papers represents one of the milestone successes of IJ to reveal some corruption of prominent figures in the Arab world including heads of states. A group of Arab journalists has been working secretly in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Algeria, and Yemen as part of a global network of investigative reporters mining the so-called Panama Papers [8]. The investigation lasted a year and shows how influential people—including 12 heads of state—have used shell companies to avoid tax, launder money, and dodge sanctions. Those people implicated through family or associate’s involvement in offshore accounts include former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, Bashar al-Assad, and Libya’s late leader Muammar Gaddafi [9].
4. Challenges and future of IJ in the Arab world
As mentioned earlier, IJ is a new phenomenon in the Arab world. During the last decades, Arabic newspapers are full of conventional reporting but not investigative reporting, which is different in the whole process. Type of research, source relations, and outcomes are completely different in both types of conventional reporting and IJ. Hunter lists 14 differences ([6], pp. 8–10) between conventional reporting and investigative journalism. Those differences relate to the process of research, source relations, and outcomes. Unlike the conventional reporting, information in IJ cannot be published until it is completed, research is continued, and documentation is required. Relations with sources are not good in most of the time, official information are hidden from the reporter who may challenge the official version, and sources are often cannot be identified for the sake of their security. Regarding outcomes, investigative journalist refuses to accept the world as it is, and the dramatic structure of the story is essential to its impact.
Indeed a decisive alteration in IJ starts with the foundation of ARIJ in 2005. With grants from international donors, ARIJ has been able to provide professional and financial supports as well as legal support. This implies that IJ has not embedded in the Arab journalism yet. Unfortunately, ARIJ supports for journalists have been affected in the recent years due to shortage of financial support from the international donors. More cut of such support will affect IJ in the Arab world in the short run and may jeopardize it in the long run.
International donors’ support plays a crucial role in terms of enabling investigative journalism in developing countries to operate. Oyedele et al.’s study has confirmed that foreign media assistance has an impact on independent media’s workings and journalists’ performance in Nigeria. The study has shown that media organizations and journalists can only improve on their reportage of critical national sociopolitical issues when there is support from donors [10].
A serious challenge is related to freedom of expression in the Arab world, which has been declining in the recent years. A good piece of investigative report, like Death in Military Service, which took 2 years of journalistic work could not be broadcasted in Egypt. Television channels and newspapers that used to publish or broadcast this type of reporting had refused to broadcast it due to its “sensitivity”!
The other dire challenge facing IJ in the Arab world relates to the increased challenges that print journalism as a professional is facing today. Majority of IJ achieved by Arab investigative journalists are in print format, which eliminate their exposures and accordingly their impact on popular and official levels.
5. What is story-based inquiry?
Story-based inquiry is the story that begins by formulating the story the reporter hopes to write as a hypothesis that will be verified or disproved ([6], p. 2). Hypothesis is the fundamental and spirit of the story-based inquiry. This method helps reporters to identify the dimensions of their stories that they want to investigate and reveal their secret. However, developing a preliminary hypothesis for a story is not a fantasy or “guessing at the unknown.” It is rather developed based on reporter’s profound knowledge on the issue that result from deep and serious research.
Once hypothesis is developed, the next step is to analyze the hypothesis. By analyzing a hypothetical story, reporter can identify dimensions of the story and its boundaries. Hypothesis gives reporters something to verify and increase their chances of discovering secrets. It makes investigative project easier to manage and guarantees that reporter will deliver a story, not just a mass of data. Furthermore, hypothesis enables closer insight into whether the story meets legal and ethical criteria ([6], pp. 8, 16).
6. Literature review
Investigative journalism has gained a good attention from researchers. However, Arabic studies in this field are still lagging behind. This could be explained by the recency of investigative journalism practice as profession as well as lack of professional investigative journalists. Previous related studies explored this journalism from different approaches including its role in combating corruption, obstacles, and challenges investigative reporters are facing as well as from ethics perspective.
Pollack and Allern investigated the work of and methods used by investigative journalists in revealing large-scale corruption related to the expansion of Nordic telecom companies in Uzbekistan. They found that investigative journalists have played a crucial role in the disclosure of corruption, sometimes cooperating across media organizations and countries, demonstrating the importance of journalism as a public good for democracy [11].
Suntai and Shem [12] concluded in their study on tackling institutional corruption through investigative journalism that this type of journalism has the potency of combating corrupt practices in Nigeria. According to authors, it could mitigate and eliminate corrupt practices in the Nigerian society [12].
Investigative journalism is a difficult profession, and, therefore, it faces many obstacles in many times, many countries, and almost everywhere. Rabei’s study [13] of Egyptian investigative journalism is the first of its kind. It investigated the current situation of the practice of investigative journalism in the Egyptian press, problems faced by investigative journalists, as well as the future of this journalism. Findings confirmed the negative effects of the press law in Egypt on investigative journalism. The laws have not only restricted the practice of investigative journalists’ work but have not provided protection for them as well. As for the future of the investigative journalism, professional and academic elites stressed that the current political situation in Egypt relays on one strong political hegemony that will not encourage free flow of information, and, hence, it does not support investigative journalism [13]. These results are in line with the study’s findings of Arabic Network for Media Support (2016) in which investigative journalists identified absence of law regulates the freedom of information circulation and lack of resources represent the major obstacle of investigative journalism in Egypt ([14], p. 6).
Abu-Hassan investigated attitudes of Palestinian journalists toward the practice of investigative journalism. Findings revealed that the most important obstacles facing investigative journalists were self-fear of difficulty to complete investigative reports and fear of security prosecution or to be prosecuted by the influential people. Administrative obstacles included sources in the public institutions fear to speak freely as well as lack of financial resources. The absence of laws, which protect journalists from prosecution, was one of the most important legal obstacles that have hindered journalists from effectively practicing investigative journalism in Palestine [15].
On the contrary, Lanosga and Houston explored the future of investigative reporting through a survey of 861 investigative journalists in the United States. Accordingly to findings, respondents reported high perception of autonomy and job satisfaction and confirmed resources for investigative reporting are maintaining and even increasing [16].
Gerli et al. investigated constraints and limitations faced by investigative journalism through the analysis of selected case studies of corruptive phenomena in Italy, Hungary, Romania, and Latvia. They found that this type of journalism does not work actually in the observed countries. According to findings, investigative journalism requires certain socioeconomic conditions, such as a low degree of influence of the political and economic spheres and a high level of journalistic professionalism, which are not always present in the aforementioned countries. Authors identified three factors that may affect investigative journalists’ works: a certain proximity of publishers and politicians, advertising pressure, and the interferences of secret services [17].
Singh assessed the general state of investigative journalism in seven Pacific Island countries and found that this journalism suffers from harsher legislation, beatings, and harassment of journalists as well as false charges and lawsuits that target them in these countries [18].
Yusha’u 2009 identified the obstacles that are faced by investigative journalism in Nigeria which impede uncovering of corruption. According to results, clientelism is a feature of journalism practice and one of the factors that impedes the practice of investigative journalism. Other impediments include poor remuneration, bad working conditions, corruption within the media, and the relationship between publishers and politicians [19].
From ethical perspective, Fahkana investigated Palestinian journalists’ attitudes toward investigative journalism ethics in Palestine and the extent to which the journalists are committed to the investigative journalism ethics. The study concluded that journalists should maintain the confidentiality of the investigation-related information sources. Reliance on secret sound recording and video tapping is justified only if work circumstances and the difficulty in gathering information require such act. The journalists highly approved that the investigative journalists might disguise to access information and to attain the required objective [20].
Yet, the current study aims to add to this literature from Arabic perspective. Using content analysis of recent and 2-year-long reports provides evidence-based results on the role played by IJ in combating corrupting in the Arab world.
7. Scope and methodology
The main objective of this study is to identify how IJ combats corruption in the Arab world. Research questions for this study are as follows:
Is there a place for IJ in the Arab world?
What type of corruption investigative reports tackled during the study period?
Which Arab countries’ investigative reports tackled during the study period?
How investigative reports tackled corruption in the Arab countries during the study period?
ARIJ website was selected for this study. The study’s population constitutes all archived and retrieved investigative reports from 2010 to 2018. A comprehensive sample of the population was selected for this study. It covers all reports published from 2016 to 2018. One hundred fourth-five reports were retrieved on September 2018 from ARIJ website using Google search engine. The author believes this is a sufficient sample to provide us with, at least, indications on how IJ contributes to combating corruption. The selected period of the sample provides the most recent corruption issues tackled by investigative reports, particularly the Panama Papers, which represents cross-border corruption. Bearing in mind, investigative reports need months to be achieved and sometimes a year or more, like “Moot fi alkema” or Death in Military Service, which according to BBC website lasted for 2 years [21].
Selecting ARIJ for implementing the study refers to the role it plays in this genre of journalism. It is a nongovernmental and prominent association when it comes to IJ works in the Arab world. ARIJ is the only specialized and dedicated association in IJ including training. Almost all active investigative reporters in the Arab world are affiliate to this association and had been trained by them.
The study uses content analysis to answer research questions. Content categories along with code sheet were used guided by the operational definitions of issues. The content categories are comprised of the following corruption issues: administrative and financial, legislative and judiciary, abuse of power and political influence, medical, environmental and agricultural, and educational.
8. Operational definitions
Administrative and financial issues within this study can refer to any administrative act of breaching the rules and regulations designed for private gain [22]. It includes all types of governmental and private officials’ violations or failure to activate and implement indorsed rules and regulations. Examples of such issue are as follows: fraud, bribery, smuggling, money laundering, exploitation labor, negligence of performing duties, waste of public money, absence of control, lack of safety procedures, and other issues related to administration and financial.
Abuse of power and political influence refers to improper use of authority by someone who has that authority because he or she holds a public office [23].
Medical corruption includes all types of illegal and/or unethical practice and medical errors committed intentionally or unintentionally by doctors or medical practitioners causing damage to other people.
Environmental corruption is defined as problems with the planet’s systems (air, water, soil, etc.) that have developed because of human interference or mistreatment of the planet [24].
Educational corruption is “the systematic use of public office for private benefit, whose impact is significant on the availability and quality of educational goods and services, and, has impact on access, quality or equity in education” [25].
9. Finding
9.1 Corruption issues in the investigative reports
Table 1 includes different types of corruption that investigative reports tackled during the period from 2016 to 2018. The top four dominant issues of the six corruption issues include administrative and financial, legislative and judiciary, abuse of power and political influence, and medical issues. These issues occupy 89.6% of the total issues of corruptions that investigative reports addressed.
No.
Type of corruption
No.
Percent
1.
Administrative and financial
44
30.3
2.
Legislative and judiciary
41
28.3
3.
Abuse of power and political influence
26
17.9
4.
Medical
19
13.1
5.
Environmental and agricultural
10
6.9
6.
Educational
5
3.4
Total
145
100
Table 1.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in the Arab world from 2016 to 2018.
Bear in mind that corruption issues are overlapping and intertwined at many times particularly when it comes to abuse of power and political influence that stand behind many financial corruption issues in Arab countries. Another example of the overlapping is procuring prohibited drug from pharmacies without a proper drug prescription which is a medical violation. However, absence of control, weak of monitoring and conflict between official regulatory and supervisory bodies contribute to this practice. Such overlapping applies to many cases of issues of corruption these reports investigated. Yet the author classified issues to major fault and shortage that allow corruption practices to occur.
9.2 Type of corruption based on Arab countries
According to the data in Table 2, Egyptian investigative journalists achieved the highest number of investigative reports tackling corruption in Egypt with 31% of total ratio of investigative reports followed by Yemeni journalists with 17.9%. Tunisian investigative journalists occupied the third rank with 8.3%, followed by investigative journalists from Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan in the same rank. Joint works by a group of Arab journalists came in the sixth rank with 5.5%. Minor marriage in Egypt, Yemen and Lebanon is an example of this type of joint works. The Panama Papers, which will come next, is the prominent achievement of this work. Reports on corruption issues in Iraq and Bahrain occupied seventh place with 4.8% for each. Palestinian investigative journalists came in the eight rank with 4.1%. Other Arab countries including Algeria, Kuwait, Sudan, and Mauritania occupy lowest position.
No.
Type of corruption
Countries
Total
Egypt
Yemen
Tunisia
Syria
Lebanon
Jordan
More than one country
Iraq
Bahrain
Palestine
Other countries
1.
Administrative and financial
16
4
3
2
1
2
7
3
2
2
2
44
2.
Legislative and judiciary
11
9
6
1
4
5
1
1
2
1
41
3.
Abuse of power and political influence
2
6
0
5
4
2
3
1
1
2
26
4.
Medical
6
6
2
2
2
1
19
5.
Environmental and agricultural
6
1
1
2
10
6.
Educational
4
1
5
Total
45
26
12
11
9
9
8
7
7
6
5
145
Percent
31
17.9
8.3
7.6
6.2
6.2
5.5
4.8
4.8
4.1
3.4
100
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
5
6
7
7
8
9
—
Table 2.
Investigative reports on corruption issues based on Arab countries from 2016 to 2018.
According to investigative reports, corruption issues in the Arab countries were ranked as follows:
In Egypt, administrative and financial issues occupy the first rank, followed by legislative and judiciary issues, medical issues, environmental issues, and educational issues.
For Yemen, legislative and judiciary issues occupy the first rank, followed by medical issues, abuse of power and political influence issues, and administrative and financial issues.
In Tunisia, legislative and judiciary issues come in the first rank, followed by administrative and financial issues and then medical issues.
While for Syria, abuse of power and political influence occupy the first rank, followed by administrative and financial issues and then medical issues.
In Lebanon, abuse of power and political influence occupy the first rank, followed by legislative and judiciary issues.
For Jordan, legislative and judiciary issues came in the first rank, followed by abuse of power and political influence and then administrative and financial issues.
Abuse of power and political influence occupy the first rank for Iraq, followed by administrative and financial issues.
Legislative and judiciary issues are common among Yemen, Tunisia, Lebanon, and Jordan, while abuse of power and political influence issues are very common among Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq.
9.3 Corruption issues based on Arab countries
Tables 3–13 (Appendix) include different types of corruption issues based on Arab countries. The following are some examples of these corruptions:
Administrative and financial corruption: tax evasion, money laundering, and smuggling of weapons, drugs, and diesel. Commercial fraud and absence of control led to, for instance, recycling used tires in Egypt, selling relief materials in Yemen, as well as selling expired gas cylinders and spread of unlicensed gas stations. Construction fraud, wasting public fund, and selling professional titles “Judge” in Egypt in return for attending training workshops. Secret immigration to Europe due to loopholes in Egyptian and Greek airports and Egyptian government failure to manage loan from the World Bank deprived seven villages from sanitation. Neglecting victims and injuries of revolution in Egypt and Tunisia, forged residency permits in Egypt, and some child care centers in Egypt mistreated and expelled children to the street, exacerbating homelessness. Some Egyptian preachers exploit mosques to hatch ISIS children, granting pension fund’s apartments to eligible persons in Tunisia, as well as telecommunication towers randomly spread regardless of safety measures. Journalists in Iraq killed, for instance, by ISIS sniper, due to lack of safety measures. Marginalized communities’ negligence, victims of crossroads of railways, lack of safety measure in transportation railway in Tunisia, as well as facilitating movement of citizens with disabilities is not being fully implemented.
Legislative and judiciary: torture in Tunisia; slavery still exists in Yemen; minor marriage in Egypt, Yemen, and Lebanon; exchange marriage in Yemen; Syria’s fatherless children; ISIS children; children without pedigree; depriving females from inheritance; no financial and moral compensation provisions for time falsely spent in jail; and pretrial detention for punishing political opponents. Public prosecution could renew this kind of detention as many times as he wishes. An investigative report conducted in Egypt documented a case of such punishment in which a young man had been prisoned for 14 months before releasing him and drubbing the case due to insufficient evidences. An Egyptian court in Cairo has renewed the detention of Al Jazeera journalist, Mahmoud Hussein, for the 17th time. Until December 12, 2018, he has been in prison in Egypt for more than 661 days despite not being charged [26]. Weak law enforcement of child custody judgments doubles the suffering of divorced mothers due to depriving them from custody of their children. Egyptian government violates constitution by allowing using coal in industry. Children sexual abuse, child molestation, rape of children and its psychological damage, as well as children execution under 16 years of age. An investigative report documented children excursion in Saudi Arabia and Yemen for committed crimes when they were less than 16 years old despite the two countries signed the Treaty of Child Rights. According to the reports, more than 222 children are facing murder cases in 12 Yemeni governorates. “Seasonal workers” are labor outside of law protection, exploitation of domestic workers including sex trade, marital rape, placing detainees in tiny spaces “inch and something”, recruiting children and failure to enforce the law deprives persons with special needs of their rights. Current Jordanian electoral system does not achieve justice between the kingdom’s departments, unlicensed slaughterhouses, and tax havens violating international law in Yemen. An investigative report conducted in Egypt tracks the hazards and death Syrian refugees faced in the African Sahara.
Abuse of power and political influence: The so-called “Swiss Leaks” revealed that the wife of former Egyptian Minister of Tourism had two secret accounts in HSBC Private Bank Suisse SA holding a total of $3,870,357 between 2006 and 2007 and escaped the Egyptian authorities’ decision to freeze her accounts after the revolution of January 2011. Offshore companies, safe tax havens, food import monopoly, money launderers, and tax exemption. Abuse of power in military has documented that soldiers in the Egyptian Central Security Forces have been abused and possibly killed by their officers. Reportage found evidence of systematic attempts to cover up these violations.
Medical corruption issues: some doctors remove the wombs of mentally disabled girls with the consent of parents, human trade organ, Yemeni doctors infected with cholera virus due to lack of immunity measures. Renting lab licenses—a popular market in Egypt and the patient pays the price. Merchants of the war, Yemen’s cancer and kidney patients suffering due to lack of medication, sick leave market, illegal abortion, medical errors that lead to disabilities, mental health hospitals in Bahrain have become drug stores, and some medical companies in Egypt in cooperation with international companies conduct illegal clinical excremental. Unlicensed children’s incubators, business production of artificial limbs in the workshops in stairwells, unlicensed clinics in Yemen, and human organ trafficking.
Environmental corruption: vehicles’ emissions and cutting down trees in Palestine including oak trees and long-standing trees. Coal dust and cement emitted from some factories in Alexandria and noise and air pollution in Tunis and Egypt. Hazardous wastes and dust loaded with poisonous gases due to interaction with chemical residues that led to death of some people in Egypt.
Educational corruption: depriving children from right of education, plagiarism in illiteracy tests, failure to integrate children with disability into regular education system, and unlicensed educational centers in Egypt manipulating students and learners by giving them fake certificates attributed to international universities.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
Child Brides in Egypt—Loopholes and Cleric Endorsements
Legislative and judiciary
April 10, 2018
2.
It Hasn’t Inferred
Legislative and judiciary
May 9, 2018
3.
The Lost Gold
Agricultural
March 8, 2018
4.
Detained for Good: The Use of Remand Detention as a Punitive Measure Against Political Opponents
Legislative and judiciary
July 15, 2018
5.
Services Offices: Rear Door for Sex Trade and Exploitation of Domestic Workers
Legislative and judiciary
June 19, 2018
6.
“Under Experiment”
Medical
April 18, 2018
7.
In Alko’arah Egyptian Village… Children Dream of School
Educational
May 2, 2018
8.
New Cars from Old Parts
Administrative
January 19, 2018
9.
Children Who Have Been Raped Face Society with Psychological Damage
Legislative and judiciary
December 26, 2017
10.
With Documents: Wasting One Billion and 300 Million Sacks in “Kema Aswan 2”
Administrative
December 19, 2017
11.
Waste Mines
Environmental
January 9, 2017
12.
“Integration on the Papers”
Educational
August 27, 2017
13.
Loopholes in Egyptian and Greek Airports Allow Secret Immigration to Europe
Administrative
May 8, 2017
14.
Black Exhale-Coal Dust and Cement Harm Egyptian People Chests
Environmental
May 8, 2017
15.
Incomplete Dreams in “Abu Saed”
Environmental
November 7, 2017
16.
Fraud Accreditation
Educational
October 7, 2017
17.
In the Island of “Sidna Al-Wali,” 5 Thousand Egyptians out of Coverage
Administrative
March 7, 2017
18.
A False Womb
Medical
March 5, 2017
19.
Networks of Preachers Exploit Mosques and Associations to Hatching ISIS “Dawaish Children”
Administrative
March 4, 2017
20.
Noise is a Bitter Reality Inhabitants of “Amir Algousih” Street Suffer
Environmental
March 3, 2017
21.
“Kornit Trip”
Administrative
February 2, 2017
22.
Legalized Marital Rape
Legislative and judiciary
January 29, 2017
23.
Siwa Oasis… Drowning Threatening
Environmental
May 1, 2017
24.
Compensation Rather than Law
Legislative and judiciary
December 29, 2016
25.
A Housewife with Big Swiss Bank Accounts
Abuse of power and political influence
December 20, 2016
26.
A Fatal Mistake
Medical
April 12, 2016
27.
Renting Labs Licenses... A Popular Market and Patient Pays the Price
Medical
February 12, 2016
28.
Towards illiteracy
Educational
November 26, 2016
29.
Egypt’s Ticking Time Bombs in Gas Bottles
Legislative and judiciary
July 11, 2016
30.
Lost Parentage
Legislative and judiciary
May 11, 2016
31.
“Individual Employees” Labor Outside The Protection of the Law
Legislative and judiciary
October 23, 2016
32.
Frozen Hopes and Harsh Laws
Legislative and judiciary
October 10, 2016
33.
Eastern Gate
Refugee hazard
September 25, 2016
34.
Upside Down, The Victims and Injuries of the Revolution in Egypt and Tunisia from the Bright Promises to the Corners of Forgetfulness
Administrative
August 18, 2016
35.
(Official waste) ... Government Failure To Manage World Bank Loan Deprives 7 Villages from Sanitation
Business Production of Artificial Limbs in Workshops under Stairwell
Medical
July 17, 2016
38.
“The Stolen Innocent”.. Doctors Remove the Wombs of Mentally Disabled Girls with Parents Consent
Medical
March 7, 016
39.
When Child Care Homes... Feed In “Homeless”
Administrative
November 5, 2016
40.
Death in Military Service
Military
May 2, 2016
41.
Death by Remote Control
Administrative
January 28, 2016
42.
Titles for Sale
Administrative
January 27, 2016
43.
Forged Residency Permits
Administrative
January 26, 2016
44.
A Decorated Fraud
Administrative
August 1, 2016
Table 3.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Egypt.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
Gas Cylinders…Time bombs in Yemeni Houses
Administrative
July 10, 2018
2.
War Cholera
Medical
August 16, 2018
3.
Rituals in the Darkness
Legislative and judiciary
July 26, 2018
4.
Shaher Abdulhak’s Tax Havens Violate International Law
Financial
July 22, 2018
5.
Merchants of the War
Medical
July 5, 2018
6.
Exchange Marriage in Yemen: A Time Bomb for Hundreds of Families
Legislative and judiciary
March 27, 2018
7.
Son of one of the Wealthiest Arabs lives in Sanaa to Escape his Crime in London
Abuse of power and political influence
March 20, 2018
8.
“I Have No Right in The Inheritance of My Father”
Legislative and judiciary
April 3, 2018
9.
Forgotten Students
Educational
January 19, 2018
10.
“Sons of the War “
Legislative and judiciary
December 13, 2017
11.
Repeated Fires at Unlicensed Gas Stations Claim Yemeni Lives
Administrative
October 12, 2017
12.
Death in the Clothes of Angels!!
Medical
November 21, 2017
13.
Children under the Guillotine... Execution by Sword and Bullets Shut Teams
Legislative and judiciary
October 29, 2017
14.
“Black Relief”
Legislative and Judiciary
August 9, 2017
15.
Slavery is Still Exists In Yemen: Segregation Between Masters and Slaves
Legislative and judiciary
March 2, 2017
16.
Pharmaceutical Drug Abuse
Medical
November 14, 2016
17.
Backdoor Companies of Hameed Al Ahmar
Abuse of power and political influence
November 13, 2016
18.
Panama Papers Expose Yemen’s Wheat Emperor
Abuse of power and political influence
July 11, 2016
19.
Begging for Survival
Medical
October 17, 2016
20.
Yemen’s Toxic Qat
Administrative
July 10, 2016
21.
The Mysterious Company of a Former Minister’s Son
Abuse of power and political influence
October 9, 2016
22.
Yemen’s Cancer Patients: the Fight for Medication
Medical
September 8, 2016
23.
Hidden Money of Abdul Haq Family in Yemen
Abuse of power and political influence
April 6, 2016
24.
Murder, Tax Evasion, Cronyism: Yemen’s Sugar Kings Implicated in Panama Papers
Abuse of power and political influence
April 13, 2016
25.
Sana’a Child Beggar Mafias
Legislative and judiciary
January 28, 2016
26.
Digital Platforms Trap—Parties of the Conflict in Yemen Kill the Champions of the Media
Cyberbullying
No date
Table 4.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Yemen.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
“Killing in the Womb”
Medical
October 29, 2017
2.
Sick leave Market
Medical
January 9, 2017
3.
“Death Trucks”: Women’s Way to The Cultivated Land and Sometimes to the Grave or Permanent Disability
Legislative and judiciary
November 2, 2017
4.
Air Pollution in Tunisia
Legislative and judiciary
December 21, 2016
5.
Injustice Justification …. Granting Pension Fund’s Apartments to Ineligible Persons.
Administrative
December 20, 2016
6.
Punishing the Disabled
Legislative and judiciary
April 12, 2016
7.
Foreign Companies Dominate the Seeds Market in Tunisia
Agriculture
November 22, 2016
8.
The Next Death on the “Railroad”
Administrative
November 20, 2016
9.
(Towers of Horror) ... Communication Towers in Tunisia Randomly Spread Out
Administrative
October 25, 2016
10.
Tunisia’s Unpunished Child Molestation
Legislative and judiciary
July 10, 2016
11.
Torture in Tunisia
Legislative and judiciary
March 17, 2016
Table 5.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Tunisia.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
Second Wife
Administrative
October 4, 2018
2.
Assad’s Relatives Seize the Territory of the Roman Army and Rent it to NATO
Abuse of power and political influence
March 21, 2018
3.
Deadly Scalpel
Medical
May 1, 2018
4.
Syria’s Fatherless Children
Legislative and judiciary
October 9, 2016
5.
Panama Papers: Who is Running Assad’s Sanctions-busting Network?
Abuse of power and political influence
April 6, 2016
6.
Men Around the President 1: Abdulkareem Network
Abuse of power and political influence
April 5, 2016
7.
Panama Papers Link Assad’s Fixer to Arms Dealers and Money Launderers
Abuse of power and political influence
April 14, 2016
8.
Men Around The President 2: Maruf and Alzayat... “Breaks” The Lion And The Arms Dealer
Abuse of power and political influence
April 13, 2016
9.
Pirates of the Mediterranean
Administrative
March 3, 2016
10.
Body Parts for Sale
Medical
January 27, 2016
Table 6.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Syria.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
Government Negligence Delays Activating Alimony Fund for Seven Years
Administrative
July 16, 2017
2.
Compromised Innocence
Legislative and judiciary
September 21, 2016
3.
Teachers of Contracts of Acquiescence
Legislative and judiciary
April 9, 2016
4.
Defective Innocence: Who Compensates the Accused for Arrest after Being Acquitted?
Legislative and judiciary
August 21, 2016
5.
Tenders of Millions Value Go to Former Parliamentarians Pockets
Abuse of power and political influence
September 8, 2016
6.
Jordanian Figures Hiding Behind the Shadow of Tax Havens
Abuse of power and political influence
May 21, 2016
7.
An Engineer’s Latest Rip Off
Administrative
August 3, 2016
8.
The Current Electoral System in Jordan Does Not Achieve Justice Between the Kingdom’s Departments
Legislative and judiciary
January 19, 2016
Table 7.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Jordan.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
Abbas to the Influential: “With Approval…No Objection on the Exemption”
Abuse of power and political influence
December 3, 2017
2.
Gaza (Disneyland)
Administrative
December 31, 2016
3.
Black Emissions
Environment
November 29, 2016
4.
The Season of Trees Execution
Environment
August 29, 2016
5.
Medicines of “the Ministry of Health” Are Sold in Pharmacies, Hundreds of Psychiatric Patients and Their Families are at Risk of Dying
Medical
February 7, 2016
6.
Diluting Diesel
Administrative
January 27, 2016
Table 8.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Palestine.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
ISIS Children
Legislative and judiciary
December 8, 2017
2.
The Vengeance of Suspended Projects Worsens ... and Kills!
Administrative
January 26, 2017
3.
Looking for a Suicidal Job in Iraq?
Administrative
December 21, 2016
4.
“Project No One”
Financial
November 18, 2017
5.
Caravan: a Deal at the Expense of Life of the Displaced People
Abuse of power and political influence
December 17, 2017
6.
Panama Papers Reveal Allawi’s Hidden Companies
Abuse of power and political influence
May 11, 2016
7.
ISIS’s Young Yazidi is Recruiting
Abuse of power and political influence
May 11, 2016
Table 9.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Iraq.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
Mosac Fonseca To the Brother in Law of the Speaker of the Lebanese Parliament: Where Do You Get This?
Abuse of power and political influence
June 21, 2018
2.
“State for Rent“
Abuse of power and political influence
April 17, 2018
3.
“Crimes of the Occasion”: Hidden Episodes of Violence in Lebanon
Legislative and judiciary
March 18, 2018
4.
Minors’ Marriage in Lebanon: Between the Rule of Sects and the Inability of the State
Legislative and judiciary
December 13, 2017
5.
“The Voice of the Earth... Southern lands are Public Domain”
Abuse of power and political influence
October 29, 2017
6.
“The Afflicted“
Legislative and Judiciary
November 25, 2016
7.
Failure to Enforce the Law Deprives Persons With Special Needs from Their Rights
Legislative and judiciary
December 5, 2016
8.
Video: Lebanon Documents of Panama—a Complete Episodes
Abuse of power and political influence
May 4, 2016
9.
From Mouth of the Lion
Financial
February 28, 2016
Table 10.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Lebanon.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
The Pressure of the Dust Suspended in the Air
Legislative/environmental
November 16, 2017
2.
Unlicensed Slaughterhouses…De Facto Coexistence
Legislative
November 8, 2017
3.
A Scream of Unconscious Person... When the Hospital Turns into a Pharmacy
Medical
July 12, 2016
4.
Bahrain’s Mental Health Hospitals Have Become Drug Stores
Medical
September 22, 2016
5.
Lost Ages and Wasted Rights
Administrative
June 21, 2016
6.
The Scammer… a Friend of Bahrain
Abuse of power and political influence
November 5, 2016
7.
Deceptive Virility
Administrative
April 1, 2016
Table 11.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in Bahrain.
No.
Country
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
Mauritania
Living Dead
Legislative and judiciary
October 15, 2018
2.
Algeria
Panama Papers: Offshore Companies for the Wife of Chakib Khelil, Former Algerian Minister
Abuse of power and political influence
June 18, 2016
Panama Papers: How the Algerian Elite Diverted Oil Money
Abuse of power and political influence
May 15, 2016
3.
Kuwait
Cheated Education: Research Papers for Sale at Kuwait University
Educational
November 2, 2017
4.
Sudan
In Sudan: “Living Between Feathers”
Abuse of power and political influence
November 7, 2017
Table 12.
Investigative reports on corruption issues in other Arab countries.
No.
Report headline
Type of corruption
Date of publication
1.
Five Companies Registered in the UAE Free Zones among the File of the Russian Laundry... Contradictory Bills and Iran Used One of These Companies to Evade Sanctions
Financial
No date
2.
UAE Companies Involve in Russian Laundry
Financial
December 19, 2017
3.
UAE Companies in The “Sink”... the Involvement of 13 Companies in the Largest File for the Laundering of Russian Money
Financial
November 30, 2017
4.
UAE-Based Enterprises Involved in Russian Laundry
Financial
December 6, 2017
5.
Whitening 25 Million Dollars Through Fake Projects and Bills.. 10 Arab Companies Outside The Coverage Of Telephone or Postal
Financial
December 6, 2017
6.
Nine Arab Companies are Involved in The Laundering of 10 Million Dollars in The Russian Laundry
Financial
January 23, 2017
7.
Fraud in Export of Sheep from Georgia to Arab Countries
Administrative
September 1, 2017
8.
I Do Not Want to Live With Him—I Have to Live With My Family
Legislative
No date
Table 13.
Investigative reports on more than one Arab country corruption issues.
9.4 Panama Papers
Apart from international investigation led by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) and based on the Panama Papers, a group of Arab investigative journalists from Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Syria, Iraq, and Yemen have achieved and published eight investigative reports on 2017 revealing what The Guardian [27] called “offshore secret of politicians.” They were able to track activities and deals of 71 Arabic companies in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Tunis, and Yemen that have financial and commercial with what is known as “Russian Laundromat.” The share of the Arab companies and banks is estimated to be at half a billion dollars of money laundering operations for 20 billion and 800 million dollar worldwide [28].
Corruption issues revealed by those investigative reports and based on the Panama Papers include:
Ayad Allawi, former Iraqi Prime Minster, ownership of three hidden and tax haven real estate companies.
Yemen telecom company Mobile Telephone Network is predominantly owned by five offshore companies—most of them owned by Yemeni businessman Shaher Abdualhak.
Five companies registered in the UAE free zones within the file of the Russian laundry. Iran used one of these companies to evade sanctions.
Nine Arab companies are involved in the laundering of 10 million dollars in the Russian laundry.
UAE-based enterprises involved in Russian laundry.
Laundering 25 million dollars through fake projects and bills.
Thirteen UAE companies involve in the largest file for the laundering of Russian money.
Offshore companies for the wife of Chakib Khelil, former Energy Minister in Algeria.
How the Algerian elite diverted oil money.
The Panama Papers exposes Yemen’s Wheat Emperor.
Revealing hidden assets for tax havens through offshore holdings for one of Yemen’s prominent businessmen Mohammad Fahem, known as Yemen’s Wheat Emperor.
Uncover offshore company owned by Abdul-Hafez Al-Alimi, the son of the former Deputy Prime Minister of Yemen.
Murder, tax evasion, cronyism: Yemen’s Sugar Kings implicated in the Panama Papers revealing how hidden companies controlled by most prominent businessmen in Yemen, the brothers Abdulhak, Shaher, and Abduljalil, have used tax havens and offshore fronts to dodge taxes in Yemen.
10. Discussion
The number of investigative reports achieved and published during the period of the study confirms that there is a place for IJ in the Arab world despite of the tremendous obstacles and difficulties facing this kind of reporting as well as reporters in those countries. For instance, significant number of Egyptian media organizations used to welcome IJ before 2013. Several reports will be published and broadcasted in both print and broadcast media like Al-Masry Al-Youm, Al-Shorouk, ALYoum7, Al Watan, Alsabah, and ONTV and others (Arabic Network for Media Support 14). In 2010, five investigative journalism units had been established in Jordan, Palestine, and Egypt. Between 2o12 and 2013, 13 units had been established in other Arab countries [29]. Moreover, IJ in the Arab world increasingly gets attention from international media and donors.
The role of the media is critical in promoting good governance and controlling corruption. It not only raises public awareness about corruption, its causes, consequences, and possible remedies but also investigates and reports incidences of corruption. Often, reports on corrupt practices by government officials have provided the starting point for a series of consequences such as the launch of investigation or judicial proceedings and resignation, among others. Together with these visible effects, media reporting has also had equally important indirect effects thanks to the role it plays in society ([30], pp. 1–20).
Finding of the study of investigative reports confirms that administrative and financial issues as well as legislative and judiciary issues represent the most prominent corruption that are faced by Arab countries throughout the last decades. Both of them occupied 58% of corruption issues that investigative reports had revealed between 2016 and 2018. Abuse of power and political influence also play an important role in this aspect. According to these reports, more than 17% of corruption were attributed to corrupt politicians and businesspersons having financial relations with those politicians in most cases. Politicians usually provide their business partners with several supports. This include, but are not limited to, political cover of tax evasions and monopoly of import and export of particularly essential goods, as in the case of wheat in Yemen, and natural resources such as oil in Algeria.
Legal system represents one of the pressing issues that need to be reconsidered for any reforming process in the Arab world. For instance, many Arab countries are still lagging behind when it comes to legalizing age of marriage. Therefore, minor marriage is a very common practice in those countries. Legalizing age of marriage at 18 years old will save life of many young girls and prevent a lot of suffering. Remand detention represents one of the flagrant misuses of law for revenge from opponents. Judicial authority may renew prisoner detention as many times as desired! Rule of law, social justice, equal citizenship, and human right are essential for modern and civil state, and these are basic principles that journalism and modern actors should struggle to achieve.
Investigative journalism represents an important opportunity for combating deep-rooted corruption in the Arab world. It is a journalism of verification, deep and long-time research, as well as evidence-based journalism. In highly corrupt countries, it is advised that journalists change their approaches and be consistent in their pursuit of values, attitudes, and fight against corruption by developing and promoting investigative journalism ([31], p. 34).
Therefore, investment in this type of journalism is worthy and rewarding. This could be through providing financial support especially for those working in the poorest countries, building and developing capacities, as well as providing legal advice, consultancy, and protection for the Arab investigative journalists. This has become extremely important in the current circumstances in which journalism is suffering due to the Internet and technology development. Unfortunately, the audience has keen interest in investigative report findings but is unwilling to pay for its scoops or exposés ([32], p. 1).
Freedom of expressions is very crucial for IJ to grow and flourish. The effectiveness of the media, in turn, depends on access to information and freedom of expression, as well as a professional and ethical framework of investigative journalists ([30], p. 1). In Egypt, investigative reports were doubled seven times in 2011 comparing to 2010 and to 50% in 2014. Moreover, they won many local and regional awards. This could be explained by relative freedom of speech and information circulation after the January 25 , 2011 Revolution that led to political regime change ([14], p. 25).
Schools and colleges of journalism need to pay more attention to identify and prepare investigative journalists for tomorrow. These reporters are very rare in the world, let alone the Arab world. Approximately, in every 1000 journalists, there is only one investigative journalist!
Finally, combating corruption in the Arab world needs serious efforts and profound reform in the political system. This reform will not occur without having political will and popular determination.
\n',keywords:"corruption, Arab world, investigative journalism, story-based inquiry, Panama Papers",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67243.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67243.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67243",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67243",totalDownloads:466,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 9th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 18th 2019",datePrePublished:"July 19th 2019",datePublished:"September 9th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"This study investigates types of corruption that had been revealed by investigative reports during the last 3 years and their impact on social, legislative, and other aspects of life. It surveys 145 reports achieved and published by Arab investigative journalists from Egypt, Yemen, Tunisia, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Bahrain, Palestine, Mauritania, Algeria, Kuwait, and Sudan. Investigative reports address serious issues of corruption ranging from bottom level of the society up to top level of the authority. Yet it is the strongest journalistic tools for revealing and combating corruption. The Panama Papers reports reveal cross-border corruption and offshore companies for top-tier politicians and powerful people. The study concludes that the top four dominant corruption issues include administrative and financial issues, legislative and judiciary issues, abuse of power and political influence, and medical issues. The study also explores difficulties that are facing investigative journalism in the Arab world and the future of this type of journalism as well.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67243",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67243",signatures:"Abdulrahman Al-Shami",book:{id:"7823",title:"Off and Online Journalism and Corruption",subtitle:"International Comparative Analysis",fullTitle:"Off and Online Journalism and Corruption - International Comparative Analysis",slug:"off-and-online-journalism-and-corruption-international-comparative-analysis",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Basyouni Ibrahim Hamada and Saodah Wok",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7823.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245157",title:"Prof.",name:"Basyouni",middleName:null,surname:"Hamada",slug:"basyouni-hamada",fullName:"Basyouni Hamada"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"270669",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdulrahman",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shami",fullName:"Abdulrahman Al-Shami",slug:"abdulrahman-al-shami",email:"aalshami@qu.edu.qa",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Investigative journalism and corruption in the Arab world",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Panama Papers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Challenges and future of IJ in the Arab world",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. What is story-based inquiry?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Scope and methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Operational definitions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Finding",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"9.1 Corruption issues in the investigative reports",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"9.2 Type of corruption based on Arab countries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"9.3 Corruption issues based on Arab countries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"9.4 Panama Papers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"10. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Chattopadhyay S. Corruption in healthcare and medicine-corruption in healthcare and medicine: Why should physicians and bioethicists care and what should they do? Journal of Medical Ethics. 2013;10(3):153-159. DOI: 10.20529/IJME.2013.049'},{id:"B2",body:'Transparency International. How Do You Define Corruption?. Available from: https://www.transparency.org/what-is-corruption?gclid=Cj0KCQiAi57gBRDqARIsABhDSMpwydoAJjtAPozLwCQsiIGUDLIoKkyn5cfO-cLgDq8cXyhwBNJeqL0aArTeEALw_wcB#define [Accessed: 15 October 2018]'},{id:"B3",body:'Merriam-Webster. Corruption. Available from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/corruption [Accessed: 20 October 2018]'},{id:"B4",body:'Hattar K. Middle East and North Africa: A Very Drastic Decline. 2017. Available from: https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/mena_a_very_drastic_decline [Accessed: 12 October 2018; 20 October 2018]'},{id:"B5",body:'Transparency International. Corruption Perceptions Index. 2016. Available from: https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016?gclid=Cj0KCQjw3KzdBRDWARIsAIJ8TMSpFqWEU5PdMc_vA89qCsPVl7UIMZcOmnNpa4orW7iJbSAsufn3NuwaAp5wEALw_wcB [Accessed: 15 September 2018]'},{id:"B6",body:'Nazakat S, KAS Media Programme, editors. How to Become a Mouthpiece for the People, a Manual for Investigative Journalism. 2018. Available from: http://www.investigative-manual.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Investigative-Journalism-Manual.pdf [Accessed: 10 November 2018]'},{id:"B7",body:'Hunter M et al. Story-Based Inquiry: A Manual for Investigative Reporting. Paris: UNICCO Publishing; 2011'},{id:"B8",body:'Coronel S. Against the Odds, Investigative Journalism Persists in the Middle East Columbia Journalism Review. 2016. Available from: https://www.cjr.org/analysis/arab_investigative.php [Accessed: 15 November 2018]'},{id:"B9",body:'Albwaba. Arab Media Partners for Panama Papers. 2016. Available from: https://www.albawaba.com/loop/arab-media-partners-panama-papers-825240 [Accessed: 05 September 2018]'},{id:"B10",body:'Oyedele J, Lasisi I, Kolawole A. Analysis of foreign aid-induced investigative journalism practice in Nigeria. Journal of Management and Social Science. 2018;7(2):435-454'},{id:"B11",body:'Pollack E, Allern S. Disclosure of Scandinavian telecom companies’ corruption in Uzbekistan: The role of investigative journalists. European Journal of Communication. 2018: 33(1): 73-88. DOI: 10.1177/0267323117750697 [Accessed: 05 September 2018]'},{id:"B12",body:'Suntai DI, Shem W. Tackling institutional corruption through investigative journalism. Global Media Journal. 2018:16-30. Available from: https://bit.ly/2tMpwhu [Accessed: 05 September 2018]'},{id:"B13",body:'Rabei M. Investigative journalism as an emerging pattern in the Arab press: A study of reality and problems in addition to exploring attitudes of professional and academic elites about the future of this pattern in the Egyptian press [PhD dissertation]. Mass Communication Department, Almenia University, Egypt. 2013. Available from: https://bit.ly/2tLnCOb [Accessed: 05 September 2018]'},{id:"B14",body:'Arabic Network for Media Support. Egyptian investigative journalism—Successes and obstacles as seen by journalists. 2016. Available from: https://bit.ly/2UltYPR [Accessed: 05 September 2018]'},{id:"B15",body:'Abu-Hassan S. Attitudes of Palestinian journalists towards the practice of investigative journalism—A field study. Arabian Journal for Media and Communication. 2017;1(17):11-17'},{id:"B16",body:'Lanosga G, Houston B. Journalists assess investigative reporting and its status in society. Journalism Practice. 2017;11(9):1101-1120. DOI: 10.1080/17512786.2016.1228472. [Accessed: 20 December 2018]'},{id:"B17",body:'Gerli M, Mazzoni M, Mincigrucci R. Constraints and limitations of investigative journalism in Hungary, Italy, Latvia and Romania. European Journal of Communication. 2018;33(1):22-36'},{id:"B18",body:'Singh S. Investigative journalism: Challenges, perils, rewards in seven Pacific Island countries. Pacific Journalism Review. 2012;18(1):83-104'},{id:"B19",body:'Yusha’u M. Investigative journalism and scandal reporting in the Nigerian press. African Journalism Studies. 2009;30(2):155-174'},{id:"B20",body:'Fahkanah M. Palestinian journalists’ attitudes towards investigative journalism ethics: A field study [Master thesis]. Palastine: The Islamic University of Gaza; 2018'},{id:"B21",body:'Huniti A. Death in Service or “Mut Fi Alkedma”. BBC. Available from: http://www.bbc.com/arabic/resources/idt-sh/arabic_death [Accessed: 20 October 2019]'},{id:"B22",body:'Mousavi P, Pourkiani M. Administrative corruption: Ways of tackling the problem. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences. 2013;2(3):178-187. Available from: http://european-science.com/eojnss_proc/article/viewFile/3680/1402 [Accessed: 15 March 2019]'},{id:"B23",body:'Abuse of Power. West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, edition 2. 2008. Available from: https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Abuse+of+Power [Accessed: 25 November 2018]'},{id:"B24",body:'Your Dictionary. Available from: http://www.yourdictionary.com/environmental-issues [Accessed: 15 September 2018]'},{id:"B25",body:'Hallak J, Poisson M. Ethics and Corruption in Education (Policy Forum No. 15). Results from the Expert Workshop held at the IIEP, Paris, France, 28-29 November 2001. Paris: IIEP-UNESCO. Available from:https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Muriel_Poisson/publication/44829662_Ethics_and_corruption_in_education_results_from_the_experts_workshop_held_at_the_IIEP_-_Paris_28-29_November_2001/links/56de068e08aeb8b66f94a4eb.pdf. [Accessed: 20 November 2018]'},{id:"B26",body:'Aljazeera. Mahmoud Hussein’s Detention Renewed for the 17th Time. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/10/mahmoud-hussein-sentence-renewed-17th-time-181012075336817.html [Accessed: 25 October 2018]'},{id:"B27",body:'The Guardian. Paradise Papers Leak Reveals Secrets of the World Elite’s Hidden Wealth. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/nov/05/paradise-papers-leak-reveals-secrets-of-world-elites-hidden-wealth. [Accessed: 20 October 2018]'},{id:"B28",body:'Arab Reporters for Investigative Reporting. Panama Papers. Available from https://en.arij.net/?s=Panama. [Accessed: 01 October 2018]'},{id:"B29",body:'ARIJ Website. About ARIJ. Available from: https://arij.net/%D8%B9%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%A%D8%AC/. [Accessed: 18 March 2019]'},{id:"B30",body:'Stapenhurst R. The Media’s Role in Curbing Corruption. World Bank Institute. Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; 2000'},{id:"B31",body:'Oyebode O. Weak-kneed media and festering corruption in Nigeria. Journal of International and Global Studies. 2017;8(2):34-49'},{id:"B32",body:'Gómez E, Sandoval-Martín M. Interest and willingness to pay for investigative reporting: A solution for the crisis of journalism? Communications Society. 2016;29(1):1-19'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Arab Reporters for Investigative Journalism (ARIJ) is the first and leading media organization in the region dedicated to promoting investigative journalism in Arab newsrooms, which is still a new practice. It was formed in early 2005 to support independent quality professional journalism, through funding in-depth journalism projects and offering training and media coaching. ARIJ helps journalists working in print, radio, TV, and online media in Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Iraq, Bahrain, Palestine, Yemen, and Tunisia. For more information, visit https://en.arij.net/site-message."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Abdulrahman Al-Shami",address:"aalshami@qu.edu.qa",affiliation:'
Mass Communication Department, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7823",title:"Off and Online Journalism and Corruption",subtitle:"International Comparative Analysis",fullTitle:"Off and Online Journalism and Corruption - International Comparative Analysis",slug:"off-and-online-journalism-and-corruption-international-comparative-analysis",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Basyouni Ibrahim Hamada and Saodah Wok",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7823.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245157",title:"Prof.",name:"Basyouni",middleName:null,surname:"Hamada",slug:"basyouni-hamada",fullName:"Basyouni Hamada"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"268399",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharmendra",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",email:"dharmendrasingh4432@gmail.com",fullName:"Dharmendra Singh",slug:"dharmendra-singh",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Phase Separation in Ce-Based Metallic Glasses",slug:"phase-separation-in-ce-based-metallic-glasses",abstract:"In this chapter, the results of our recent studies on the role of Ga substitution in place of Al in Ce75Al25 − xGax (x = 0, 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6) metallic glasses (MGs) have been discussed with the aim to understand the genesis of phase separation. X-ray diffraction (XRD) study reveals two broad diffuse peaks corresponding to the coexistence of two amorphous phases. In order to see any change in the behavior of 4f electron of Ce, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) has been carried out for Ce75Al25 − xGax MGs. From the XAS results, it is evident that for x = 0, the spectrum exhibits only a 4f1 component, which basically shows a pure localized configuration of electron. After the addition of Ga, 4f electrons of Ce atoms denoted by 4f0 are getting delocalized. Thus, the phase separation in Ce75Al25 − xGax is taking place, owing to the formation of two types of amorphous phases having localized and delocalized 4f electrons of Ce atoms, respectively. It has been discussed how change in the electronic structure of Ce atoms may lead to phase separation in Ce75Al25 − xGax alloys. Extensive TEM investigations have been done to study the phase separation in these alloys. The microstructural features have been compared with those obtained by phase field modeling.",signatures:"Dharmendra Singh, Kiran Mor, Devinder Singh and Radhey Shyam Tiwari",authors:[{id:"191640",title:"Prof.",name:"R.S.",surname:"Tiwari",fullName:"R.S. Tiwari",slug:"r.s.-tiwari",email:"rstiwariphy@yahoo.co.in"},{id:"208863",title:"Dr.",name:"Devinder",surname:"Singh",fullName:"Devinder Singh",slug:"devinder-singh",email:"devinderpu@pu.ac.in"},{id:"268399",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharmendra",surname:"Singh",fullName:"Dharmendra Singh",slug:"dharmendra-singh",email:"dharmendrasingh4432@gmail.com"},{id:"297992",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Mor",fullName:"Kiran Mor",slug:"kiran-mor",email:"kiran16mor@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Metallic Glasses",slug:"metallic-glasses",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"30470",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragica",surname:"Minić",slug:"dragica-minic",fullName:"Dragica Minić",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30470/images/system/30470.jpg",biography:"Professor Dr. Dragica Minic, married Popovic, was born in the town of Brus at the foot of the Kopaonik mountain area. There she completed her high school education and began her career as a professor of science at Brus Gymnasium and continued at the Belgrade University, Faculty for Physical Chemistry, having passed all titles from assistant to full professor, lecturing different courses in physical chemistry. During the rich pedagogical work, she mentored more than hundred graduates, around thirty master and twenty PhD students. She published more than 160 scientific papers (140 belong to the SCI list) and took part in more than 200 national and international scientific conferences. She wrote several university books, chapters in scientific editions of international significance, and scientific monographs. Dr. Minic continued working actively in science even after retirement in 2016.",institutionString:"University of Belgrade",institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},{id:"113034",title:"Dr.",name:"Dušan",surname:"Minić",slug:"dusan-minic",fullName:"Dušan Minić",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Military Technical Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}},{id:"191640",title:"Prof.",name:"R.S.",surname:"Tiwari",slug:"r.s.-tiwari",fullName:"R.S. Tiwari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"200867",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",surname:"Mohapatra",slug:"soumya-mohapatra",fullName:"Soumya Mohapatra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"208863",title:"Dr.",name:"Devinder",surname:"Singh",slug:"devinder-singh",fullName:"Devinder Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"292527",title:"Dr.",name:"Milica",surname:"Vasić",slug:"milica-vasic",fullName:"Milica Vasić",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292527/images/system/292527.jpg",biography:"Dr. Milica Vasic is a research associate at Belgrade University. She was born in Belgrade, Serbia, where she received elementary education and university diploma. She acquired additional skills in material science by attending training courses in home country and abroad, and received several acknowledgements for achievements during her education. She got the PhD degree in Physical Chemistry at Belgrade University, where she is also employed since 2011. Her research work belongs to the field of Physical Chemistry of Materials and it is mainly focused on thermal stability, mechanism and kinetics of thermally induced structural transformations in amorphous alloys. Besides research activities, she contributed to preparation of more than 20 students’ bachelor and master theses in her research field, and took part in the activities aimed to promote science.",institutionString:"University of Belgrade",institution:null},{id:"297538",title:"Dr.",name:"Shank",surname:"Kulkarni",slug:"shank-kulkarni",fullName:"Shank Kulkarni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of North Carolina at Charlotte",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"297992",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Mor",slug:"kiran-mor",fullName:"Kiran Mor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"298867",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Biswajit",surname:"Swain",slug:"biswajit-swain",fullName:"Biswajit Swain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Technology Rourkela",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"305563",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Swadhin",surname:"Patel",slug:"swadhin-patel",fullName:"Swadhin Patel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Technology Rourkela",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"horizon-2020-compliance",title:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",intro:'
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\n
Metadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\\n\\n
In other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
When choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\n
Authors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\n
Metadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\n
In other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
When choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\n
IntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\n
Authors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15791}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5240},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1225",title:"Optical Physics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",parent:{title:"Optics and Lasers",slug:"optics-and-lasers"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:92,numberOfWosCitations:47,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitations:55,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10075",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"From Solitons to Similaritons",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b034b2a060292c8511359aec0db1002c",slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",bookSignature:"İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10075.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186388",title:"Prof.",name:"İlkay",middleName:null,surname:"Bakırtaş",slug:"ilkay-bakirtas",fullName:"İlkay Bakırtaş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8350",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",subtitle:"Principle, Measurement and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d35774b28952d3c4c4643b58dec25549",slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",bookSignature:"Shien-Kuei Liaw",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206109",title:"Dr.",name:"Shien-Kuei",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"shien-kuei-liaw",fullName:"Shien-Kuei Liaw"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7582",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Novel Results in Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3ad4a3553a3ec59f7992d4f6495ac07",slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6599",title:"Small Angle Scattering and Diffraction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b1efb6a54c3fbdadd875f7bac0f6718",slug:"small-angle-scattering-and-diffraction",bookSignature:"Margareth K. K. D. Franco and Fabiano Yokaichiya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186337",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi",middleName:null,surname:"Dias Franco",slug:"margareth-kazuyo-kobayashi-dias-franco",fullName:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi Dias Franco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d982c49fed4423a0ea7367af4f917b82",slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"52294",doi:"10.5772/65118",title:"Photon-Upconverting Materials: Advances and Prospects for Various Emerging Applications",slug:"photon-upconverting-materials-advances-and-prospects-for-various-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2472,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Manoj Kumar Mahata, Hans Christian Hofsäss and Ulrich Vetter",authors:[{id:"185891",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahata",slug:"manoj-kumar-mahata",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Mahata"},{id:"194423",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Hofsäss",slug:"hans-hofsass",fullName:"Hans Hofsäss"},{id:"194424",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Vetter",slug:"ulrich-vetter",fullName:"Ulrich Vetter"}]},{id:"52465",doi:"10.5772/65385",title:"Bioluminescent Fishes and their Eyes",slug:"bioluminescent-fishes-and-their-eyes",totalDownloads:1372,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"José Paitio, Yuichi Oba and Victor Benno Meyer-Rochow",authors:[{id:"185998",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Oba",slug:"yuichi-oba",fullName:"Yuichi Oba"},{id:"186175",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Lima Paitio",slug:"jose-rui-lima-paitio",fullName:"Jose Rui Lima Paitio"},{id:"202747",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor B.",middleName:null,surname:"Meyer-Rochow",slug:"victor-b.-meyer-rochow",fullName:"Victor B. Meyer-Rochow"}]},{id:"52672",doi:"10.5772/65185",title:"Luminescence in Rare Earth Ion‐Doped Oxide Compounds",slug:"luminescence-in-rare-earth-ion-doped-oxide-compounds",totalDownloads:2918,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Carlos Ruvalcaba Cornejo",authors:[{id:"186306",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"carlos-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Carlos Ruvalcaba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52173",title:"The Dynamics of Luminescence",slug:"the-dynamics-of-luminescence",totalDownloads:1531,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Luyanda L. Noto, Hendrik C. Swart, Bakang M. Mothudi, Pontsho S.\nMbule and Mokhotjwa S. Dhlamini",authors:[{id:"102985",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhotswa",middleName:null,surname:"Dhlamini",slug:"mokhotswa-dhlamini",fullName:"Mokhotswa Dhlamini"}]},{id:"52294",title:"Photon-Upconverting Materials: Advances and Prospects for Various Emerging Applications",slug:"photon-upconverting-materials-advances-and-prospects-for-various-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2476,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Manoj Kumar Mahata, Hans Christian Hofsäss and Ulrich Vetter",authors:[{id:"185891",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahata",slug:"manoj-kumar-mahata",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Mahata"},{id:"194423",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Hofsäss",slug:"hans-hofsass",fullName:"Hans Hofsäss"},{id:"194424",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Vetter",slug:"ulrich-vetter",fullName:"Ulrich Vetter"}]},{id:"52672",title:"Luminescence in Rare Earth Ion‐Doped Oxide Compounds",slug:"luminescence-in-rare-earth-ion-doped-oxide-compounds",totalDownloads:2922,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Carlos Ruvalcaba Cornejo",authors:[{id:"186306",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"carlos-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Carlos Ruvalcaba"}]},{id:"65854",title:"The State-of-the-Art of Brillouin Distributed Fiber Sensing",slug:"the-state-of-the-art-of-brillouin-distributed-fiber-sensing",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",fullTitle:"Fiber Optic Sensing - Principle, Measurement and Applications"},signatures:"Cheng Feng, Jaffar Emad Kadum and Thomas Schneider",authors:[{id:"280943",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"cheng-feng",fullName:"Cheng Feng"},{id:"290271",title:"Mr.",name:"Jaffar",middleName:null,surname:"Kadum",slug:"jaffar-kadum",fullName:"Jaffar Kadum"},{id:"290272",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Schneider",slug:"thomas-schneider",fullName:"Thomas Schneider"}]},{id:"64727",title:"Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",slug:"nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",title:"Nonlinear Optics",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Optics - Novel Results in Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Jing Huang",authors:[{id:"198550",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"jing-huang",fullName:"Jing Huang"}]},{id:"52568",title:"Trap Level Measurements in Wide Band Gap Materials by Thermoluminescence",slug:"trap-level-measurements-in-wide-band-gap-materials-by-thermoluminescence",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Pooneh Saadatkia, Chris Varney and Farida Selim",authors:[{id:"185781",title:"Prof.",name:"Farida",middleName:null,surname:"Selim",slug:"farida-selim",fullName:"Farida Selim"},{id:"186734",title:"Ms.",name:"Pooneh",middleName:null,surname:"Saadatkia",slug:"pooneh-saadatkia",fullName:"Pooneh Saadatkia"},{id:"186735",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Varney",slug:"chris-varney",fullName:"Chris Varney"}]},{id:"66415",title:"Magnetic Solitons in Optical Lattice",slug:"magnetic-solitons-in-optical-lattice",totalDownloads:227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",title:"Nonlinear Optics",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Optics - From Solitons to Similaritons"},signatures:"Xing-Dong Zhao",authors:[{id:"283277",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhao",middleName:null,surname:"Xingdong",slug:"zhao-xingdong",fullName:"Zhao Xingdong"}]},{id:"52708",title:"Bioluminescence of the Black Sea Ctenophores-Aliens as an Index of their Physiological State",slug:"bioluminescence-of-the-black-sea-ctenophores-aliens-as-an-index-of-their-physiological-state",totalDownloads:1126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Tokarev Yuriy Nikolaevich and Mashukova Olga Vladimirovna",authors:[{id:"186292",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuriy",middleName:null,surname:"Tokarev",slug:"yuriy-tokarev",fullName:"Yuriy Tokarev"},{id:"186293",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Mashukova",slug:"olga-mashukova",fullName:"Olga Mashukova"}]},{id:"52133",title:"Excitation‐Intensity (EI) Effect on Photoluminescence of ZnO Materials with Various Morphologies",slug:"excitation-intensity-ei-effect-on-photoluminescence-of-zno-materials-with-various-morphologies",totalDownloads:1427,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Prasada Rao Talakonda",authors:[{id:"185838",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasada Rao",middleName:null,surname:"Talakonda",slug:"prasada-rao-talakonda",fullName:"Prasada Rao Talakonda"}]},{id:"52293",title:"Luminescent Glass for Lasers and Solar Concentrators",slug:"luminescent-glass-for-lasers-and-solar-concentrators",totalDownloads:1537,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Meruva Seshadri, Virgilio de Carvalho dos Anjos and Maria Jose\nValenzuela Bell",authors:[{id:"185581",title:"Dr.",name:"Seshadri",middleName:null,surname:"Meruva",slug:"seshadri-meruva",fullName:"Seshadri Meruva"},{id:"193648",title:"Prof.",name:"Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"V",slug:"anjos-v",fullName:"Anjos V"},{id:"193649",title:"Prof.",name:"Bell",middleName:null,surname:"M.J.V",slug:"bell-m.j.v",fullName:"Bell M.J.V"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/268399/dharmendra-singh",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"268399",slug:"dharmendra-singh"},fullPath:"/profiles/268399/dharmendra-singh",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()